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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 20051
Lecture 8Lecture 8
Attitudes and PersuasionAttitudes and Persuasion
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 20052
Consider the scale above:
How do you view abortion?
Negative … PositiveNegative … Positive
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
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Would you volunteer to get Would you volunteer to get signatures for a petition against signatures for a petition against changing M.L. King day?changing M.L. King day?
Martin Luther King, Jr.Martin Luther King, Jr.
Dislike … LikeDislike … Like
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
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AttitudeA favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction towards something or someone, exhibited in one’s beliefs, feelings, or intended behavior. They operate like schemas to organize information and guide behavior.
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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 20056
The ABC Model of Attitudes
Attitudes have three components:
Affect (feelings)
Behavior (or behavioral intent)
Cognition (thoughts, perceptions)
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Affect (emotion)Affect (emotion)What is my affective
reaction when I see a person smoking a cigarette?
Do I feel a sense of excitement because I like smoking, or a sense of anger and resentment?
What is my affective reaction when I see a person smoking a cigarette?
Do I feel a sense of excitement because I like smoking, or a sense of anger and resentment?
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Subtle changes in the facial muscles can be used to detect positive and negative reactions to attitude objects.
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Behavior Behavior
Imagine that you see a person smoking a cigarette in a public place in Davis, CA.
What is your behavioral reaction?
Will you tell the person to put it out?
Imagine that you see a person smoking a cigarette in a public place in Davis, CA.
What is your behavioral reaction?
Will you tell the person to put it out?
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Cognitive Cognitive
How do I think about smoking. Do I think it is dangerous and causes cancer? Does second hand smoke kill millions?
Do I perceive smoking as a danger to my health?
When I see a person smoking do I think about the American Cancer Society or “Joe Camel” ?
How do I think about smoking. Do I think it is dangerous and causes cancer? Does second hand smoke kill millions?
Do I perceive smoking as a danger to my health?
When I see a person smoking do I think about the American Cancer Society or “Joe Camel” ?
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 200511© 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Elements of An Attitude
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Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?Overall, the correlation between attitudes and behavior is surprisingly small, about (.30). This means that attitudes appear to account for less than 10% of variability in behavior.
Why isn’t the relation stronger? A number of things moderate the strength of the attitude-behavior relation.
(Example of Field Experiment).
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When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?
When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?
Minimizing social influences
People may not express real attitudes because of social factors (e.g., racist attitudes). Bogus pipeline is a way to make subjects express their real attitudes
Minimizing social influences
People may not express real attitudes because of social factors (e.g., racist attitudes). Bogus pipeline is a way to make subjects express their real attitudes
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Attitude BehaviorAttitude Behavior
Must minimize other influences on behavior
Must minimize other influences on behavior
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When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?
When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?
Examine attitudes specific to behavior
Generally a better attitude/behavior link is found when the level of specificity of attitudes and behavior are similar.
(e.g., more general attitudes about environmentalism do not predict participating in recycling.)
Examine attitudes specific to behavior
Generally a better attitude/behavior link is found when the level of specificity of attitudes and behavior are similar.
(e.g., more general attitudes about environmentalism do not predict participating in recycling.)
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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 200517
OutlineOutline
The Nature of AttitudesWhat is Persuasion?Goals of Persuasion: Why People
Change Their Attitudes and BeliefsSeeking Accuracy
Being Consistent
Seeking Social Approval
The Nature of AttitudesWhat is Persuasion?Goals of Persuasion: Why People
Change Their Attitudes and BeliefsSeeking Accuracy
Being Consistent
Seeking Social Approval
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 200518
The Nature of AttitudesThe Nature of Attitudes
Attitudes spring from several sources:Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Observational learning
Heredity
Attitudes spring from several sources:Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Observational learning
Heredity
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Attitude StrengthAttitude Strength
Strong attitudesAre more likely to remain unchanged as
time passes,
Are better able to withstand persuasive attacks or appeals specifically directed at them.
