introduction to learning theory and course design bernard scott cranfield university george roberts...

Introduction to Learning Theory and Course

Design

Bernard Scott Cranfield University

George Roberts Oxford Brookes University

Introduction to Learning Technology 2

Outline of Programme1000 - 1015 Introductions

1015 - 1100 1. eLearning and Online Learning

Coffee break

1115 - 1245 2. Introduction to Learning Theory

Lunch

1330 - 1500 3. Introduction to course design

Coffee break

1515 - 1615 4. The why and how of e-learning

Close

Introduction to Learning Technology 3

Workshop AimsTo introduce learning technology practitioners to:

theories of learning and teaching

principles and processes of course design

relevant for the production and delivery of quality learning experiences in e-learning (flexible, distributed, distance and blended) courses

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Introductions

Introduce yourself

What is your role in your organisation?

What do you want from the day?

1. eLearning and Online Learning

1015 - 1100

Introduction to Learning Technology 6

The Big Picture

Globalisation Liberalisation Participation Innovation

Education and training policy replaces industrial policy as the means by which governments seek to make regions economically competitive

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What’s happening, then?Chips with e-verything

ICT is becoming

Everywhere Ubiquitous

Background Ambient

Personal Adaptive and Aware

Fast High-speed

Mobile Wireless (wifi and telephony)

Merging Convergent(TV, radio, learning,work, leisure)

Multi/multiple media All Connected, Always on

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Widening participationWidening participation policies adopted by successive British governments have been focused in two conflicting directions:

emancipatory and empowering for the individual: stimulate the growth of autonomous, entrepreneurial, IT-literate, multi-skilled individuals capable of creating and taking advantage of the opportunities inherent in a post fordist economy

ensuring a supply of appropriately skilled workers for industry: create a compliant low-expectation labour force inured to the demands of flexibilisation in order to attract inward investment not on the basis of high skills available but on the basis of low costs

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Learning Technologies Multimedia presentations Electronic whiteboards Interactive classrooms CAL, CBT, simulations Virtual reality Video conferencing Online learning

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Online Learning Using the Internet for L&T (DL or blended)

Learning materials (RBL) Other resources Computer mediated communication (CMC) Computer aided assessment (CAA) VLEs, MLEs, LMSs, LCMSs, IMS

ActivityWhat are some advantages and disadvantages of OLL? Note down two points for and two points against.

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Some advantages of OLL (1) Flexible re time and place Interactive Immediate Modifiable Non-linear Richness of resources Shared access to resources

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Some advantages of OLL (2) Store and archive files and messages Store and process scores Adapt to a student’s performance Provide formative feedback

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Some disadvantages of OLL (1) Costs to install and maintain Costs of materials production or

acquisition Training needs (staff and students) Accessibility issues

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Some disadvantages of OLL (2) CMC is time intensive Difficult to be social CAA has restricted set of question styles Security issues (confidentiality, plagiarism) Copyright and IPR issues

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Managed Learning Environment Overview

http://www.jisc.ac.uk/mle/reps/briefings/bp1.html

Coffee Break

1100 - 1115

2. Learning Theory

1115 - 1245

Introduction to Learning Technology 19

ActivityWhat is learning?What do we learn?What helps us to learn?

Note down your thoughts

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Learning Theory: First Principles

“The environment contains no information. It is as it is.” “Everything that is said is said by or to an observer.” Heinz von Foerster

Learning is constructive and conversational

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Conversation Theory “Man is a system that needs to learn.” “Teaching is the control of learning.” Adaptive, conversational systems that

provide support (scaffolding) for the learner

(Pask and Scott, Thomas and Harri-Augstein, Laurillard)

The Skeleton of a Conversation

Why? questions and responsesWhy questionsand responses

How questions and responses

Teacher Learner

Receives or offers explanations in termsof relations between

topics

Receives or offers explanations in termsof relations between

topics

Offers demonstrations or elicits models and

problem solutions

Receives demonstrations, builds models or solves problems

Modelling facility for performance of tasks such as model building and problem soving

Figure 1. The “skeleton” of a conversation (after Pask)

Why?

How?

A ‘Full’ Learning Conversation

How and why of topicHow and why of topic

How of learning

Why of learning

Teacher Learner

After Thomas and Harri-Augstein

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The Dynamics of Learning (i)

Uncertainty reduction Need for variety Awareness/consciousness Proceduralisation Remembering and forgetting – the roles of

practice and story telling

The Dynamics of Learning (ii)

Long term memory

Non-conscious processing

Limited capacityworking memory

(conscious)

Sensory

processes

Response

processes

Filter/non-conscious

analysis

Kinaesthetic

Feedback through environment

(external storage of information)

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Typologies of Learning TheoryLillis (2003) Traditions: clusters of culturally and historically

specific beliefs and practices which are forged in contexts over time.

