instrumentos & música na antroposofia
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Musical Instruments in
Anthroposophical Music Therapy with
Reference to Rudolf Steiners Model ofthe Threefold Human Being
By Andrea Intveen
Introduction
Musical instruments have distinct purposes and functions in anthroposophical music
therapy. This article describes how the anthroposophical music therapy literature has
defined the use of traditional as well as distinctly anthroposophical instruments, such asthe lyre and chrotta. For reasons of brevity, forged metal instruments are omitted, such
as iron- or copper-glocenspiel, copper chimes, or hand bells made of brass !see also
http"##www.therapeutium-lin$.at%.
My motivation to write this article has arisen from the topic of my current &h' study,
which deals with anthroposophical music therapy. In a way I am writing this from an
outsider(s perspective, although I have lived and wored in various Irish )amphill
communities for several years and wored alongside anthroposophical music therapists.
*owever, my own bacground as a person and as a music therapist is not
anthroposophical. I +ualified through the MA course at the Irish ord Music )entre
!now called the Irish orld Academy of Music and 'ance% at the niversity ofimeric, Ireland. /riginally from 0ermany, I have noticed that anthroposophy 1
including aldorf schools and music therapy approaches 1 is somewhat more
established in 0ermany and other places on the continent, such as the 2etherlands and
3wit$erland, than in some of the 4nglish-speaing countries5 particularly Ireland, where
I lived for more than twelve years.
This article will contribute to maing the approach a little bit more nown in Irish and
other 4nglish-speaing music therapy conte6ts. ith my particular 7outside-in7-
approach I am hoping to contribute to the clarification of some possible misconceptions
about anthroposophical music therapy 1 one of them being the idea that
anthroposophical music therapy is closely related to the 2ordoff#8obbins approach 1and to show that anthroposophical music therapy approaches may have to offer
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something to so called 7mainstream7 music therapy approaches. For although I have
neither adopted anthroposophy for my own personal life-style nor for my music therapy
practice, I still feel that those years of woring alongside two anthroposophical music
therapists have positively influenced my own music therapy wor to some degree.
Most of the literature sourced for this paper is written in 0erman. Therefore, I havetaen the liberty to translate the passages that are used here to the best of my
nowledge. This has brought up some issues in +uoting from these sources. 3ince some
of them, especially 3usanne 8einhold(s boo published in 9::; have not been officially
translated into 4nglish, I felt that sometimes I could not use my own 4nglish
translations as direct +uotations 1 so this is why inverted commas and page numbers
were not inserted. *owever, in some cases my translations were so close to the 0erman
original that I felt I had to use inverted commas and page numbers when +uoting.
*opefully readers will not be confused by this.
What is Anthroposophy?
hen discussing the topic of musical instruments in this conte6t, it is necessary to
e6plain some of 3teiner(s views of the human being, as well as some of the basic ideas
of anthroposophical music therapy. It is challenging to describe anthroposophy briefly,
since it is a very comple6 topic or set of topics, and naturally, this attempt at a definition
is far from being comprehensive. A brief description is given here, in the hope that it
may suffice for the understanding of the sub
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'ornach, 3wit$erland, is one of the most important anthroposophical centres in the
world.
hat I have found most striing in my own encounters with anthroposophists and
anthroposophical music therapists is the struggle with our so-called (materialistic( values
and its curses or blessings !depending from what angle one loos at it% and thesometimes ama$ing endeavours to overcome materialism and give life a sense beyond
it.
The Threefold Human Being
3teiner(s model of the threefold human being is vital for the understanding of the role
musical instruments and instrument choice play in anthroposophical music therapy.
*owever, 3teiner also proposed a model of the fourfold human being with the physical
body, ether body, astral body and ego !3teiner 9:C>5 Felber, 8einhold und 3tDcert,
=>>E5 3teiner, =>>%. This article focuses on 3teiner(s model of the threefold human
being and its implications for music therapy, but the model of the fourfold human beingcould be referenced to further study the use of instruments in anthroposophical
approaches.