Strong attitudesAre more likely to remain unchanged as
time passes,
Are better able to withstand persuasive attacks or appeals specifically directed at them.
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Attitude StrengthAttitude Strength
The two main reasons strong attitudes resist change areCommitment –
people are sure they are correct,
Embeddedness –people have connected these attitudes to other features of their self-concept, values, and identity.
The two main reasons strong attitudes resist change areCommitment –
people are sure they are correct,
Embeddedness –people have connected these attitudes to other features of their self-concept, values, and identity.
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Attitude-Behavior ConsistencyAttitude-Behavior Consistency
The following factors influence the likelihood that a person’s attitude will be consistent with his behavior:Knowledge
Personal relevance
Attitude accessibility
The following factors influence the likelihood that a person’s attitude will be consistent with his behavior:Knowledge
Personal relevance
Attitude accessibility
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Attitude-Behavior ConsistencyAttitude-Behavior Consistency
Theory of planned behavior –A theory stating that the best predictor of behavior is one’s behavioral intention, which is influenced byOne’s attitude toward specific behavior,
The subjective norms regarding the behavior, and
One’s perceived control over the behavior.
Theory of planned behavior –A theory stating that the best predictor of behavior is one’s behavioral intention, which is influenced byOne’s attitude toward specific behavior,
The subjective norms regarding the behavior, and
One’s perceived control over the behavior.
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Attitude(One’s evaluation of the
specific behavior in question)
Subjective Norm(One’s perception that important others will
approve of the behavior)
Perceived Behavioral Control
(One’s perception of how difficult it would be to perform the behavior)
Behavioral Intention
(One’s aim to perform the behavior)
Behavior
Theory of planned behaviorTheory of planned behavior
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What IsPersuasion?
What IsPersuasion?
Persuasion –change in private attitude or belief as a result of receiving a message
Persuasion –change in private attitude or belief as a result of receiving a message
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Dual Process Models of Persuasion: Two Routes to Change
Dual Process Models of Persuasion: Two Routes to Change
Dual process model of persuasion –a model that accounts for the two ways that attitude change occurs—with and without much thought
Dual process model of persuasion –a model that accounts for the two ways that attitude change occurs—with and without much thought
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Dual Process Models of Persuasion: Two Routes to Change
Dual Process Models of Persuasion: Two Routes to Change
Message recipients will consider a communication deeply when they have both:the motivation
the ability
Message recipients will consider a communication deeply when they have both:the motivation
the ability
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Dual Process Models of Persuasion: Two Routes to Change
Dual Process Models of Persuasion: Two Routes to Change
Factors that influence a person's motivation to process a message deeply: Personal relevance of the topic (does it
matter to you?) Need for cognition –
the tendency to enjoy and engage in deliberate thought
Factors that influence a person's motivation to process a message deeply: Personal relevance of the topic (does it
matter to you?) Need for cognition –
the tendency to enjoy and engage in deliberate thought
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Message
High motivation
and ability to think about the message
Low motivationor ability to think about the message
Peripheral processing, focused on surface features such as the
communicator’s attractiveness or the
number of arguments presented.
Central processing, focused on the quality
of the message arguments.
Lasting change that resists fading and
counterattacks
Temporary change that
that is susceptible to
fading and counterattacks
Persuasion Attempt
Audience Factors
Processing Approach
Persuasion Outcome
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The Effects ofPersonal Relevance
The Effects ofPersonal Relevance
Petty & Cacioppo (1984) asked college students to read arguments in favor of mandatory comprehensive exams.
Students would be required to pass these exams before being allowed to graduate.
Petty & Cacioppo (1984) asked college students to read arguments in favor of mandatory comprehensive exams.
Students would be required to pass these exams before being allowed to graduate.
esearchesearch
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The Effects ofPersonal Relevance
The Effects ofPersonal Relevance
The issue was either highly relevant to them (They would personally have to take the
exams to graduate)
Or of low relevance to them(Policy would not take effect for 10
years – long after they’d graduated).