Traditions can be mapped on 4 dimensions: Academic Disciplines Paradigmatic shifts Geo-historical contexts Ideological positions

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Mapping traditions Academic disciplines

Social Sciences, Sociolinguistics, Applied linguistics, Anthropology, Psychology Physical sciences and sub traditions within these

Paradigms from abstract “out there” systems to socially situated systems from individual cognition to social practice from fixed social categories: class, sex, race, profession to

fluid identities Geohistorical

colonial/post-colonial, Anglo Saxon/Franco-German Ideological (world views)

Liberal Humanist, Critical Neo-Marxist, Theocratic, Post-structuralist

after Lillis 2003

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Typologies of Learning TheoryWeller (2002) Constructivism Resource Based Learning Collaborative Learning Narrative Based Teaching Situated Learning

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Typologies of Learning TheoryStreet (1997) Autonomous Model

learning in itself has consequences autonomous of context

art for art’s sake; learning is its own reward

Ideological Model learning varies with social context, cultural norms,

discourses meanings always embedded in relations of power control of definitions and boundaries is contested

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Pedagogical Pragmatism: 1, 2, 3, 4

Posture

Stance

Face

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One Aim: Good Learning

based on

reciprocity authenticity credibility

independent of the mode of engagement

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Recipient design for whom intended, the learner,

idealised model of learner incorporates learning styles theories, and

aspects of learning technology specs and standards: IMS-LIP, UK-LEAP

Referee design the “boss”, colleagues, funding body,

CAA/QCA, colleagues, super-ego, beliefs

Two Targets: “Posture”

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Channel can we hear each other

Relationship: do we understand each other

Topic what are we talking about (the subject)

Three Positions: “Stance”

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Four Traditions: “face”positivism: knowledge is “out there”, categorical

objective-led (behaviourist) pedagogies of external motivations such as enquiry-based learning, physical simulation and experiment

social perspective: knowledge emergent, constructed dominant approaches are exploratory learning and constructivism

tacit communitarianism: common-sense normalisation knowledge engineering, and computational approaches such as

organisational learning and intelligent systems

new critical: cognitive disconnect in L&T practice project and problem-based learning, applied and action research are

characteristic

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Multiple Learning and Teaching Styles

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ActivityHow do subject areas differ?How do learners differ?How do we learn to learn?

Note down your thoughts

Lunch!

1245 - 1330

3. Course Design

1330 - 1500

Introduction to Learning Technology 39

Course Design Coopers and Lybrand (1996):

Up to two thirds of TLTP materials can be deemed amateurish due to the lack of sound pedagogy and instructional design

UK Teaching and Learning Technology Programme (1990 – cont), c. £40m

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ActivityWhat makes for a good course?

Note down your thoughts

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Good teaching sets ground rules provides alternative modes of participation exemplifies models of engagement gives access to the experience of the

instructor(cf. Brookfield 2001, Jones 1999)

independent of the mode of engagement

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Good practice encourage student-tutor contact encourage student-student co-operation encourage active learning give prompt feedback emphasise time on task have and communicate high expectations respect diverse talents and ways of

learning

independent of the mode of engagement

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Good design Permeability: multiple pathways Variety: multiple learning & teaching

styles/preferences Legibility: multiple literacies, modes and

systems of meaning Robustness Visual appropriateness Richness: complexity at scale Personalisation

independent of the mode of engagement

Course Design: PrinciplesA clear mapping between course components

Course Design: Processes

Knowledge and Task Analysis

Task structure (Precedence Chart)

Concept Maps: Fighting Power

Process Maps: The Doctrinal Cycle

MK2 Knowledge Map

Delivering Capability

PART AINTRODUCTION

A1STRUCTURES

Factual Area

Procedures

Part

Module

Section

Relationship

Link

Structures

KEY:

A2.1Joint Doctrine

A1.5Management of

DefenceResources

A1.1MOD

A1.2Civil

Service

A1.3Allies

A1.4PJHQ

A2.2Campaign Planning

A2 - DOCTRINE

PART CAPPLYING CAPABILITY TO OPERATIONS(THE BATTLESPACE)

C5THE OPERATIONAL

PLANNING PROCESS

C6CONDUCT OFOPERATIONS

C1THE BDE IN

THE DIV

C7MEASURINGCAPABILITY

C5.1 - BdePlanning Process

Ouput ismeasured in

terms ofOperational

Effectiveness

Operationsuse

Capability

C6.1Offensive Ops

C6.2Defensive Ops

C6.3Delay Ops

C6.4Transitional Ops

C6.5OOTW

C2BRITISH APPROACH

TO OPS

PART BDELIVERING CAPABILITY(THE BUSINESS SPACE)