From an anthroposophical point of view, the human being has three different parts" 7the
head system, the chest system and the digestive system with the limbs7 !3teiner =>>, p.
EC%. Therefore, the human being can be seen from three different perspectives, namely
as 7head man, trun man and limb man79G!3teiner =>>, p.9:%. *owever, these three
systems don(t have fi6ed boundaries, they are connected" 7In the head we are principally
head, but the whole human being is head, only what is outside the head is not
principally head. For though the actual sense organs are in the head, we have the senseof touch and the sense of warmth over the whole body7 !3teiner, =>>, p. EC%. The same
would be true for the chest and limbs !ibid%.
hen looing at the human being in accordance with this model of the threefold human
being, one finds a polarity between the head and the limb system, the upper and lower
human being !Felber, 8einhold H 3tDcert =>>E%. The middle human being, which
manifests in the chest or trun part of the human body, is the meeting place of these two
polarities !Felber et al., =>>E%. The upper human being 1 with the head as its main
manifestation 1 is seen as an e6pression of the world of ideas and sense perceptions on
the physical basis of nerve substance !Felber et al., =>>E%. It is also described as a
calming influence !Felber et al., =>>E%. The lower human being finds a physicalmanifestation in the limbs and in the metabolism !Felber et al., =>>E%. Its tas is one of
movement and activity !ibid%. The middle human being physically manifests in
breathing and heartbeat !ibid%. It is also called the (rhythmic system( !Felber et al., =>>E,
p. E9% and has the function of mediating between the head and the limb system !Felber
et al., =>>E%. In the middle human being, the current state of wellbeing of a person
shows especially !Felber et al., =>>E%. This can show in certain phenomena, such as
7accelerated heartbeat, laboured breathing, sighing7, etc. !Felber et al., =>>E, p. E9%.
The three above mentioned different parts of the human being are also respectively
connected to three different soul activities" thining, feeling and willing. The head is
connected to thining and 7brings to rest7 in the human being 7what the limbs performin the world by way of movement7 !3teiner =>>, p.9%. ower man with the
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metabolic system 7is of a will nature7 !3teiner, =>>, p. @%. In this conte6t, will is also
described as 7our will for action7 !3teiner, =>>, p. E9%. The breast or middle system is
the carrier of our feelings !Felber et al., =>>E%, stands between the upper and lower man
and 7mediates between the movement of the outer world and what the head brings into
rest7 !3teiner, =>>, p. 9%. *owever, lie the three different systems, also the three
soul activities can not be completely divided and are partly interwoven !3teiner, =>>%.In this way, 7everything in man is partly of a nowing nature, partly of a feeling nature
and partly of a willing nature. The nowing is principally nowing, but also of a feeling
and willing nature5 the feeling is principally feeling, but also of a nowing and willing
nature" and the same is true of willing7 !3teiner, =>>, p. 99@%. For e6ample, when
willing is permeated by feeling, the result can be that an action is performed with
enthusiasm and love !3teiner =>>%.
The three soul activities are also connected to different states of consciousness. In
thining, the full consciousness is involved !3teiner, =>>%. This is not the case with
willing, where full consciousness is only involved with the 7mental picture7 of
activities, such as waling !3teiner =>>, p. ?@%. sually, one is not aware of all thephysical processes involved with these more will-centred activities !ibid%, so that 7there
is always something deeply unconscious present in the activity7 !3teiner, =>>, p.?;%.
Feeling also has conscious and unconscious parts !3teiner, =>>%. The consciousness in
our feeling is 7midway between waing and sleeping7, similar to dreaming. !3teiner,
=>>, p. ??%. The real 7waing consciousness7 is only present in thining !3teiner =>>,
p. ?C%. Following this idea the human being is awae in the activity of thining,
sleeping in willing and dreaming in feeling !3teiner, =>>%.
