introduction to applied linguistics 4-year program junior students 2-nd semestertopics: groupings of...

Introduction to Applied Linguistics 4-year program Junior students 2-nd semester

TOPICS:TOPICS:

Groupings of Words Groupings of Words (pp. 146 – 150), slides 6 – 60Nature of Semantic Change Nature of Semantic Change (pp. 135 – 138), slides 61 – 75

Phraseological Units (pp. 152 – 154), slides 76 – 92 Functional Styles”(Functional Styles”(pp. 151 – 161), slides 93 – 53

TextbookTextbook: Exploring the System of the English Language ISBN 986-7688-42-2

Professor: Ludmila Kudrevatykh

Learning ActivitiesPreview the material of a chapter at homeLearn linguistic terminologyListen to the teacher’s explanationsDo practical in classCorrect the mistakes under the supervision of

the teacher

Preview of a chapter Discuss definitions and

classifications Do practical

Mistakes correction

Controlling tests

Individual home work

Teacher’s explanations and presentations

Individual or pair-work in class

On the board in class

Regularly, after discussion1. Quizzes2. Practical

Course Methods

Lesson plan (in weeks)1. Preview;2. Groupings of Words: Synonyms;3. Groupings of Words: Synonyms (cont);4. Groupings of Words: Antonyms;5. Groupings of Words: Hyponyms;6. Groupings of Words: Homonyms;7. Groupings of Words: Homonyms (cont);8. Review;9. Midterm.

Lesson plan (continued)1. Nature of Semantic Change: Metaphor;2. Nature of Semantic Change: Metonymy;3. Phraseological Units: Phraseological Collocations and

Unities; 4. Phraseological Units: Phraseological Fusions; Proverbs; 5. Functional Styles: Formal and Informal Styles; Basic

Vocabulary;6. Functional Styles: Morphological Expressive Means;

Lexical Expressive Means;7. Functional Styles: Lexical Expressive Means (cont);

Syntactical Expressive Means;8. Review;9. Final Test.

Groupings of WordsGroupings of Words (pp. 146 – 150)

Words can be grouped together into lexico-lexico-semantic fields semantic fields on the basis of their shared meanings that can be of the following types:

similar opposite includeddifferent

Groupings of WordsGroupings of Words (pp. 146 – 150) Synonymic, antonymic, hyponymic and

homonymic lexico-semantic fields or groups of words should be distinguished.

Synonymy Synonymy deals with sameness of meaning. AntonymyAntonymy deals with oppositeness of meaning. HyponymyHyponymy refers to the words in which the

meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another word.

HomonymyHomonymy deals with different words that are pronounced and/or spelled in the same way.

Groupings of Words: Synonymy (pp. 146 – 148)

Synonymy Synonymy deals with sameness of meaning.

SynonymsSynonyms are words conveying the same notion but differing either in shades (elements) of meaning or in stylistic characteristics .

Synonyms may belong to the same part of speech (cf., ridiculous, absurd, inane)

or formed by words of different word-classes (cf.,; sleeping, sleep time, to sleep).

Examples:

to begin – to start – to – commence (bookish) – synonyms differ in stylistic reference as belong to different styles of a language

to tremble - to shiver (from cold) - to shudder (from disgust) – synonyms differ in shades of their meanings

Synonyms may differ in the way of building word-combinations:

to answer (a question) – to reply to (a question); to finish (school) – to graduate from (University); to offer (a concrete thing) – to suggest (an idea).

Groupings of Words: Synonymy . Synonymic Dominant (pp. 146 – 148)

Each synonymic group has a dominant element called the synonymic dominantthe synonymic dominant - the most general term potentially containing the specific features rendered by all the other members of the group, e.g.: to tremble – to shiver – to shudder.

Groupings of Words: Synonymy . Synonymic Dominant (pp. 146 – 148)

The synonymic dominant has the following features:

1. high frequency of usage;2. broad combinability, i.e., an ability of a

word to be used in combinations with various classes of words;

3. broad general meaning;4. lack of connotations

(to ask – to inquire – to question – to interrogate )

Groupings of Words: Synonymy . Types of Synonyms (pp. 146 – 147)

V. Vinogradov (1953) established the following classification of synonyms:

ideographic,stylistic, ideographic-stylistic, contextual, absolute (total) synonyms.

Ideographic Ideographic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but differing in denotations, cf.:

a piece – a lump – a slice,to tremble – to shiver – to shudder, anger – fury.

Groupings of Words: Synonymy . Types of Synonyms (pp. 146 – 147

StylisticStylistic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but differing in stylistic connotations, cf.:

to try – to endeavor (bookish), to see – to behold (archaic), sky – heaven (poetic), a horse – a steed (poetic).

Ideographic-stylisticIdeographic-stylistic synonyms differ in semantics, emotional coloring and stylistic references, cf.,

to say – to pronounce, a head – an onion, money – cabbage.

Groupings of Words: Synonymy . Types of Synonyms (pp. 146 – 147

Contextual Contextual synonyms are similar only under some specific conditions. In negative forms the following words might become synonyms: can’t stand it – can’t suffer it – can’t bear it.

AbsoluteAbsolute (totaltotal) synonyms are words coinciding in their semantics and stylistic characteristics (terms) cf.,

a noun – a substantive; an inflection – an ending; an oculist – an eye-specialist.

Groupings of Words: Synonymy . Sources of Synonymy (pp. 146 – 147)

Borrowings from different languages (Latin, French, Italian, etc.):

beautiful (Fr) – fair (E); to begin (E) – to commence (Fr) – to initiate (Lat).

Variants in American and British English:elevator - lift, sidewalk – pavement, sweets – candy, cookie – biscuit, apartment – flat, butty – sandwich, heartsome – cheering, snap – packed lunch;

Different styles, technical terms, slang: cordial – heart, optic – eye, lexeme – word, orthography – spelling, phoneme – sound

Euphemistic and dysphemistic expressions

Euphemisms Euphemisms are synonymic words used to avoid direct unpleasant, improper or offensive things.