B2.1Project

ManagementB2.2

ResourceManagement

B2.3Change

Management

B2.5Personnel

Management

B2.4Risk Management

B2.6R&M

B1DELIVERINGCAPABILITY -PROCESSES

B1.2Defence

Plannning Process

B1.3EquipmentProgramme

B1.4Acquisition

Process

B1.5Measurement

B2DELIVERINGCAPABILITY -

PROCEDURES

C4SCIENCE &

TECHNOLOGY

C3 - EQUIPMENTCAPABILITY

Capabilityuses

technology

C3.1

CIS

C3.2

ISTAR

C3.3

DBE

C3.4

IBE

C3.5

ManouevreSupport

C3.6

AD

C3.7

CBRN

C3.8

Tactical andStrategic Mob

C3.9

CSS

C3.10 -Mod and

Sim

TSO

C4.1STATISTICS

C4.2EQPT

DESIGN

C4.3CIS

TECHNOLOGY

C4.4ISTAR

TECHNOLOGY

C4.5MANOEUVRETECHNOLOGY

C4.6LETHALITY

TECHNOLOGY

C4.7SURVIVABILITYTECHNOLOGY

Technologyreferences

TSO

How a Divmeasures

effectiveness ofcomponent Bdes

C1.1Structure ofDiv and Bde

HQsB1.1

Capability

Measurement ofOperational

effectiveness feedsback into

the planning process

Created and managed by Systems Consultants Services Ltd and the MOD

Advance Organiser: MK2 Route Map

MK1 Module Template Modules, Sections and Lessons have titles Module contents listing Module Learning Outcomes (LOs) Module Introduction

Section LOs Section Introduction

Lesson LOs Lesson Introduction Lesson Content

Activities Examples Figures, Tables

Lesson Summary Section Summary Recommended further reading

Module Summary Self Assessment Questions (SAQs), organised by Section SAQ answers, organised by Section References

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Learning from Expository Text Genre or text object type signposted Legible (font, background, location) Readable (grammar, sentence length,

vocabulary) Comprehensible (local and global

coherence of argument structures) Learnable (promotes active learning and

reflection)

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Using Activities and Formative Assessment

Using Activities to Promote Learning

Introductory Activity Follow-on ActivityLesson ContentFeedback Feedback+ +> >

RaiseAwareness

Prepare,Motivate

ExplainConcept

Demonstrateskill

Consolidate,Elaborate

Practice,Reinforce

The “tutorial in print” (after Rowntree)

Introductory Activity

Discussion:

You probably noted down several specific elements such as weapons, personnel of varying skills and other resources. You may also have thought about organisational requirements such as command and control and communications. All these elements contribute to the physical component and can be grouped into four broad fields - manpower, equipment, training and readiness and logistics.

Reinforcing Activity

Discussion:

There are many examples to choose from. Here are some well known ones. Selection and maintenance of the aim: Take the Jihad to the heart of the USA and its people. Maintenance of morale: Self-sacrifice for the benefit of one’s country, one’s politics and one’s religion against a demonised enemy. Offensive action: Utilising four commercial aircraft to attack civilian targets in the most densely populated area in the enemy’s country.

Security: The security involved allowed the protagonists to carry out their actions almost unimpeded. Surprise: Although security services were aware of the possibility of such an attack, no one knew where, when or how the action would be carried out. Concentration of force: Synchronised attack at the heart of commerce, military and (if reports are correct) government in the White House. Economy of effort: The terrorists used commercial airliners packed with fuel rather than expensive weapons or having to smuggle weapons onto an aircraft. Their ‘pilots’ knew enough to steer an aircraft and little else. Flexibility: Four aircraft from different locations gave enough flexibility in the event of compromise/unforeseen problems. Co-operation: Pan-Arab fundamentalist co-operation and the use of safe houses etc. Sustainability: Overcame significant logistic and administrative difficulties in sustaining the whole Operation.

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Delivering MK2 – The Full Pedagogic Model

Searching and learning about resources Mentor support Peer-peer learning Student tracking and assessment Student records Integration with residential courses –

blended learning

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Designs for Collaborative Learning

Group or individual tasks Dissemination to peers Exchange of critical reviews Revise, iterate Tutor as learning facilitator, learning

coach, subject matter expert, assessor

Tea Break

1500 - 1515

4. Why and How of eLearning

1515 - 1615

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Activity and Discussion: The Why and How of e-Learning

Revisit your thoughts about why we should engage in e-learning

Revisit your thoughts about how we should develop and deliver e-learning

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Learning Technology Affordances

Time shifting Location shifting Flexible sequencing Enhanced communication Distributed collaboration Access to resources Simulations

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Overt (and covert) CurriculaIndustrial era Overt

“3 Rs”: reading, ‘riting and ‘rithmatic Covert

punctuality, subordination, repetition

Ubiquitous, networked era Overt

flexibility, community, personalisation Covert

piecework, normalisation, surveillance

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Another Hidden Curriculum If we wish to discover the truth about an educational system,

we must first look to its assessment procedures (Rowentree 1987 cited in Gibbs and Simpson 2004)