3ense impressions are supposed to be chiefly of a willing nature, while a certain
element of feeling comes into it as well. !3teiner, =>>%
The Model of the Threefold Human Being Applied to Music
The Model in onnection With Musical !lements
3usanne 8einhold described how 3teiner(s model of the threefold human being
correlates to musical elements. From an anthroposophical point of view, human feeling
is the bridge between the human ego=G and organism !8einhold, 9::;%. The human
capacity of feeling has a central role in the perception of music, as music addresses the
feeling !8einhold, 9::;%. The latter is being enhanced through music, which can be
observed in the facial e6pressions of people who are listening to or playing music!8einhold, 9::;%. For e6ample, we can be deeply touched by a lament, not because we
are en
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The rhythm 1 for e6ample of a song 1 is closely connected to movement and dance, as
we can e6perience when we are clapping or waling rhythmically !8einhold, 9::;%. In
contrast to this, movement would disturb our focus when we are concentrating on the
line of a melody !8einhold 9::;%. *armony lies in between melody and rhythm, and
connects them !8einhold, 9::;%. hile the maE%. 3ound production is lined to
the breath and movement of the limbs is minimal in the process of playing !ibid%. ind
instruments are connected especially to the melody element in music and correspond to
the soul activity of thining !8einhold in Felber et al., =>>E%. As opposed to this,playing percussion instruments is intrinsically connected to the movement of the limbs.
The original lin between the percussive element in music and dance is still observable
!ibid%. *ere, the close connection to the soul activity of willing, and therewith to the
lower human being, is +uite obvious. /n the other hand, the playing style of stringed
instruments suggests a balancing out of the thining and will activities, as is typical for
the middle human being with its connection to the soul activity of feeling !ibid%. The
playing style of most stringed instruments is a mi6ture of 7breath-lie7 !8einhold in
Felber et al., =>>E, p. C% playing, which e6presses itself in holding a long note 1 as is
applicable for bowed stringed instruments 1 and percussive playing, which shows in the
activity of plucing strings !8einhold in Felber et al. =>>E%. /f course, it is generally
nown that especially some of the pluced instruments, such as guitar, lyre, lute, etc.,relate to the musical elements of both melody and harmony, in so far as both melodies
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and harmonies are played with these instruments !surely, one could say that this is also
true for the piano%. 8einhold pointed out that the connection of some stringed
instruments to the middle human being, which 1 for e6ample 1 manifests in heartbeat
and breathing 1 even shows in the way they are held while being played !8einhold in
Felber et al., =>>E%. This is especially true for the lyre, children(s harp and antele,
which are held near the heart in the chest area !ibid%. At the same time, the movementwhile playing stringed instruments, e.g. when bowing or gripping and releasing a string,
bears a resemblance to the breathing process. This is especially prominent in playing the
tenor chrotta !8einhold in Felber et al., =>>E%.
Illness and "isease oncept in Anthroposophy
The disease concept found in anthroposophical medicine is vitally important in
anthroposophical music therapy !Bissegger, =>>9%. /ne of the basic ideas in
anthroposophical medicine is that in each organ there are two main processes at wor"
building up of forces and decay !Bissegger =>>9%. The e+uilibrium between building up
and decay is different in each organ or organ system !ibid%. For e6ample, in the nervoussystem there is mainly decay, while in the metabolic and limb system forces are chiefly
being built up !Bissegger, =>>9%. But when the natural e+uilibrium is disturbed, illness
emerges !Bissegger, =>>9%. Too much decay can cause sclerosis and hardening of
forces, while too much building up of forces is connected to inflammation and
disintegration !Bissegger, =>>95 8einhold, 9::;%.