DysphemismsDysphemisms are offensive words and expressions that are substituted for inoffensive words.

Groupings of Words: Synonymy . Euphemisms, Dysphemisms

SourcesSources of euphemisms and dysphemisms are various religious and social taboos, examples:

1. The God and similar ideas: Lord; the Maker; Goodness! Good Lord! the Prince of darkness, Old Nick; to depart this life, to be taken, to go to a better world, etc.

2. Lavatory, toilet: W.C., gentlemen’s room, ladies’ room; to wash one’s hands, etc.

3. Drunk: merry, tipsy, fresh, full, drunk as a Lord, soaked, stewed, boiled, pickled, canned, half-seas-over, intoxicated, etc.

4. A liar – an untruthful man; 5. A stupid man - not exactly brilliant; 6. Naked – in one’s birthday shirt; 7. Sweat - perspiration, etc.

Questions and Assignments

What is synonymy of a word?What is understood by a synonym of a word?What is a synonymic dominant?Give Vinigradov’s classification of synonyms.What is understood by ideographic synonyms? Define and give

examples.What is understood by stylistic synonyms? Define and give examples. What is understood by ideographic-stylistic synonyms? Define and

give examples.What is understood by contextual synonyms? Define and give

examples.What is understood by absolute synonyms? Define and give

examples.Name sources of synonymy of Modern English.What is understood by euphemisms? Define and give examples.What is understood by dysphemisms? Define and give examples.Name sources of euphemisms and dysphemisms in the English

language.

Groupings of Words:Antonymy (p. 148)AntonymyAntonymy deals with oppositeness of meaning.

Antonyms Antonyms (oppositesopposites) are words that possess contrasting meanings.

Antonymy is very typical of adjectives because qualitative characteristics are easily compared, while verbs and nouns are not rich in antonyms.

Groupings of Words:Antonymy (p. 148)

Like synonymsLike synonyms they are interchangeable in the context, they have the same functions and grammatical meaning and are mostly found within one word-class.

Unlike synonymsUnlike synonyms they do not differ in style, dialect and emotional coloring.

Groupings of Words:Antonyms. Morphological Characteristics (p. 128)

Most of the antonyms have unrelated morphological forms:

good or bad, big or small,tall or short, etc.

Groupings of Words:Antonyms. Morphological Characteristics (p. 128)

But there also exist words that form morphologically related pairs derived by means of negative or opposable prefixes and suffixes, e.g.:

pleasant and unpleasant,logical and illogical, rational and irrational, hopeful and hopeless, etc.

Groupings of Words:Antonyms. Types of antonyms (p. 128)Antonyms are generally divided into 4 types:

1.gradable antonyms, 2.complementary antonyms, 3.conversive antonyms, 4.directional antonyms.

Groupings of Words:Antonyms. Types of antonyms (cont)

Gradable antonyms Gradable antonyms are predominantly adjectives that denote qualities subject to classification : (narrow – narrower – narrowest)

high – low, hot – cold, narrow – wide

Gradable antonyms usually describe properties in comparison to other properties:

short – tall (in comparison to other people)

Complementary (contradictory) antonyms Complementary (contradictory) antonyms appear when the denial, negation of one of the members of the pair applies the assessment (are equivalent) of the other one:

male – female, dead – alive, aunt – uncle

Complementary antonyms do not allow middle values, any logical middle term:

clean – dirty, dry – wet.

Conversive antonyms Conversive antonyms appear in a set of words when one member of the pair is referred to the other member:

to send - to receive, to take – to give, to buy – to sell.

Conversives (converses; relational opposites) represent opposite perspectives of the same relations:

husband – wife, aunt – niece, nephew, father - son.

One of the converses cannot be used without suggesting the other.

In most of the cases they express the following phenomena:

social roles (teacher – student) or kinship relations (father – mother).

Directional antonymsDirectional antonyms, generally adverbs and prepositions, that indicate opposite spatial directions:

up – down, in – out.

A subtype of directional opposites is called “reversive” opposites – words that describe two phenomena indicated by opposite directions of development:

marry – divorce, enter – leave, appear – disappear.

Attention: Any polysemantic word may have several antonyms for each of its meanings:

dull – interesting, dull - clever, dull – active; light – heavy, light - strong, light – dark

Groupings of Words: Antonyms. Practical Give antonyms to the following words and define their types:

Reminder: Antonyms might be of 4 types:

gradable, complementary, conversive and directional antonyms.

Wife, right, wide, shallow, feminine, to send, to give, to laugh, to open, to accept, quickly, old, merry, optimist, stranger, talkative, clever, empty, enemy

1. What is meant by “antonymy” of a word?2. What kinds of words are called antonyms?3. Comment on the main types of antonyms. Define and

give examples.4. Define and give examples of gradable antonyms.5. Define and give examples of complementary

antonyms.6. Define and give examples of conversive antonyms.7. Define and give examples of directional antonyms.8. Why do polysemantic words have several antonyms?9. What part of speech is antonymy typical of? Why?

Groupings of Words:Hyponymy (p. 148 – 149)

Hyponymy Hyponymy refers to the semantic relations of generality generality and inclusioninclusion, cf.:

flower: rose, tulip, carnation, forget-me-not.

A more specific term is included in the member of a more general meaning:

meatmeat: pork, mutton, beef; birdbird: swallow, sparrow, blue tit, blackbird, sea-

gull, stork, etc. 　

A word with a general meaning is called a super-a super-ordinate ordinate term or hyperonym hyperonym (flower, meat, bird).

A word with a specific meaning is called a hyponym, e.g.,hyponym, e.g.,

rose, tulip, carnation, forget-me-not; pork, mutton, beef; swallow, sparrow, blue tit, blackbird, sea-gull, stork

Words that are in equal relations are called equanyms equanyms (pork – mutton – beef).

e.g., in a word set star – sun – nova starstar is a super-ordinate,words words sunsun and novanova are hyponyms hyponyms to the super-ordinate star and equanymsequanyms to each other.

