introductory psychology: development i (prenatal & child)

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Development I

Brian J. Piper, Ph.D.

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Goals

• Prenatal• Infancy• Childhood

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Developmental Psychology

• study of the relatively predictable changes (motor, cognitive, social, and emotional) in behavior with age

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Developmental Psychology

Issue Details

Nature/Nurture

How do genetic inheritance (our nature)

and experience (the nurture we receive)

influence our behavior?

Continuity/Stages

Is development a gradual, continuous

process or a sequence of separate stages?

Stability/Change

Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become

different persons as we age.

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Prenatal Development and the Newborn

How, over time, did we come to be who we are? From zygote to birth,

development progresses in an orderly, though fragile, sequence.

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Conception

A single sperm cell (male) penetrates the outer coating of the egg (female) and

fuses to form one fertilized cell.

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Prenatal Development

A zygote is a fertilized egg with 100 cells that become increasingly diverse. At

about 14 days the zygote (a) turns into an embryo (b).

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Prenatal Development

At 9 weeks, an embryo (c) turns into a fetus (d). Teratogens are chemicals or viruses that can enter the placenta and harm the

developing fetus.

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Placenta

• The placenta forms the interface between the mother and fetus

• Old View: no chemicals can pass the placenta• New View: anything that can cross the blood brain

barrier can also cross the placenta

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Thalidomide

• Used to treat morning sickness• Administered to 20,000 women in 1950s

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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

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Mouse Research (GD7)

Alcohol - Alcohol +

Godin, E.A. et al. (2010).  Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 34, 98–111.

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Adolescent Taste Preference Following Prenatal Alcohol

ExposureLong-Evans rat dams received a diet high in ethyl alcohol (EtOH) from GD 5-20.

Offspring were tested on their alcohol intake at postnatal day 30.

*

Youngentob & Glendinning (2009). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 5359-64.

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The Competent Newborn

Infants are born with reflexes that aid in survival.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gyVLD0hl0XY

Rooting Reflex: turning head toward anything that strokes cheek

Moro Reflex: sudden spreading of arms inresponse to sensation of being dropped

Palmer Grasp Reflex: closing of hand

Infancy and Childhood Physical Development Cognitive Development Social Development

Infancy and Childhood

Infancy and childhood span from birth to the teenage years. During these years,

the individual grows physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally.

Stage Span

Infancy Newborn to toddler

Childhood Toddler to teenager

Physical Development

Infants’ psychological development depends on their biological development. To understand the emergence of motor skills and memory, we must understand

the developing brain.

Developing Brain

At birth, most brain cells are present. After birth, the neural networks multiply

resulting in increased physical and mental abilities.

Maturation

The development of the brain unfolds based on genetic instructions, causing various bodily and mental functions to occur in sequence— standing before

walking, babbling before talking—this is called maturation.

Maturation sets the basic course of development, while experience adjusts it.

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Back to Sleep

The causes of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)are not well understood but may involve an immaturebrainstem.

The Back to Sleep educational program was instituted with the hope of reducing SIDS.

prone: laying on stomachsupine: laying on back

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Motor Development

First, infants begin to roll over. Next, they sit unsupported, crawl, and finally walk. This sequence if consistent across

human cultures.Milestone Age (months)

Sitting unsupported 6

Crawling 8

Walking 12

Running 15

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Auditory Perception• 1 and 4 month old infants are capable of

responding to speech

Eimas et al. (1971). Science, 171, 303-306.

Maturation and Infant Memory

The capacity and duration of Long-Term Memory shows pronounced

improvements during the first two-years.

Infants of different ages came to the lab and played with toys (e.g. Make the monkey jump. This event consisted of a toy monkey and a blue teeter-totter. The infant placed the monkey on one end of the teeter-totter (Step 1) and pushed down on the opposite end (Step 2). This caused the monkey to “jump” into the air..

Later, they were given props and asked to recreate what happened earlier..

Bauer (2007). Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 142-146.

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Jean Piaget • Prolific Swiss developmental & cognitive

psychologist (50+ books, 500+ papers). • Eminence (20th century): 2nd!• He noticed patterns in child errors while

completing intelligence tests.• Studied his own 3 children (Jacqueline, Lucienne, and Laurent).

1896-1980

Schemas

Schemas are mental molds into which we pour our experiences.

Example: living things move

Assimilation and Accommodation

The process of assimilation involves incorporating new

experiences into our current

understanding (schema). The

process of adjusting a schema and

modifying it is called accommodation. Jean Piaget with a subject

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Cognitive DevelopmentPiaget believed that the driving force behind intellectual development is our

biological development amidst experiences with the environment. Our cognitive development is shaped by the

errors we make.

Deloache et al. (1987). Science, 304, 1027-1029.Quick Time Videos MPG 1 & 2

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Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Stages

Age Stage Description

0-2 Sensorimotor senses

2-7 Preoperational intuition

7-11 Concrete Operational beginning logic

12+ Formal Operational abstract logic

Sensorimotor Stage

In the sensorimotor stage, babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching,

mouthing, and grasping. Children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp object permanence, i.e., objects

that are out of sight are also out of mind.

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Sensorimotor Stage: Criticisms

Piaget believed children in the sensorimotor stage could not think —they

do not have any abstract concepts or ideas.

However, recent research shows that infants in the sensorimotor stage can

think and count. 1. Children understand the basic laws of

physics. They are amazed at how a ball can stop in midair or disappear.