From an anthroposophical point of view, every disease manifests in one-sidedness, for
e6ample through the dominance of one polarity of forces or the displacement of forces
!8einhold, 9::;%. This applies both to physical and psychosomatic or psychiatric
illnesses. Illness can also emerge when healthy steps of development occur too early ortoo late !8einhold, 9::;%. For e6ample, when ossification of the seleton occurs too
early, growth can be impaired. 'elayed onset of speech or motor sills can be a sign of
a developmental disorder in children !8einhold, 9::;%.
Another cause for the development of illness is 7the occurrence of processes, which are
healthy in one organ, in the wrong organ or to the wrong e6tent7 !8einhold, 9::;, p.
=>%. 8einhold +uoted the e6ample of 7cold7 illnesses !8einhold 9::;, p. =>%, in which
the dominating calmness of the nerve-sense system leads to congealment in parts of the
body where it shouldn(t be happening. An e6ample given for this type of illness is
&arinson(s 'isease !ibid%.
In such pathological processes the rhythmic system, especially the breathing system, has
the tas of balancing out these different inds of one-sidedness !8einhold, 9::;%. The
affinity in structure between music and the human being opens up the possibility to
apply musical elements systematically in treating pathological imbalances in the human
constitution !8einhold, 9::;%.
The Instruments from an Anthroposophical #oint of $iew
Musical instruments are 1 of course 1 closely connected to hearing. *earing in an
anthroposophical sense 1 at least when it comes to music 1 is always connected to an
inner, spiritual e6perience !8einhold in Felber et al., =>>E%. In this conte6t, musicalinstruments can help to build a bridge to this inner, spiritual e6perience of music !ibid%.
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In this process, the whole human being is involved in the hearing process !ibid%. hat is
specific about the different musical instruments is the fact that the way they sound, their
timbre, is connected to the materials they are made from !8einhold in Felber et al.,
=>>E%. /ther authors, such as 8uland, pointed out the connection between different
musical instruments and 7physical sound7, 7utterance7 or 7musical tone7 !8uland, 9::=,
p. @%.
3teiner looed at the aspect of spirituality in music 1 and its e6pression in the
instruments 1 from yet another angle. *e claimed that musical instruments are created
out of the world of imagination and have not been invented through (trial and error(
!3teiner 9:?>, p. =E%. *e thought that where musical instruments are sounding
nowadays, spiritual beings used to be in the past !3teiner, 9:?>%. 3teiner compared the
orchestra to the human organism !3teiner 9:?>%, but e6cluded the piano from it, as he
felt that it had been created rather from abstract ideas than out of spiritual imagination
!ibid%.
In terms of the human organism, 8einhold interpreted musical instruments as ane6tension of the same !8einhold, 9::;%. From this point of view, only the total of all
musical instruments represents the human being as a whole !8einhold 9::;%. In this
thought model, tying in with 3teiner(s ideas, music is regarded as a 7sounding organism7
!7tJnenden /rganismus7% !8einhold in Felber et al., =>>E, p. @%. *ence it is considered
important for therapeutic application, to be aware of how the different groups of
instruments correspond to the parts of the human organism !8einhold, 9::;%. In fact,
8einhold pointed out that even the shape of some musical instruments compares to the
shape of parts of the human body !8einhold in Felber et al., =>>E%. As an e6ample, the
author compared the strings of a harp or lyre with the human nervous system !ibid%.
This idea was also elaborated by Friedrich /berogler !/berogler, 9:C;%. Both authors
described the lyre as a representation of the Apollonian principle in music !8einhold in
Felber et al. =>>E%, as compared to the 'ionysian principle, which is represented by
some of the wind instruments !mostly reed instruments, such as the oboe% whose
archetype is found in the 0ree 7Aulos7 !/berogler, 9:C;, pp. 9C-=E%. The Apollonian
principle represents an e6perience of the divine, which goes beyond the boundaries of
the self into the macrocosm, a more outward going path, while the 'ionysian principle
builds on a more mystical, inward-leading e6perience, which is connected to the
microcosm !/berogler, 9:C;%.