Groupings of Words: PracticalHyponymy

Give as many hyponyms to the following words as possible. Define which word (words) are hyperonyms, hyponyms, equanyms

a flowerfurniturea birda mammalan insecta bug

1. What is meant by “hyponymy “of a word?2. What is meant by the super-ordinate term?

Define and give examples.3. How are the word with the specific meanings

called? Define and give examples.4. How are the words with equal relations

called? Define and give examples.5. What is the difference between a generic

term and a collective term? Define and give examples.

Groupings of Words:Homonyms (pp.149 – 150)HomonymyHomonymy deals with different words that are

pronounced and/or spelled in the same way.the same way.

Homonyms Homonyms are words that are identicalidentical in their sound form and spelling, but are different different in their meanings, cf.,

bank 1 – “an artificial embankment”, bank 2 – “a business establishment authorized to

perform financial transactions”, bank 3 – “a set of similar things arranged in a row”; band 1 – “a thin strip of flexible material”, band 2 – “a group of musicians who play together”.

Groupings of Words:Homonyms (pp.149 – 150)

Homonyms are accidental creations accidental creations and their existence leads to confusion and misunderstanding of communication.

Sometimes homonyms are used to create humorous situations that are called “a puna pun” - a joke based upon the play of words:

- “What’s this, waiter?” - – “It’s bean soup, sir” - – “Never mind what it has been. I want to know what

it is now (G.B. Antrushina, 1985).

Groupings of Words:Homonyms (pp.149 – 150)

Homonyms have specific morphological and lexico-grammatical features.

MorphologicallyMorphologically, homonyms may be subdivided into several groups:

homonyms proper, homophones, and homographs.

Groupings of Words:Homonyms. Morphological features (p.149)Morphologically: homonyms proper, homophones, and

homographs. 　　 Homonyms proper Homonyms proper are words that are the same the same in in

sound and spelling:sound and spelling: fit 1 – “perfectly fitting clothes”, fit 2 – “a nervous

spasm”. 　　 Homophones Homophones are identical identical in a sound form in a sound form but

differ differ in spellingin spelling: night - knight, piece - peace, scent – cent - sent, sea –

see – C; bee – B. 　　 Homographs Homographs are words that are iidentical dentical in in

spelling spelling but differdiffer in their sound in their sound form: bow [bau] – [bou], lead [li:d] – [led].　　

Groupings of Words:Homonyms. Lexico-grammatical features (p.149)Some of the homonyms belong to belong to the same the same part of speech, part of speech, others - to to different different word classesword classes, cf.:

a match 1 – “a game” (noun) and a match 2 – “a narrow strip of flammable material”

(noun); to tear 1 - “to pull apart or into pieces” (verb) and a tear 2 - “a drop of the clear salty liquid” (noun); staunch 1 – “loyal, firm, dependable” (adjective) and staunch 2 – “to stop flowing” (verb). 　

Groupings of Words:Homonyms. Lexico-grammatical features (p. 149)

Lexico-grammatically,Lexico-grammatically, homonyms proper may be classified into two classes:

1. full homonyms and 2. partial homonyms.

Groupings of Words:Homonyms. Full homonyms (p. 149)Lexico-grammatically: full homonyms and partial homonyms. 　　 Full homonyms Full homonyms have the same category of parts of the same category of parts of

speech speech and identical paradigm:identical paradigm:

a bay 1 – “a body of water partly enclosed by land” (noun), a bay 2 – “a deep prolonged barking” (noun), a bay 3 – “a laurel with stiff, aromatic leaves” (noun).

Groupings of Words:Homonyms. Partial homonyms (pp. 149 – 150)

Partial homonyms Partial homonyms split into 2 types:

1. Partial lexical homonyms and 2. Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms.

Groupings of Words:Homonyms. Partial homonyms (pp. 149 – 150)Partial homonyms : partial lexical and partial lexico-grammatical homonyms.

Partial lexical homonyms Partial lexical homonyms are words that belong to the same word class the same word class but are identical identical only in only in their their corresponding formscorresponding forms: to lie (lay, lain) – to lie (lied, lied) (V)to can (canned, canned) – can (could) (V)to hang (hung, hung) – to hang (hanged, hanged) (V)

Groupings of Words:Homonyms. Partial homonyms (pp. 149 – 150)Partial homonyms : partial lexical and partial lexico-grammatical homonyms.

Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms may be of 2 types:

simple simple and complex. complex.

Groupings of Words:Homonyms. Partial homonyms (pp. 149 – 150)Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms: simple and complex.

SimpleSimple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words that belong to the same word class and have one identical form in their paradigms, but it is not the same form: to found 1 - “to establish” (V),found 2 – Past Indefinite of the verb to find (V).

Groupings of Words:Homonyms. Partial homonyms (pp. 149 – 150)Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms: simple and complex.

Complex Complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words that belong to different parts of speech and have one identical form in their paradigms: a rose 1 (noun) – rose 2 (Past Indefinite of the verb to rise), left 1 (adjective) – left 2 (Past Indefinite of the verb to leave).