The issue was either highly relevant to them (They would personally have to take the
exams to graduate)
Or of low relevance to them(Policy would not take effect for 10
years – long after they’d graduated).
esearchesearch
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The Effects of Personal Relevance
The Effects of Personal Relevance
Arguments were either high quality e.g., “Average starting salaries are higher for
graduates of schools with exams”
Or low quality “Exams would allow students to compare
performance with other schools”
Some students heard only 3 arguments.Others heard 9 arguments.
Arguments were either high quality e.g., “Average starting salaries are higher for
graduates of schools with exams”
Or low quality “Exams would allow students to compare
performance with other schools”
Some students heard only 3 arguments.Others heard 9 arguments.
esearchesearch
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Number of Arguments
Atti
tude
Tow
ard
Exa
ms
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
3 9 3 9
HighLow
LowPersonal Relevance
HighPersonal Relevance
Argument Quality
For students with a personal stake, more strong arguments were more convincing
esearchesearch
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Number of Arguments
Atti
tude
Tow
ard
Exa
ms
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
3 9 3 9
High Low
HighLow
Argument Personal RelevancePersonal Relevance Quality
But more weak arguments left them less convinced
esearchesearch
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Number of Arguments
Atti
tude
Tow
ard
Exa
ms
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
3 9 3 9
High Low
HighLow
Argument Personal RelevancePersonal Relevance Quality
Students who wouldn’t be affected didn’t process quality
esearchesearch
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The Goals of Persuasion:Why People Change Their
Attitudes and Beliefs
The Goals of Persuasion:Why People Change Their
Attitudes and Beliefs
Individuals may yield to a persuasive message in order to:hold a more accurate view of the world,
be consistent with themselves, and
gain social approval and acceptance.
Individuals may yield to a persuasive message in order to:hold a more accurate view of the world,
be consistent with themselves, and
gain social approval and acceptance.
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Seeking AccuracySeeking Accuracy
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Good ShortcutsGood Shortcuts
When we can’t make a thorough evaluation of a persuasive argument, we may rely on shortcuts, such as:Credibility of communicator
Is the person expert? Trustworthy?
Others’ responsesWhich side do other people seem to be taking?
Ready ideasWhat side have I heard frequently or recently?
When we can’t make a thorough evaluation of a persuasive argument, we may rely on shortcuts, such as:Credibility of communicator
Is the person expert? Trustworthy?
Others’ responsesWhich side do other people seem to be taking?
Ready ideasWhat side have I heard frequently or recently?
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Issue InvolvementIssue Involvement
Cognitive resources are too limited to think deeply about every issue.
People focus their accuracy concerns on issues that involve them directly.
Cognitive resources are too limited to think deeply about every issue.
People focus their accuracy concerns on issues that involve them directly.
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MoodMood
A sad moodMotivates people to acquire accurate
attitudes about the situation at hand
Warns of potential danger of making errors in immediate environment.
A sad moodMotivates people to acquire accurate
attitudes about the situation at hand
Warns of potential danger of making errors in immediate environment.
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Done dealsDone deals
Desire to be unbiased and accurate is much stronger before a person makes a decision.
After the decision, the accuracy motive fades in favor of the desire to feel good about the decision.
Desire to be unbiased and accurate is much stronger before a person makes a decision.
After the decision, the accuracy motive fades in favor of the desire to feel good about the decision.
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Unwelcome InformationUnwelcome Information
People tend not to expend cognitive effort looking for flaws in an argument that supports their beliefs.
Those who encounter information that doesn't fit search for weaknesses they can use to form counterarguments.
People tend not to expend cognitive effort looking for flaws in an argument that supports their beliefs.
Those who encounter information that doesn't fit search for weaknesses they can use to form counterarguments.
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 200542
Defensiveness and DenialDefensiveness and Denial
Fear may lead people to deny information, unless that information is accompanied by a plan to reduce the threat.