/ne of the results of the train of thought that involves the analogies between
instruments and human body is the idea that musical instruments can be usedtherapeutically to regulate pathological processes in the human being !8einhold in
Felber et al., =>>E%.
Instruments Traditionally %sed in Music Therapy
The Human $oice
For 3teiner, in earlier periods of human history, singing was an e6pression of the
spiritual world" 7&eople sang, but their singing was their way of speaing about the
spiritual world. They new that if they spoe of cherries and grapes they needed earthly
words, but that if they spoe about the gods they would have to sing7 !3teiner, 9:C>,p.9E%.
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*e observed that later there came a time when this ind of imagination was lost and
singing became an e6pression of worldly words rather than an e6pression of contents of
the spiritual world !3teiner, 9:?>%. This was a step into the physical world !ibid%. A
further step is the emancipation of singing, as can be found in arias etc. !3teiner, 9:C>5
9:?>%.
8einhold pointed out that the first instrument we ever produce a tone on is our own
voice !8einhold, 9::;%. hen e6haling, we are 7sounding out into the world7
!8einhold, 9::;, p. ==%. At the same time 7our whole body resounds and is uplifted and
invigorated7 !ibid%. hile all sound production happens during e6halation the inhalation
strives to be 7effortless, short and unnoticed7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. ==%.
8uland remared that the human voice 7is un+uestionably the most prominent
instrument of ensouled utterance7 !8uland, 9::=, p. @%, which may be the reason why
there is more tolerance in the listener in terms of intonation !8uland 9::=, p. @%, which
has been proven with electronic measurements !8uland 9::=, p. @%. The author stressed
that 73inging that achieves the right e6pressive utterance, but lacs absolutely pureintonation, is preferable by far to a soulless singing with perfect intonation7 !8uland,
9::=, p. @%.
It would be beyond the scope of this paper to describe the use of the voice in
anthroposophical music therapy 1 which would certainly deserve a separate paper.
*owever, interested readers are advised to peruse the relevant literature, such as
erbec-3vKrdstrJm !=>>=%.
Wind Instruments
The first musical instrument outside of the human organism to tie in with the stream of
e6halation used in singing is the wind instrument !8einhold, 9::;%. *ere, the sound
production moves away from the laryn6 !ibid% and to the outer parts of the airway" with
the reed instruments sound is produced inside the oral cavity, with the brass and
transverse flutes between the lips and the mouthpiece, with the recorders and another
type of flute called 72aturtonfloete7 in 0erman !8einhold, 9::;, p. ==%EGthe sound is
produced in the mouth piece of the flute !8einhold 9::;%. 7The instrument itself is the
enclosure of the air7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. ==% that is sounding by means of e6halation.
The instrument provides the sound with direction, timbre and pitch. The latter starts off
with the human pitch range and e6tends upwards and downwards 7into a height and
depth une+ualled by the human voice7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. ==%.
From the point of view of 8uland(s idea involving physical sound, utterance or musical
tone, wind instruments are closer to the 7soul-utterance aspect7 !8uland, 9::=, p. @% and
7intonation is left much more to the personal e6pression of the player7 !8uland 9::=, p.
@%.
Stringed Instruments
Bowed Stringed Instruments
ith the stringed instruments the sound production becomes independent from thehuman breath !8einhold, 9::;% and what 7used to be a breathing activity is now outside
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the human body and is taen on by the arm movement, which leads the bow across the
strings7 !8einhold 9::;, pp. ==-=E%. 3ound is now produced between the bow and the
strings !8einhold 9::;%. ith the bow stroe the player has the ability to produce long
held tones. This is what bowing has in common with blowing and singing !8einhold,
9::;%. 8einhold compared the two different directions of the bow stroe, the upward
and downward stroe, with breathing in and out !8einhold, 9::;%. 3he thereforeclaimed that string instruments are instruments relating to the middle human being and
the breathing system and 7that no other instrument can balance the breathing in and out
in such a profound way7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. =E%.