Groupings of Words:Homonyms. Full Classification (pp. 149 – 150)

MorphologicallyMorphologically, homonyms may be subdivided into 3 groups:

1. homonyms proper (bank – bank – bank)2. Homophones (sea – see – C)3. Homographs (lead [i: – e])

Lexico-grammatically, Lexico-grammatically, homonyms proper may be classified into 2 classes:

1. full homonyms (bay – bay – bay) 2. partial homonyms:

1) Partial lexical homonyms (to lie – to lie)2) Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms:

a) a) simple ppartial lexico-grammatical homonyms (to found – found)

b) b) complex ppartial lexico-grammatical homonyms (a rose – rose)

MorphologicallyMorphologically, homonyms may be subdivided into 3 groups:1. homonyms proper (bank – bank – bank)2. Homophones (sea – see – C)3. Homographs (lead [i: – e])

Lexico-grammatically, Lexico-grammatically, homonyms proper may be classified into 2 classes: 1. full homonyms (bay – bay – bay) 2. partial homonyms:

1) Partial lexical homonyms (to lie – to lie)2) Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms:

a) a) simple ppartial lexico-grammatical homonyms (to found – found)b) b) complex ppartial lexico-grammatical homonyms (a rose – rose)

Groupings of Words: Homonyms . Practical 1Give homonyms to the following words:

Dock, pelt, alight, foil, tense, peer, spit, hack, patter, bound, pip, castor, fast, toll, pat, bank, tend, bow, pet, tick, snub, pawn, hawk, one, can, tip, bean, snuff, peak, fob, husky, tender, peep, tenor, brake, fawn, hatch, pound, nail, plump, ear, eye, saw, bar, ray, low, lower, post, hold, hull, scale, shock, shot

Mews (he) – mews, surf – serf, tear – tear, currant – current, hail – hail - hale, rich – to retch, buyer – byre, wind – wind, tale – tail, die – dye, left –left, piece – peace, match – match, knight – night, bow – bough, thought – thought, see – sea – C, shower – shower, week – weak, write – right – rite, bay – bay – bay, buy – by – bye, temple – temple, shy – shy, made – maid, ball – ball, coco – cocoa, navel – naval, bow – bow, husky – husky, toll – toll, slough – slough, sound – sound, pole – pole, paw – pour – pore, a tow – to tow – a toe, main – mane, bound – bound, shock – shock, eye – I, found – found, lie – lie, fast – fast, post – post

Groupings of Words: Homonyms . Practical 2Define types of the following homonyms:

1. What is “homonymy” of a word?2. What kind of words are called homonyms?3. Why are homonyms so numerous in the English

language?4. What is understood by a morphological classification

of homonyms?5. Comment on the morphological types of homonyms.

Define and give examples.6. What is understood by a lexico-grammatical

classification of homonyms?7. 6. Comment on the lexico-grammatical types of

homonyms. Define and give examples.

Nature of Semantic Change:Development of Meaning (p. 135)Meanings of words are never stable. They change.

The change of meaning has 3 aspects:1.1.causescauses of semantic change, 2.2.naturenature of semantic change,3.3.results results of semantic change.

Nature of Semantic Change:Development of Meaning (p. 135)

Causes of semantic change answer the question why the word changed its meaning;

Nature of semantic change explains how different changes of meaning took place;

Results of semantic change show what has changed.

Nature of Semantic Change:Transference of Meanings (p.136 – 138)

Semantic changes are based on associations between 2 meanings: the old meaning and a new one.

The process of development of a new meaning is called “transference of meaning”.

There exist 2 types of transference of meanings: similaritysimilarity of meaning, and contiguitycontiguity of meaning.

Nature of Semantic Change: Similarity of Meanings. Metaphor. (p.136 – 137)

Metaphor is a transference of meanings based on their resemblance or similarity.

It’s association of 2 objects, one of which in some way resembles the other, e.g., a fox – about a sly woman

a snake – about a treacherous person

Nature of Semantic Change: Similarity of Meanings. Metaphor. (p.136 – 137)

There exist various kinds of similarities:

1. physical properties of human beings and objects (or vise versa): an arm of a tree;

2. specific features of character or behavior of animals and birds to denote human qualities: He is a real bear;

3. resemblance of properties of a concrete object and an abstract notion: wings of joy

Nature of Semantic Change: Similarity of Meanings. Metaphor. (p.136 – 137)appearance or form: bridge (of the human

nose), nut (head);temperature: boiling hot (about a man);position: the head and the foot of a page;color (of some flowers and shrubs); lilac,

violet;function of use: hand (of watches and clocks);movement: caterpillar tractor, foxtrot,

albatross (airplane).

Metaphor: Practical Explain transference of meanings in the following metaphors: a green bush – a green apple – a green man –

green with envy, a fruitful tree – a fruitful work, a blooming flower – a blooming health, wings of a bird – wings of an airplane – wings of a

mill – wings of joy, a leg of a table – a leg of a man, bitter cucumbers – bitter thoughts, sour milk – a sour smile, warm weather – warm sympathy, hot temperature – a hot forehead – hot words – hot

Nature of Semantic Change: Contiguity of Meanings. Metonymy. (p.137 – 138)

Metonymy is based on the contiguity of meanings.It is an association of different relations of objects, e.g., china – a translucent ceramic material; any porcelain wear: plates, cups, saucers

Nature of Semantic Change: Contiguity of Meanings. Metonymy. (p.137 – 138)The simplest case of metonymy is called synecdoche1. a part is made to stand for the whole or the whole for a

part: a gray beard – “an old man”, a motor – “a motor-car”, a big-wig -“an important person”;

2.names of different animals are used to mean their furs: fox, sable, hare;

3.names of different organs are used to characterize some phenomena: a head –“a leader”, a brain – “an intellectual person”;

4.names of containers are used to denote things contained: The pot is boiling. Have another glass;

5.names of things contained are used instead of the containers: a school - for “a school building”, University - for “a University building”;

Nature of Semantic Change: Contiguity of Meanings. Metonymy. (p.137 – 138)1. names of places are used to denote what is going on in

these places or people who are there: The whole city supported him;

2. names of the material may be used instead of the product: iron - “a metal/ an appliance used to press fabric”, glass - “a material/ objects made of glass”;

3. names of the author is used for his works: Show me Shakespeare, please;

4. name of passion is used for its object: My love!5. names of inventors are used instead of what they have

invented: mackintosh – “a waterproof overcoat” after Mackintosh, sandwich (a lord’s name), cf., watt, colt, etc;

Nature of Semantic Change: Contiguity of Meanings. Metonymy. (p.137 – 138)1. names of countries, cities and towns, islands, and

mountains are used to denote products manufactured there:

2. China - porcelain 3. Holland – a cotton cloth for window shades4. Morocco – a fine leather 5. Havana – a cigar made in Cuba6. Tokay – an aromatic wine produced in Hungary 7. Pembroke – a name of a Welsh corgi (dog) 8. Canary – a sweet white wine of the Canary islands 9. Sardines – the pilchard (fish) preserved in oil 10.Cheviot – a woolen fabric for coats

Metonymy: Practical Find the cases of metonymy and explain the transference of meanings in the following sentences1. A well-known soprano was singing “Annie Laurie” (A.