Fear may lead people to deny information, unless that information is accompanied by a plan to reduce the threat.
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Expertise and ComplexityExpertise and Complexity
People rely on the expertise of a communicator principally when the message is highly complex.
People rely on the expertise of a communicator principally when the message is highly complex.
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Subliminal Messages Subliminal Messages So, does subliminal advertising really
work? The issue has been a controversial one since 1950s. A movie theater in New Jersey secretly flashed “Eat popcorn” and “Drink Coke” on the screen during intermission. It was claimed that Coke sales increased 18% and popcorn sales increased 58% over a 6-week period.
So, does subliminal advertising really work? The issue has been a controversial one since 1950s. A movie theater in New Jersey secretly flashed “Eat popcorn” and “Drink Coke” on the screen during intermission. It was claimed that Coke sales increased 18% and popcorn sales increased 58% over a 6-week period.
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Public reaction was swift. The New Yorkerclaimed that minds had been “broken and entered” (September 21, 1957, p. 33) and the Nation called it “the most alarming and outrageous discovery since Mr. Gatling invented his gun” (October 5, 1957, p. 206). Subliminal messages on radio and television were banned by the Federal Communications Commission.
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Do subliminal messages work?
Only in the laboratory, under highly controlled conditions. Even then, the effects are weak and not very specific.
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Being Consistent Being Consistent
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Being ConsistentBeing Consistent
Consistency principle –the principle that people will change their attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and actions to make them consistent with each other
Consistency principle –the principle that people will change their attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and actions to make them consistent with each other
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Balance Theory Balance Theory
We want to: Agree with people we like
Disagree with people we dislike
Associate good things with good people
Associate bad things with bad people.
We want to: Agree with people we like
Disagree with people we dislike
Associate good things with good people
Associate bad things with bad people.
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↓
Cognitive system out of balance
Uncomfortable tension
Balance Theory Balance Theory
To remove this tension, we will have to change something in the system.
To remove this tension, we will have to change something in the system.
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AbortionAbortion
MaryMaryRhoda Rhoda
+ -
+
Balance Theory Balance Theory
Rhoda is strongly pro-choice.Mary is strongly pro-life.Rhoda considers Mary her best friend.
Rhoda is strongly pro-choice.Mary is strongly pro-life.Rhoda considers Mary her best friend.
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AbortionAbortion
MaryMaryRhoda Rhoda
-
+
-
Balance Theory Balance Theory
Rhoda could restore balance by changing her feeling about abortion.
Rhoda could restore balance by changing her feeling about abortion.
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AbortionAbortion
MaryMaryRhoda Rhoda
-+
-
Balance Theory Balance Theory
Or she could restore balance by changing her feelings about her friend.
Or she could restore balance by changing her feelings about her friend.
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AbortionAbortion
MaryMaryRhoda Rhoda
+
+
+
Balance Theory Balance Theory
Or she could restore balance by changing Mary’s feelings about abortion.
Or she could restore balance by changing Mary’s feelings about abortion.
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 200556
Cognitive Dissonance TheoryCognitive Dissonance Theory
Cognitive dissonance –the unpleasant state of psychological arousal resulting from an inconsistency within one's important attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors
Cognitive dissonance –the unpleasant state of psychological arousal resulting from an inconsistency within one's important attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 200557
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 200558
Cognitive Dissonance TheoryCognitive Dissonance Theory
Counterattitudinal action –a behavior that is inconsistent with an existing attitude
Counterattitudinal action –a behavior that is inconsistent with an existing attitude
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Cognitive Dissonance TheoryCognitive Dissonance Theory
In a study by Festinger and CarlsmithStudents first performed a boring task
(turning pegs in holes)
Then were asked to tell another student it was interesting—and for this, they were paid either $1 or $20.
In a study by Festinger and CarlsmithStudents first performed a boring task
(turning pegs in holes)
Then were asked to tell another student it was interesting—and for this, they were paid either $1 or $20.