According to 8uland, the 7bowed stringed instruments tae a middle position between
the wind instruments and the instruments related to the harp7 !8uland, 9::=, p. @%. The
tone produced on a bowed stringed instrument reaches a balance between soul +uality
and spiritual tone +uality !8uland 9::=%.
#luc&ed Stringed Instruments
In anthroposophical terms, pluced instruments also relate to the middle system of the
human being !8einhold, 9::;%.
According to 8uland, the harp-lie, pluced stringed instruments, such as harp, lyre,
$ither, harpsichord or piano are furthest away from the timbre-oriented aspects of
physical sound, and closest to the spiritual reality of musical tone !8uland, 9::=%. The
latter was also described by 8uland as the 7numerical-harmonic order7 !8uland 9::=, p.
@% or the 7creative *armony of the 3pheres7 !8uland 9::=, p. @%, following the
&ythagorean idea of the e6istence of a music of spheres !7musica mundana7, 8uland,
9::=, p. %. This idea postulates that the music of spheres is 7the music in which lives
the spirit that created and ordered the universe, right down to the very chemicalstructure of the smallest material ob
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tones have a fi6ed pitch, the organ also has characteristics of the harp family. It
therefore demands the greatest purity of intonation7 !8uland, 9::=, p. ;%. By liberating
the wind instrument from the breath the organ 7ob
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Tuned percussion instruments, such as the timpani, demand of the player 7to e6perience
the drumbeats physically and to be penetrated by their power and rhythm7 !8einhold,
9::;, p. E;%. Therapeutically, this is meant to have a toning, will-enhancing and
warming effect !8einhold, 9::;%.
Instruments Specific to Anthroposophical Music Therapy
Wind Instruments
The opper )lute and the horoi )lute
7A soft timbre in a wind instrument causes the air to stream out gently during blowing,
so that there is almost no resistance to the breath7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. =%. An
instrument that can provide such an e6perience is the copper flute. It doesn(t have any
holes for fingering, and 7even the softest breath brings about a gentle, low-pitched tone7
!8einhold, 9::;, p. =@%. The smallest increase in the strength of breathing produces the
nearest higher-pitched note on the overtone scale. In this way 7the copper flute educatesthe player towards a dynamic way of blowing and helps him or her to increase the
strength of his or her breathing very gradually7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. =@%. 8einhold found
that this instrument can be helpful in music therapy wor with patients who have been
bed-bound for a long time or who suffer from conditions, which affect e6halation, such
as bronchial asthma !8einhold, 9::;%.
The )horoiGflutes mae it possible 7to create finer nuances in the flow of breath, as
they have a very light, clear timbre that resembles a human singing voice7 !8einhold
9::;, p. =;%. They have a cylindrical shape and the wood they are made of is only
treated with oil !8einhold in Felber et al. =>>E%. )horoi flutes come in diatonic and
pentatonic tuning, and as interval flutes with only one hole. Fourths and fifths can be
played with the latter !ibid%.
)horoi flutes generally don(t possess the 7sharpness7@G that is sometimes annoying
about the timbre of a recorder !8einhold, 9::;, p. =;%. 8einhold stressed that the
7gently unfolding psyche of small children7 can be addressed with this instrument, as
well as youths and adults who are 7pathologically trying to avoid the earthly element7 1
such as patients with anore6ia. They are often able to connect inwardly to a sound of the
above-mentioned +uality !8einhold, 9::;, p. =;%.
The Renaissance )lute and the *+emshorn*
8enaissance flutes help to focus and strengthen the breath and the tenor and bass
instruments also involve lower pitches !8einhold, 9::;%. The (0emshorn( has a similar
effect 1 its soft and dar sound furthers a sensation of one(s body being penetrated with
warmth !8einhold 9::;%.