Christie)2. Pint of bitter, please.3. His son was away at Cambridge.4. A blue china was standing on the table.5. He married a good inheritance and was quite satisfied.6. A thin elderly woman came out of number 14 (A. Christie)7. The Rolls Royce is waiting for you to take you to the

yacht (E. Stuckly).8. I had some silver in my purse.9. School began in September.10. Use your eyes, use your ears, use you brain – if you’ve got

any. And if necessary – act. (A. Christie)11. Voices, voices. Everywhere you looked were eyes, hands,

mouths… (E. Courtney)

Metaphor vs Metonymy: Practical Pick out cases of metaphor and metonymy in the following sentences and define types of transference of their meanings:1. Guests can be introduced to our table.2. I noticed a bright steak of sun on the wall.3. At dinner he saw a new face.4. He dived under the bed and fished out another

bottle. (S. Maugham)5. His heart danced with him. (S. Maugham)6. Phillip was all ears. (S. Maugham)7. I told him that sherry, hock and burgundy were

being served. (A. Christie)

Metaphor vs Metonymy: Practical Pick out cases of metaphor and metonymy in the following sentences and define types of transference of their meanings (cont)

1. We, Englishmen, do not parade our emotions. (A. Christie)

2. At eye level on the white wall facing the desk was a small Renoir (M. Miller).

3. Silk suits you.4. Suddenly, her eyes danced (A. Christie).5. The porter can’t throw any fresh light upon the

matter.6. All is so dark to us in this matter.7. I froze there to listen to those old hats.8. I have another plane to catch (D. Brown)

1. What is understood by “transference of meaning”?2. Name the two types of the transference of meaning.3. What is the similarity of meaning based on?4. What is “metaphor”?5. What is understood by “a simple metaphor”?6. What semantic patterns are simple metaphors based

on?7. Comment on the metaphorical use of names of

animals.8. What is metonymy? 9. What words are called metonyms?10. What transference of meaning is metonymy based on? 11. What is understood by synecdoche?12. What semantic patterns is metonymy based on?

Phraseology: Phraseological Units (pp. 152 – 154)

A lexical meaning of a word-group is defined as the combined lexical meaning of its components. Lexical meanings of the components are mutually dependent.The meaning of a word-group naturally predominates over the lexical meaning of its components.

To a certain degree the grammatical structure of phraseological units is also stable: e.g., to go to bed – to go to the bed / prison, University.

From the point of view of their motivation, word-groups may be of the following types:

completely motivated, partially motivated and non-motivated.

Word-groups are completely motivated if their combined lexical meaning is deduced from the meanings of their components: all free phrases are completely motivated.

Partially motivated (partially non-motivated) groups are marked by a metaphorical use of the whole phrase,

e.g., to skate on thin ice – “to run a risk”.

Non-motivated word-groups are phraseological units or idioms that are freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units. They are stable in their lexical components and grammatical structure: e.g., a red flower (a free word group) and red tape (a phraseological unit: “bureaucracy”).

A comparative lack of motivation, or the so called “idiomaticity” of phraseological units is a typical feature of a phraseological unit.

Semantic motivation of word-groups is based on the coexistence of direct and figurative meanings.

Phraseology: Types of Phraseological Units (pp. 152 – 154)

According to the degree of idiomaticity, phraseological units may be classified into 3 groups:

- phraseological fusions- phraseological unities- phraseological collocations (A.V.

Kounin, 1972).

Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated word-groups. The meanings of the components of phraseological fusions have no connections, at least synchronically, with the meaning of a whole group. Idiomaticity is combined with complete stability of the lexical components and the grammatical structure of a fusion:

to kick the bucket; to see the elephant; at sixes and sevens; white elephant, etc.

Phraseology:

Types of Phraseological Units (pp. 152 – 154)Phraseological unities are partially non-motivated word-groups as their meaning can usually be understood (deduced) through the metaphoric meaning of the whole phraseological unit, cf.:

to wash one’s dirty linen in public; to turn over a new leaf; green light; as cool as a cucumber; as busy as a bee.

Phraseological collocations are partially motivated word groups made up of words having special lexical valence, which is marked by a certain degree of stability in such word-groups. In phraseological collocations variability of components is strictly limited. They differ from the phraseological unities by the fact that one of the components is used in its direct meaning, the other – in indirect meaning.

to pay a visit / tribute, attention, respect; to break a promise / a rule, news, necessity; to make money / journey; to fall ill / in love.

Phraseology: Structure of Phraseological Units (pp. 152 – 154)

Structurally, phraseological units function as word-equivalents:

nominal phrases, functioning like nouns: skeleton in the cupboard; ways and means;

verbal phrases, functioning like verbs: to take the bull by the horn; to put the finger into every pie;

adjectival phrases, functioning like adjectives: as cool as a cucumber; as poor as a church mouse; as good as gold;

adverbial phrases, functioning like adverbs: at sixes and sevens; by hook or by crook;

prepositional and conjunctional phrases: as long as; as well as; in spite of;

interjectional phrases: Well, I never! My foot! My George! My aunt!

Phraseology: Etymological Roots of Phraseological Units (pp. 152 – 154)Etymologically, phraseological units lie in different

spheres of life:sea life: in deep waters; in low waters; to see land;sport: to hit below the belt; the ball is with you;hunting: to turn tail; as hungry as a wolf:zoosemy: crocodile tears; lion’s share;theatre: to play to the gallery;medicine: to sweeten the draught;techniques: to get up steam; with full steam on;agriculture: to sow one’s wild oats; to put the plough

before the oxen;trade: to talk shop; best seller.