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Cognitive Dissonance TheoryCognitive Dissonance Theory
When later asked their attitudes toward the boring task:Those receiving $1 payment had come
to see it as more enjoyable
Those receiving $20 hadn't changed their attitudes at all.
When later asked their attitudes toward the boring task:Those receiving $1 payment had come
to see it as more enjoyable
Those receiving $20 hadn't changed their attitudes at all.
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Cognitive Dissonance TheoryCognitive Dissonance Theory
Why? Dissonance theory explains:$20 provided adequate justification for
misleading another student.
$1 was insufficient justification, thus arousing dissonance.
Changing beliefs about the task reduced the cognitive discomfort.
Why? Dissonance theory explains:$20 provided adequate justification for
misleading another student.
$1 was insufficient justification, thus arousing dissonance.
Changing beliefs about the task reduced the cognitive discomfort.
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Cognitive Dissonance TheoryCognitive Dissonance Theory
Postdecisional dissonance is the conflict one feels between the knowledge that he or she has made a decision and the possibility that the decision may be wrong. Just seconds after placing a bet, gamblers are
more confident their horse will win (Knox & Inkster, 1968).
Postdecisional dissonance is the conflict one feels between the knowledge that he or she has made a decision and the possibility that the decision may be wrong. Just seconds after placing a bet, gamblers are
more confident their horse will win (Knox & Inkster, 1968).
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 200563
an actionor
decision that
conflicts with an
important aspect of the self.
Initiation Amplification Motivation Reduction
is seen as freely chosen
produces negative consequences that were foreseeable
cannot be justified as due to strong
rewards or threats
cannot be withdrawn
unpleasant arousal
change designed to remove the unpleasant
arousal
Dissonance begins with:
More dissonance arises when the action or decision:
Dissonance is experienced as:
Dissonance is reduced through:
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If we are forced to engage in the behavior, there is no real inconsistency and so no discomfort to reduce.
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ArousalArousal
No arousal = no dissonance = no need to change
Cooper, Zanna, and Taves – participants in an experiment who were given a tranquilizer (eliminating any dissonant arousal) did not change their opinions, even after writing a counter-attitudinal essay.
No arousal = no dissonance = no need to change
Cooper, Zanna, and Taves – participants in an experiment who were given a tranquilizer (eliminating any dissonant arousal) did not change their opinions, even after writing a counter-attitudinal essay.
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Gaining Social Approval Gaining Social Approval
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Gaining Social Approval Gaining Social Approval
The motivation to achieve approval is called impression motivation, because the goal is to create a good impression on others.
This motivation to create a good impression can sometimes conflict with the pursuit of the accuracy and consistency goals.
The motivation to achieve approval is called impression motivation, because the goal is to create a good impression on others.
This motivation to create a good impression can sometimes conflict with the pursuit of the accuracy and consistency goals.
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 200568
Self-MonitoringSelf-Monitoring
High self-monitors were more persuaded by ads promoting socially appealing images associated with particular brands of coffee, whiskey, and cigarettes than by ads touting the quality of the same brands(Snyder and DeBono).
High self-monitors were more persuaded by ads promoting socially appealing images associated with particular brands of coffee, whiskey, and cigarettes than by ads touting the quality of the same brands(Snyder and DeBono).
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 200569
Gender Gender
Like high self-monitors, women tend to be sensitively attuned to relationships and interpersonal issues.
This sensitivity affects the way they respond to persuasive appeals.
Like high self-monitors, women tend to be sensitively attuned to relationships and interpersonal issues.
This sensitivity affects the way they respond to persuasive appeals.
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Self-Monitoring andExpectation of Discussion
Self-Monitoring andExpectation of Discussion
When expecting a discussion, high self-monitors (who pay more attention to social rewards) shift their attitudes and beliefs more than do low self-monitors.
When expecting a discussion, high self-monitors (who pay more attention to social rewards) shift their attitudes and beliefs more than do low self-monitors.
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