8einhold e6perienced in her music therapy practice that a lot of people complain about
shortness of breath when playing the recorder !8einhold, 9::;%, and her conclusion was
that 7a lot of people are actually rather e6periencing an e6cess of air, due to not being
able to use up enough air while blowing7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. =;%. 3he assumed that a
change from the recorder to the renaissance flute may help in using up the air more
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efficiently !8einhold, 9::;%, but admitted that the tenor flute may be difficult to play for
patients with small hands !ibid%.
For such clients the tenor (0emshorn(, 7which combines the +uality of a warm,
enveloping tone with a close position of the holes7, may be more suitable !8einhold,
9::;, p. =;%.
The combination of the material, which is pleasant to touch, and the warm, comforting
tone of the instrument can also provide people who are highly strung and literally have a
(too thin sin(- as is the case with ec$ema 1 with a possibility to play a wind instrument.
/n the other hand, it can have a gently invigorating and structuring effect on people
who tend towards an unformed physical organisation and emotional instability
!8einhold, 9::;, p. =;%.
Breathing can be constricted once 7too much awareness goes into the activity of
blowing7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. =;%. In such cases it can help to direct the focus towards
movement, e.g. by maing clients wal while blowing an instrument !8einhold 9::;%.
The rumhorn
The crumhorn has a hidden double reed, 7which offers resistance to the breath and helps
to strengthen it7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. =C%. It produces a bassoon- or bagpipe-lie tone,
and a strong impulse from the diaphragm and stomach muscles is necessary for that
sound to emerge !8einhold, 9::;%. 7It(s nasal and s+uawing timbre can seem either
humorous or eerie and serious, and has an alerting, tautening and contracting effect on
both player and listener7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. =C%. If one wants to play the notes in an
accurate way and give the melodies shape, 7one needs to combine a clear conception of
pitch with structured strength of breath7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. =C%. Therefore, thecrumhorn is described as a wind instrument, 7which ties in with the consciousness-
related activity of melody shaping7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. =C%, *owever, in, playing this
instrument, this thining activity is connected with will forces, which are lined
especially to the muscles of the lower breathing apparatus !7Atemmusulatur im
3toffwechselbereich7;G, 8einhold, 9::;, p. =C%.
7A well-applied regime of blowing e6ercises7 !ibid% encourages deep breathing and
7enhances the entire muscle tone and blood pressure, and in the emotional realm,
impulse and stamina7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. =C%. These attributes connected to playing the
crumhorn point towards various therapeutic applications, for e6ample cases of
depression, states of an6iety, bedwetting and low blood pressure !8einhold 9::;%.
8einhold also mentioned the use of the crumhorn for asthmatics, albeit 7not in an acute
state of the disease7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. =C%.
Bowed Stringed Instruments
The Bowed #saltery
8einhold observed that 7the organisation of the psaltery strings in a musical scale gives
the instrument its triangular shape7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. =C%. /n the right hand side of
the longest and deepest middle string, the diatonic scale is found, on the left hand sidethe pentatonic tones are situated !8einhold in Felber et al., =>>E%. The strings are
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arranged around the middle string in a way that their length decreases and their pitch
gets higher !ibid%.
In the low pitches of tenor and bass psaltery, 7the structure building force of the tones is
central7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. =C%. Their piercing timbre can even reach people who are
hard of hearing !8einhold 9::;%. Alto-, and especially soprano psalteries have +uitehigh pitches, which 8einhold compares to the intensity of sunlight !8einhold, 9::;,
8einhold in Felber et al., =>>E%. 8einhold finds that these 7clear, lofty tones7 !8einhold,
9::;, p.=C% with their long lasting resonance !8einhold in Felber et al., =>>E% can tie
into the state of consciousness of children, who are 7outside of themselves7 !8einhold,
9::;, p. =?%, such as children with autism, who 7utter shrill sounds7 !ibid% and who are
7magically attracted to twinling light reflections7!ibid%.