Proverbs (p. 154)Proverbs represent a common cultural fund of folk knowledge and wisdom that can call on to warn or reprimand someone in the assurance that they will accept the basis of this common wisdom where a more direct personal approach would fail.

You can’t win them all. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. A new broom sweeps clean. Too many cooks spoil the broth. People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones. A stitch in time saves nine, etc.

Phraseological Units: Practical 1Define types of the following set-expressions(phraseological fusions, unities or collocations) to play the first fiddle, to put on airs, to shred crocodile tears, to be in low water,by hooks or by crooks, to fall in love, to lose one’s head, to run a risk,at sixes or sevens, to read between lines, to ride the high horse, to catch at a straw, to pull oneself together, to see land,to wash dirty linen in public

Phraseological Units: Practical 2Pick out phraseological units from the following sentencesand define their types:

1. Let us see what we can do by putting our heads together (A. Christie).

2. It was going to be a pretty kettle of fish (A. Christie).3. I was head over heels in love with her (A. Christie).4. I wondered if he was pulling my leg, but he wasn’t, he

was sincere (E. Courtney).5. It wasn’t until yesterday when Horace finally laid his

cards on the table that we really understood what his intentions were (McCallum).

6. He shouldn’t bet on the races: every time he does he loses his shirt (McCallum).

7. I depend upon him for my bread and cheese.

Phraseological Units: Practical 2 (cont) Pick out phraseological units from the following sentencesand define their types:

8. I was at my wits end when suddenly a happy thought occurred to me (A.C. Doyle).

9. This scandal will throw a cloud on his reputation.10. Suddenly she burst into tears.11. Be that as it may.12. Over time truth wins out.13. Too many cooks spoil the broth.14. Do in Rome as Romans do.15. As you make your bed so you must lie in it.16. Where there is a will there is a way.17. As you sow you shall mow.

1. What is a phraseological unit?2. How is a lexical meaning of a phraseological unit defined?3. Classify phraseological units from the point of view of the

degree of their motivation.4. Classify phraseological units from the point of view of the

degree of their idiomaticity?5. What is a phraseological fusion? Define and give examples.6. What is a phraseological unity? Define and give examples.7. What is a phraseological collocation? Define and give

examples.8. What parts of speech do phraseological unit correlate with?9. Name the sources of phraseological units in Modern English?10. What is meant by a proverb?11. In which way do proverbs reflect life?

Functional Styles (pp. 155 – 161)Functional style Functional style is understood as a system of expressive means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication (I.V. Arnold, 1974)

All the circumstancescircumstances may be divided into 2 types: 1. formal and 2. informal.

Accordingly, 2 Functional styles 2 Functional styles are distinguished: Formal Formal Functional style, andInformal Informal Functional styles.

Functional Styles: Informal FS (pp. 155 – 156)

Informal words are traditionally divided into the following types:

colloquial words, cant, jargon, argot, vulgarisms, slang, and dialect words. 　　

Functional Styles: Informal FS. Colloquial Words (pp. 155 – 156)　 Colloquialisms Colloquialisms are familiar words and idioms used

in informal speech and writing.They are not common for polite conversation or business correspondence. They are used to emphasize informality and familiarity of a social situation.They are:

shortenings: an exam, a fridge, a flu;phrasal verbs: to make up, to pick up, to go on;colloquial equivalents of common words: a girl (a woman of any age), to kick the bucket (to

die). 　　

Functional Styles: Informal FS. Colloquial Words (pp. 155 – 156)

There are three layers of colloquial words:

1. literary colloquial, 2. familiar colloquial and 3. low colloquial words.

Functional Styles: Informal FS. Colloquial Words (cont) (pp. 155 – 156)

Literary colloquial words Literary colloquial words are used in everyday speech and do not have negative connotations.　　

Familiar colloquial words Familiar colloquial words are used by the young and the semi-educated. They possess negative coarse connotations: ta-ta (goodbye), shut up (keep silent), etc.

Low colloquial words Low colloquial words are typical of uncultivated people.

They are of three types: (G.P. Krapp, 1953): cant, jargon, and argot.

CanCant is the conversational vocabulary used by members of a specific occupation, profession, sect, class, age group, and interest groups.

Jargon Jargon is the secret vocabulary of such sub-groups.

Argot Argot is both the cant and the jargon of any criminal group.

Functional Styles: Informal FS. Slang (p. 156)

Slang Slang comes mostly from cant, jargon and argot words whose popularity has increased and a large number of common people uses or understands them.　　 Slang has a tendency to be vulgar and offensive.　　 Slang is more common in speech than in writing. 　　 Slang prefers short words, especially

monosyllables. Slang is predominantly a language of males. Many types of slang words, including the taboo, refer primarily to male interests: work, money, politics, sports, women.

Functional Styles: Informal FS. Slang (cont) (p. 156)

Spheres of communication Spheres of communication where slang is used:

- money: cabbage, lettuce, kale;- parts of the body: cabbage, cauliflower;- people: apple, cold fish, frog, honey;- drunk person: boiled, fried, pickled;- sexually attractive people: cookie, honey, tomato,

peach;- some situations and attitudes: to swallow a story,

to ask what’s cooking;- nonsense: apple-sauce, banana oil, spinach.

Functional Styles: Informal FS. Slang (cont) (p.156)Student’s slang Student’s slang is very various:

to cram (to study diligently), a bear (a difficult college course), to cut (to miss class), a shotgun (an unexpected exam), to crib (to cheat during an exam), to flunk (to fail to pass an exam), a brain (a smart student), a clod (a stupid student), a bore (a dull lecture), a drag (a boring social evening) (E. Chaika, 1994).

1. What is a Functional style?2.Name the two types of Functional style.4.What are the three types of informal words? Define them and

give examples.5.What is understood by “a colloquialism”? Define and give

examples.6.What is understood by “a dialectal word”? Define and give

examples.7.What is cant? Define and give examples.8.What is jargon? Define and give examples.9.What is argot? Define and give examples.10.What is understood by “slang”? Define and give examples.11. In which spheres of communication is slang mostly used?12. Why is slang so popular in colloquial language?

