introduction liberalism seeks to promote individual liberty by trying to guarantee equality of...
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IntroductionLiberalism seeks to promote individual liberty by
trying to guarantee equality of opportunity within a tolerant society Hallmark of liberalism is promotion of individual liberty Liberals disagree over what exactly liberty is and how
to best promote it
Human nature: Human beings are fundamentally rational Self-interest is primary motivation Humans are naturally competitive
Liberals consider the individual to be the best judge of her or his own interests
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Liberalism, Human Nature, and Freedom
Some conception of human nature provides the underpinnings for every political ideology. For liberalism, human beings are typically rational,
self-interested, and competitive, making them capable of living freely
Liberals want to promote the freedom not of a particular group or class of people but of each person as an individual
The individual must be free to decide for himself and herself what goals to pursue in life
Each person ought to be free to live as he or she sees fit — as long as the person does not choose to interfere with others’ freedom to live as they see fit Everyone should have an equal opportunity to succeed
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The Liberal View of Freedom
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3
Agent:the
individual
Obstacle:Laws,
customs, or conditions that block individual
choice
Goal:to live as
one chooses
The Origins of LiberalismReaction against medieval concepts of
“ascribed status” and “religious conformity” Ascribed status: notion that one’s social status is
fixed and determined by birthUnder feudalism, society was divided along class
lines into nobles and commoners Religious conformity: the Church encouraged
Kings and other secular authorities to enforce religious obedienceLuther emphasized freedom of conscience in the
Protestant Reformation (1521) This challenged the supremacy of the church and
led to a profusion of protestant sects
4
Thomas HobbesHobbes’s Leviathan (1651) was the first work of
political philosophy to be considered liberal
Hobbes imagines a state of nature in which all individuals are free with no authority over them These individuals have a natural right to do as
they wish “Restless desire for power” is a product of human
nature that turns the state of nature into a state of war
Rational individuals form a social contract to establish a political authority to provide security
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John LockeLike Hobbes, Locke sought to establish a basis for
political authority by starting with the state of nature: Individuals are naturally equal and free with natural
rights to life, liberty, and property Individuals form a social contract to establish a
political society to protect their natural rights
Limited government and the right of revolution Governmental authority is only legitimate when it
secures natural rights If the government violates these rights, the people
have a right to overthrow the governmentNo such right exists in Hobbes’s political society
6
The American Revolution American Revolutionaries used Locke’s theory of
natural rights to justify the overthrow of British rule Thomas Paine argued that government is a necessary
evil that exists mainly to protect our natural rights
The Declaration of Independence has two distinctively liberal positions:1. “all men are created equal” – mirrors the state of
natural equality presented by Hobbes and Locke
2. Defense of rights and liberties of individuals against government
echoes the arguments of Locke and Paine that governments exist to protect individual rights
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The French Revolution Enlightenment thinkers in France began to
challenge the three leading features of the ancien régime (old order):
1. Religious conformity – Catholicism2. Aristocratic privilege – hereditary aristocracy3. Political absolutism – king is above the law
French Revolutionaries originally set out to establish a limited government to protect the rights of citizens The revolution became increasingly radical Demands for greater democracy superseded
property rights 17,000 suspected enemies of the Republic were
guillotined during the “reign of terror” (June 1793-July 1794)
French republic abolished by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799
8
Liberalism and Capitalism, I
17th and 18th century liberals began to focus on economic liberties, particularly important to the middle class, or, bourgeoisie.