Two min:http://www.pbs.org/parents/sid/blogs/teachers/archives/2010/10/babies-physics-uncovering-the-impressive-knowledge-of-infants.html

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Sensorimotor Criticism

Possible Impossible

Sensorimotor Stage: Criticisms

2. Infants can also “count”. Five-month olds stared longer at the wrong number of objects than the right ones.

Wynn (1992). Nature, 358, 749-759.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to about 7 years old, children are in the preoperational stage—too young to

perform mental operations.

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Conservation of Volume Test

• Age 5.5 (wrong): “Daddy, why did you ask such an easy question? Everyone could see that there was more water in that glass!”

• Age 6.5 (wrong): “Daddy, I don’t know … Why did you ask such a hard question!”

• Age 7.5 (correct): “Both glasses have the same amount of water, of course! Why? Is this some sort of trick question?

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Conservation of Number Test

• Which has more, top or bottom row?

Preoperational Stage: Criticism 1

Children as young as 3 years of age are able to use mental operations. When shown a model of a toy dog’s hiding place behind the couch, 2½-year-olds could not locate the stuffed dog in an actual room, but the 3-year-olds did.

Representation Reality

DeLoache (1987). Science, 238, 1556-1557.A 3 year-old is shown a small room where a stuffed toy is hidden. Child is able to find the stuffed animal in the larger room.

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Preoperational Criticism 2

• Even young children can show conservation of number when the question is asked differently.

• Which has more?• X X X• X X X

Egocentrism

Piaget concluded that preschool children are egocentric. They cannot perceive things from another’s point of view.

When asked to show her picture to mommy, 2-year-old Gabriella holds the picture facing her own eyes, believing that her mother can see it through her

eyes.

Hurt child example.

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Sense of Self-Rouge Test

• Rouge is placed on infants nose• Infant is placed in front of mirror• Do they?

– Touch mirror (no self-recognition)– Touch nose (self-recognition), usually 1.5 yrs

Rouge (Mark) Test (3:50 – end):http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJFo3trMuD8

Theory of Mind

Preschoolers, although still

egocentric, develop the ability to understand

another’s mental state when they begin forming a theory of mind.

The problem on the right probes such ability in children. Sally-Anne False Belief Test4 min Video: Autism

http://www.thetransporters.com/researchvid.html

Concrete Operational Stage

In concrete operational stage, given concrete materials, 7-year-olds grasp

conservation problems and mentally pour liquids back and forth into glasses of

different shapes conserving their quantities.

Children in this stage are also able to transform mathematical functions. So, if 4 + 8 = 12, then a transformation, 12 – 4

= 8, is also easily doable.

Formal Operational Stage

Around age 12, our reasoning ability expands from concrete thinking to abstract thinking. We can now use symbols and imagined realities to

systematically reason. Piaget called this formal operational thinking.

Criticism: Formal Operational Stage

Rudiments of such thinking begin earlier (age 7) than what Piaget suggested, since 7-year-olds can solve the problem below

(Suppes, 1982).

If John is in school, Mary is in school. John is in school. What can you say about

Mary?

Summary: Piaget’s Theory

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What stage is this student?

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Egg Comparison

• What weights more, a 1 day or a 20 day old chicken egg?

• What answers are possible? • How would each answer be indicative of a

specific Piagetian stage?

Reflecting on Piaget’s Theory

Piaget’s stage theory has been influential globally, validating a number of ideas

regarding growth and cognitive development in many cultures and

societies. However, today’s researchers believe the following:

1. Development is a continuous process.2. Children express their mental abilities

and operations at an earlier age.

Social Development

Stranger anxiety is the fear of strangers that develops at around 8 months. This is the age at which infants form schemas for

familiar faces and cannot assimilate a new face.

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Origins of Attachment

Harlow (1971) showed that infants bond with surrogate mothers because of bodily contact and

not because of nourishment.

3 min:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hsA5Sec6dAI

1905-1981

Origins of Attachment

Like bodily contact, familiarity is another factor that causes attachment. In some

animals (goslings), imprinting is the cause of attachment.

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Measuring Attachment

• Ainsworth Strange Situation– Child + Mom in novel environment– Stranger enters– Mom leaves– Mom returns, stranger leaves– Mom leaves child alone– Mom returns

Video (4 min):http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zWsyIVVvDdw&feature=related

1913-1999

Attachment Differences

Placed in a strange situation, 60% of children express secure attachment, i.e., they explore their environment happily in the presence of their mothers. When their

mother leave, they show distress.

The other 30% show insecure attachment. These children cling to their mothers or caregivers and are less likely

to explore the environment.

Secure Attachment

Relaxed and attentive caregiving becomes the backbone of secure

attachment.

Separation Anxiety

Separation anxiety peaks at 13 months of age, regardless of whether the children

are home or sent to day care.

Deprivation of Attachment

What happens when circumstances prevent a child from forming

attachments?

In such circumstances children become:

1. Withdrawn2. Frightened

3. Unable to develop speech

Prolonged Deprivation

If parental or caregiving support is deprived for an extended period of time,

children are at risk for physical, psychological, and social problems.

Child-Rearing Practices

Practice Description

AuthoritarianParents impose rules and

expect obedience.

Permissive Parents submit to children’s demands.

Authoritative Parents are demanding but responsive to their children.

Authoritative Parenting

Authoritative parenting correlates with social competence — other factors like

common genes may lead to an easy-going temperament and may invoke an

authoritative parenting style.

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Alternative View: Do parents matter?

• Judith Harris: The Nurture Assumption• Accent example• Peers

1938-

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Summary

• Jean Piaget: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operations

• Tests:– Object permanence– Conservation of volume– Rouge Test

• Limitations of Piaget