Functional Styles: Formal FS. (pp. 156 – 157)

Formal words Formal words are typical of a formal style and are restricted to formal situations.

Formal words are associated with learned words: words of scientific prose, officialese, literary learned words and words of poetic diction; archaisms, obsolete words, neologisms and professionalisms (or terms).

Functional Styles: Formal FS. Learned Words (pp. 156 – 157)　　 Learned words Learned words are sometimes called bookish words bookish words

as they are quite often met in written speech.

Words of scientific prose Words of scientific prose are characterized by their dry and matter-of-fact connotations:

recant, postulate, compile, experimental, conclusive, etc. 　　

Functional Styles: Formal FS. Learned Words (pp. 156 – 157)

OfficialeseOfficialese are words of a bureaucratic and pedantic language:

to proceed (to go), to inquire (to ask), sufficient (enough), attired (dressed), to obtain (to get), etc.

Literary learned words Literary learned words are typical of fiction, they are described as refined words: to bechance, to felicitate, elusive, fascination, etc.

Words of poetic diction Words of poetic diction are used in poetry, obtain high-flown, sometimes archaic, connotations:

a clarion (an ancient trumpet), a brow (a forehead), to behold (to see), Alas!

Functional Styles: Formal FS. Learned Words (cont) (pp. 156 – 157)

Archaic words Archaic words are met in books, in written speech: they are rare in present usage:

betwixt (before), save (except), a woe (sorrow), hapless (unlucky), a damsel (a girl), nay (no), hau (you).

Obsolete words Obsolete words completely went out of use: anon (at once), to befall (to happen), etc.

Neologisms Neologisms are new words and expressions created for the purposes of naming new things and phenomena: antibiotic, feedback, nuclear fission.

They are borrowed from other languages or made according to the productive patterns of word formation:

affixation: de-icer, super-radar, electee, kitchenette, musicdom;

compounding: gold-digger, ghost-writter, a walk-up, walk-ins;

shortening and blending: telist (telegraphist), coke (coca-cola);

conversion: to garage, to force-land, etc. 　　

Terms (professionalisms) Terms (professionalisms) are used in a certain branch of sciences, art, technology

e.g., in Linguistics – bilingual, allophones, palatalization, componential analysis, hyponymy, synonyms, etc.

Functional Styles:Basic Vocabulary (p. 158)　 Basic vocabulary Basic vocabulary or Standard English Standard English opposes to

Informal and Formal vocabulary. It is used and understood by a majority of people under any circumstances or degree of formality, regardless of profession, educational level, social group, geographical location:

a table, to go, beautiful, up, down, etc.

1. What is meant by “formal words”?2. What are the two types of learned words?3. What is understood by “a literary learned word”? Define

and give examples.4. What is meant by officialese? Define and give examples.5. What is meant by words of poetic diction? Define and give

examples 6. What is “an archaic word”? Define and give examples.7. What kinds of words are called neologisms? Define and

give examples.8. Name the ways of formation of new words in Modern

English? 9. What is understood by Basic Vocabulary?10. Comment on the correlations of words of various

Functional styles and their emotional coloring.

Functional Styles:Stylistic Means of the Vocabulary (pp. 158 – 161)

The use of the functional styles is characterized by the choice of language means choice of language means suitable for a specific situation of communication.

All the stylistic devices, characteristic of the Functional styles, are organized on several levels:

a level of morphemes – morphological expressive morphological expressive means, means,

a level of words – lexical stylistic deviceslexical stylistic devices, a level of sentences – syntactic expressive meanssyntactic expressive means.

Functional Styles:Morphological Expressive Means (p. 159) Morphological expressive means are used in

the English language to depict pronunciation peculiarities introduced in writing by specific individual features. They fall into 2 types: phonetic expressive means and graphical expressive means.

Morphological expressive means Morphological expressive means fall into 2 types: phonetic phonetic expressive means and graphical graphical expressive means.

Functional Styles:Morphological Expressive Means (p. 159)Phonetic expressive means Phonetic expressive means deal with sound forms

found in poetry:

1. onomatopoeia1. onomatopoeia - - the use of words, to imitate sounds of animals, objects or actions: hiss, bowwow, bump, sizzle: …she came down the stairs and shooed me away;

2. alliteration alliteration is a repetition of consonants: From a cheap and chirpy chopper on a big black block [ch,p,b, k];

3. assonanceassonance is a repetition of similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables: ...Sylken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain [ə:].

Alliteration and assonance may produce two opposite senses in pronouncing or hearing –

euphony (the sense of ease and comfort) and cacophony (a sense of strain and discomfort).

Functional Styles:Morphological Expressive Means (cont)

Graphical expressive means Graphical expressive means convey in writing people’s emotions expressed by intonation and stress:

1. graphongraphon is the intentional violation of the graphical representation of a word: gonna (going to); Sooper Class Model; Knee-hi; NRG (energy);

2. italicsitalics,, multiplication, capitalization multiplication, capitalization of a word: Allll aboarrrrrd! Help. Help. HELP;

3. morphemic repetitionmorphemic repetition: She unchained, unbolted and unlocked the door;

4. occasional wordsoccasional words: I am an undersecretary in an underbureau.

Functional Styles:Lexical Stylistic Devices (pp. 159 – 160)

Lexical Stylistic devices are called tropes tropes and make speech colorful and bright. Among tropes we find the following lexico-stylistic devices:MetaphorMetaphor:: I found three splendid moons on

the plate (pancakes)SimileSimile – comparison of different objects in the

structures that contain words “like” and “as”: His skin was tight as a drum. She acted like a dog around him.

MetonymyMetonymy:: She was a pale eighteen;

Epithet Epithet expresses a bright, unexpected, characteristic s of an object: She gave him a you-know-how-dirty-men-are look; an I-and-thou relationship to God.