Time budgeting focus on only what is assessed

Cue seeking discover “what the teacher wants”

Assessment domination encourages Tactical use of time Selective negligence

(Gibbs, 2004)

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Discussion: Make the LinksRequirements

Permeability Variety Legibility Robust Appropriate Rich Personal

Affordances

Time shift Location shift Flexible sequencing Communication Collaboration Access to resources Simulation

Pref

eren

ces

Introduction to Learning Technology 66

Learning technology

Application of discourse technologies (Fairclough, 2001)

to foster distributed cognition

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Blended learning3-C matrix:

collocationlow/high (face-to-face vs. distance learning)

collaborationlow/high (individualised vs. collaborative learning)

computerisationlow/high (e-learning vs. traditional print and communication technologies)

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Blended learning: 3-C

hi collocationhi collaboration traditional laboratorylo computerisation

hi collocation whiteboards in classroomshi collaboration virtual field tripshi computerisation

lo collocation CACL, online forumshi collaboration “Learning to teach online”hi computerisation

hi collocationlo collaboration video link lecturehi computerisation

lo collocationlo collaboration “traditional” OU DLlo computerisation

lo collocationlo collaboration CBT traininghi computerisation

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Mode 1 – baseline course administration and learner support (e-LearningStrategy Action 6a)

Baseline course administration and learner support (chosen from thefollowing): use web to distribute course information and carry out courseadministration, e.g. aims and objectives, assessment criteria/proformas, pastexam questions and model answers/assessment sheets, timetablingannouncements, reading lists, tutor contact details, course evaluation tools,FAQs, additional web resources, links to field level resources, course/modulehandbook, lecture notes.

Mode 2 – blended learning leading to significant enhancements to learning andteaching processes

Communication Assessment and feedback

Provide improved tutor-student,student-student communications,mainly using discussion boards oremail. Enable students, especiallyin disparate groupings andlocations, to exchange information,ask questions and discuss issuesrelating to the course.

Provide improved feedback tostudents on their learning viacomputer assisted assessment foreither formative (self-assessmentand monitoring of progress) orsummative (examination andgrading) purposes or both. Mayinvolve electronic setting,submission and return of studentassignments using digital artefactsand proformas where objectivetesting inappropriate.

Collaboration Quality learning material

Provide a platform for collaborativestudent projects, involving sharedresponsibility for resources andoutcomes. Students usecommunication tools and shareddirectory to collaborate on taskprocesses and outcomes.

Develop flexible access to highquality, reusable learning content,which may include structuredgateways to web and otherresources with accompanying self-paced independent learningactivities, interactive tutorials withfeedback, simulations, study andlearning skills resources andactivities fostering independentlearning.

Mode 3 – on-line course/module

Develop course/module primarily on-line, incorporating all or most of theabove, for flexible delivery, allowing learners to learn at times and places oftheir choosing. Likely to include learning materials, communication betweentutor and students, assessment and monitoring of progress, learner supportand course administration.

Modes of Engagement

Mode 1: baseline admin and support

Mode 2: Blended Learning

Mode 3: FDL

Thank you!

Introduction to Learning Technology 71

References and Resources

Gibbs, Graham and Claire Simpson (2004), “Conditions under which assessment supports students’ learning” in LATHE: Learning and Teaching in Higher Education 1(1), 3-31

Harri-Augstein, S and Thomas, L F (1991). Learning Conversations, London, Routledge.

Laurillard, D (2002). Rethinking University Teaching: A Conversational Framework for the Effective Use of Learning Technologies (2nd Ed), Routledge, London

Lillis, Theresa (2003), “Mapping the traditions of a social perspective on language and literacy” in Goodman et al, Language, Literacy and Education, Trentham/Open University

Pask, G (1975). Conversation, Cognition and Learning, Elsevier, Amsterdam. Pask, G and Scott, B (1973). "CASTE: a system for exhibiting learning strategies

and regulating uncertainty", Int. J. Man-Machine Studies, 5, pp. 17-52. Rowntree, D (1990). Teaching Through Self-Instruction: How to Develop Open

Learning Materials, Kogan Page, London. Ryan, S, Scott, B, Freeman, H and Patel, D (2000). The Virtual University: The

Internet and Resource Based Learning, Kogan Page, London. Scott, B et al (2004). The Online Learning Knowledge Garden,

http://ollkg.rmcs.cranfield.ac.uk. Street, Brian (1997), “The implications of the ‘New Literacy Studies’ for literacy

education” in Goodman et al, Language, Literacy and Education, Trentham/Open University

Weller, Martin (2002) Delivering Learning on the Net. KoganPage, RoutledgeFalmer