Prevailing economic theory was mercantilism – economic policy is meant to promote national interests at the expense of individual liberty Zero-sum game: one country can improve its economic
strength only at the expense of another country Resulted in colonization, high tariffs, and government supported
monopolies in certain sectors of the economy Economic opportunities of the middle class were limited
Acquisition of wealth was primary means of social advancement Mercantilism favored elites who were able to secure government
privileges Middle class began to push for more equal opportunity in
competition 9Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Liberalism and Capitalism, II Capitalism – economic exchanges are private matters
between individuals pursuing profits Christian and republican traditions did not place great
value on either privacy or profits
Early capitalist theorists: Bernard Mandeville (1670-1733) – The Fable of the
Bees: Private Vices, Publick Benefits (1714) The best way to promote the good of society as a whole is
to let people pursue their private interests Physiocrats – French thinkers who argued that wealth is
best cultivated by unrestricted free enterprise Laissez faire, laissez passer – “let it be, leave it alone”
Adam Smith (1723-90) – An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
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Adam Smith’s Invisible Hand
• Government should have little to do with economic exchanges
• Restraints on economic competition led to higher prices and scarcer goods
• Governments should also eliminate trade barriers on foreign imports because free trade benefits consumers
• An “invisible hand” directs the private interests of individuals toward the common interest of society
• Three functions of government: • National defense, protection of property rights, and provision of “public works”
11
Liberalism in the 19th Century
From France to South America, liberalism in the early 1800s remained a revolutionary force Wars of Liberation in the Spanish Colonies Creation of the Napoleonic Code Abolition of Serfdom in Prussia
In Britain, the Industrial Revolution made England the world’s first great industrial power “The workshop of the world” Increased social division along class lines; the
working class labored under extremely harsh and insecure conditions
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Utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham attempted to make society and its
legal institutions more rational Principle of “utility” – humans naturally seek pleasure
and avoid pain Government should use this insight to promote “the
greatest happiness for the greatest number”
John Stuart Mill built upon Bentham’s utilitarianism to defend and extend individual liberty Stressed the “educative theory of democracy”
rather than the “protectionist theory” of democracy Like Tocqueville, Mill thought democracy was
susceptible to “the tyranny of the majority”
13
Mill on the Limits of Government
The harm principle – all sane adults should be free to do as they choose as long as their actions do not harm or threaten harm to others Establishes the only legitimate purpose for the use of
government power over its citizens Mill defended this principle by appealing to utility
Freedom promotes “the permanent interests of man as a progressive being”
Mill does NOT appeal to natural rights as early liberals had
Mill stressed the importance of freedom of thought Progress depends on the right of “nonconformists” to
express their views without censorship by the majority
14
Liberalism DividedNeoclassical liberals
believe that government should be limited to protection against force and fraud
Social Darwinists argued that the struggle for survival was a natural phenomenon
Government should be a “nightwatchman”
Welfare liberals believe government can be a positive force to ensure equal opportunity
T.H. Green (1836-82) drew a distinction between positive and negative freedom Negative freedom:
absence of restraint Positive freedom:
freedom to do something
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Liberalism in the 20th century
John Rawls (1921-2002) defends the modern welfare state by reverting back to social contract theory Justice requires an equal distribution of wealth as a
starting point
Robert Nozick (1938-2002) draws on the idea of the state of nature to support the protection of individual rights Libertarianism - only the “minimal state” is legitimate
because it does not violate property rights
Murray Rothbard (1926-95) and libertarian anarchists advocate abolition of the state Individuals are free and private enterprise replaces
government services
16
The Libertarian VisionFor libertarians, government is necessary to
secure and order society But it should be a government that does little or
nothing more than protect people against threats to their property and safety.
Deregulation – phasing out of government regulations
Libertarians envision a market-driven society in which formerly public services would be bought and sold in presumably competitive markets Advocates say that goods and services would be
delivered more cheaply, abundantly, and efficiently under competitive market conditions
Critics respond that competitive markets are open to the machinations of manipulators 17
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Liberalism TodayThree points distinguish today’s liberalism from
its past variants:1. Liberalism is no longer the revolutionary force it
once was—at least in the West2. Liberals remain divided among themselves3. Liberals are now wrestling with difficult problems
that stem from their commitments to individual liberty and equality of opportunity
• How far should individuals be able to go in exercising their freedom?
• How far should equal opportunity be promoted?
According to communitarian critics of liberalism, rights must be balanced by responsibilities Individuals may have rights against others, but
individuals must also recognize that they owe something to the community that enables them to exercise these rights
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Liberalism as an Ideology
1. Explanation: Social conditions are the result of individual choices
2. Evaluation: Best conditions are those in which individuals have
equal opportunity to freely choose for themselves how to best succeed
3. Orientation: People are rational, self-interested individuals who want
the freedom to choose how to live
4. Program: Oppose religious conformity, ascribed status, economic
privileges, political absolutism, and tyranny of the majority
Neoclassical and welfare liberals disagree on how best to secure equal opportunity
19
Conclusion: Liberalismand Democracy
Liberals favor democracy for its ability to protect individual rights and liberties Based on the premise of equality among humans Voting as a way to protect individual liberties Enables citizens to hold government accountable State should be neutral to the pursuit of private
goods
Liberal democracy is meant to protect individuals from outside interference in private matters Political participation is valuable, but secondary
to the primary concern of protecting the private affairs of individuals 20
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Readings:Part III: Liberalism Thomas Hobbes—The State of
Nature and the Basis of Obligation
John Locke—Toleration and Government
Thomas Paine—Government, Rights, and the Freedom of Generations
Declaration of Independence of the United States
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of Citizens
Adam Smith—Private Profit, Public Good
Immanuel Kant—Freedom and Enlightenment
John Stuart Mill—Liberty and Individuality
William Graham Sumner—According to the Fitness of Things
T. H. Green—Liberalism and Positive Freedom
Franklin Delano Roosevelt – New Deal Liberalism: A Defense
Barack Obama — Speech at Osawatomie, Kansas
Donald Allen—Paternalism vs. Democracy: A Libertarian View
Murray Rothbard—Libertarian Anarchism
Terence Ball—A Libertarian Utopia21
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