IronyIrony is created by words with contextual meanings directly opposite to dictionary meanings: She returned the sweet smile of an alligator;

Pun Pun is misinterpretation of a group of words in a sentence: Have you seen any spirits, or taken any? (“supernatural forces” and “ strong drinks”);

Hyperbole Hyperbole (exaggerationexaggeration) is emphasis achieved through overstatement: My vegetable love should grow faster than empires;

Understatement (opposite to hyperbole) – when the quality of an object or phenomenon is underrated: I am not that smart to make a decision;

PeriphrasisPeriphrasis (euphemismseuphemisms/ disphemismsdisphemisms) - a roundabout way to express an idea: Sometimes the unbelievable happens.

Functional Styles:Lexical Stylistic Devices (cont) (pp. 159 – 160)

AntonomasiaAntonomasia - - a proper name is used instead of a common noun, or vice versa: Dr Clean Hands appeared in front of us;

Zeugma Zeugma is the use of words that are not connected semantically: She went home in a flood of tears and a silver Nissan. In 1578 he set sail with a group of colonists and Queen Elizabeth’s blessing;

False chainFalse chain (a variation of zeugma) - a number of semantically disconnected objects are attached to the same verb: the room was furnished with tulips, foreigners and French novels;

Functional Styles:Lexical Stylistic Devices (cont) (pp. 159 – 160)

OxymoronOxymoron joins two antonymous words: pretty ugly, awfully beautiful, loving hate;

AllusionAllusion – use of words that make the reader think about some historical events, literature, mythology, etc.: The car had the wings of Mercury I thought

Functional Styles:Syntactic Expressive means (p. 160)

Syntactic stylistic devices make speech emphatic by means of a specific syntactic arrangement of an utterance:

1.1. AntithesisAntithesis - juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in parallel constructions: “This pot is cracked. Look!” – “It isn’t cracked,” I said.

2. InversionInversion - when the predicate precedes the subject, or the object precedes the subject-predicate unity: ...in came Beryl, out bounded Elizabeth after me…

3. EllipsisEllipsis - omission of one or more members of a sentence: In manner, close and dry. In voice, husky and low.

4. DetachmentDetachment - singling out one of the secondary members of the sentence: She was crazy about you. In the beginning.

Functional Styles:Syntactic Expressive means (p. 160)

Repetition Repetition may be of several types:1) ) anaphoraanaphora - - the beginning of a sentence is repeated:...good-bye,

Lily, good-bye love, good-bye silly dreams; 2) epiphora epiphora - - the end of a sentence is repeated: I wake up and I am

alone, I talk with people and I am alone...;3) framingframing – the beginning of a sentence is repeated at the end: She

must leave. Today, now, immediately...Yes, she must leave;4) anadiplosisanadiplosis (catch repetition) – the end of one clause is repeated

in the beginning of the following one: Now he understood. He understood many things...;

5) chain repetitionchain repetition (several anadiplosis (several anadiplosis): Failure meant poverty, poverty meant squalor, squalor meant destruction;

6) successive repetitionsuccessive repetition - - closely following repeated units: She felt sure. Sure. Sure.

7) simple repetition - simple repetition - repetition without specific order of arrangement of words : I watched him walk away with sickness in my heart - though it was a pleasing sickness.

Functional Styles:Syntactic Expressive means (cont) (p. 160)1.1. ParallelismParallelism - similar arrangement of word combinations,

phrases and even sentences: On the chair sat an old woman, on the table sat a younger one.

2. PolysyndetonPolysyndeton is a repeated use of conjunctions: He was wifed in Texas and mother-in-lawed, and uncled, and aunted, and cousined...

3. AsyndetonAsyndeton is an omission of conjunctions: Her face blushed, paled, vanished...

4. Rhetorical questions hetorical questions are questions without expecting any answer: Why? Why? Who could ever give a clear answer?

5. Violation of phraseological units – any change of a structure and meanings of words that revives and makes the expression fresh and original: …always seeing the tunnel at the end of the light (G.W. Bush);

6. Litotes is a two-element structure in which 2 negative constructions are used for positive evaluation: Her face was not unpretty.

Functional Styles: PracticalPick out and analyze stylistic devices in the following sentences:

1. I really don’t see anything romantic in proposing. It is very romantic to be in love. But there is nothing romantic about a definite proposal (O. Wilder).

2. …beautifully preserved and written in an impeccably neat penmanship – crimson ink on cream paper -…

3. …and that the greatest story ever told is, in fact, the greatest story ever sold?

4. They were astonishingly stupid (J.K. Rowling).5. Eyes streaming, he swayed, trying to focus on the street to spot the

source of the noise.6. “I love you mucher”.“Plenty mucher? Me tooer”.7. He swallowed the hint with a gulp and a gasp and a grin. 8. We can’t say much about you-know-what, obviously… (J.K.Rowling)

Functional Styles: Practical (cont)9. All shortcuts have disappeared. Screen. Mind. Both are blank.10. And yet – and yet – what less could I do? I’ll tell you my story,

gentlemen, and then I’ll ask you, as man to man, what less could I do? (A.C.Doyle)

11. A real grooming guru of the class.12. Follow our advice: Drink Pinta Milka Day.13. She unchained, unbolted and unlocked the door.14. Laughing, crying, cheering, chaffing, singing, David Rossi’s

people brought him home.15. He was the culture vulture of the family. 16. “Put – it – away!” uncle Vernon snarled into Harry’s ear.

“Now! Before – anyone – sees!” – “Get – off – me!” Harry gasped.

17. In 1578 Humphry Gilbert set gait with a group of colonists and Queen Elizabeth’s blessings.

Questions and Assignments 1. Characterize Morphological means of the

Vocabulary. Define and give examples.2. Characterize Lexical Stylistic devices of the

English Vocabulary. Define and give examples.3. Characterize Syntactical Expressive means of

the English Vocabulary. Define and give examples.

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