The pitches of the slightly lower psalteries, such as tenor or alto, are e6perienced by the
listener rather in the middle of the body !8einhold in Felber et al., =>>E%, while
fre+uencies of the higher pitched instruments, such as the soprano psaltery, are
e6perienced way above the head !ibid%. The nature of the timbre of these instrumentscreates a 7sense of alertness7 !8einhold in Felber et al., =>>E, p. @=% and one of the
therapeutic indications for using them is their ability7 to build a lin between centre and
periphery7 !ibid%.
The hrotta
As opposed to the psalteries, the chrotta-types of instruments produce a rather
dampened, warm tone, which has 1 depending on the si$e of the instrument 1 different
pitches and degrees of intensity !8einhold, 9::;%. The tenor chrotta, which is the one
most often used, is tuned lie a cello !8einhold in Felber et al., =>>E%. It is held between
the nees and played with a viol-bow. 4ven a beginner can bow deep, warm tones,which are usually e6perienced as 7comfortably enveloping and rela6ing7 !8einhold,
9::;, pp. =:-E>%. The chrotta has been developed from the )eltic )rwth 1 a bowed lyre
which has been played in ales since 8oman times or longer
!http"##en.wiipedia.org#wii#)rwth% 1 for therapeutic purposes. As a bowed instrument
the chrotta corresponds to the middle human being. ith the help of the low pitch range
the tenor chrotta creates 1 lie the cello 1 a connection between the breathing system
and the lower human being !8einhold, 9::;%. 'epending on how the instrument is
played, it relates more to the rhythm element in music, as is the case with pi$$icato, or
to the melody element, as is the case with bowing !8einhold in Felber et al., =>>E%. For
the latter, the following therapeutic indication is given"
&laying the open strings while alternating between an e6panding and contracting
movement of both arms, can be especially helpful for patients who suffer from
breathing difficulties, as is the case with asthma or metastases of the lungs7 !8einhold,
9::;, p. E>%. The connection of a breathing gesture while playing the instrument with
sensitive listening frees and eases breathing !8einhold, 9::;, p. E9%. /n the one hand,
the breathing process is put into a musical conte6t, and on the other hand the client is
allowed to 7forget about lung breathing7. !8einhold, 9::;, p. E9%. 8einhold also
described another way of using the chrotta therapeutically" clients can put the soles of
their feet on the instrument while the therapist bows. The perception of the vibration of
the low-pitched tones 7can restore lessened sensitivity and warmth production in the
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legs7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. E9%. The bass chrotta has a similar but even stronger effect
!8einhold, 9::;%.
From a therapeutic point of view, as seen in the anthroposophical conte6t, the above
described +ualities of the chrotta can help to intensify the correspondence between body
and soul, especially in the legs and the abdomen !8einhold in Felber et al., =>>E%.
In my own practice, assisting two anthroposophical music therapists in an Irish
)amphill community I also came across another ind of chrotta, the ichtel-chrotta,
which is a smaller instrument with only two strings tuned in the interval of a fifth. It can
be used for children, and the fact that it has only two strings maes it easier for clients
to bow themselves. The 0erman word 7ichtel7 means something lie 7gnome7 or
7imp7, and the way the instruments are built, they loo a little bit lie that.
#luc&ed Stringed Instruments
The pluced stringed instruments used in anthroposophical music therapy are allbasically descended from the lyre family. They all have a 7clear, but at the same time
soft timbre7 in common !8einhold 9::;, p. E9%. A gradation from very small to big
instruments maes a response to different constitutions in patients possible !8einhold,
9::;%.
The hildren,s Harp
8einhold described the children(s harp as a delicate instrument with a big impact. It is
tuned in a pentatonic scale with the tonal centre in the middle. Instead of a closed
resonance body the children(s harp has only got 7a shell which is open to the
surrounding7 !8einhold 9::;, p. E9%. This openness is in correspondence to the 7fine,spherical sound of the instrument, which enhances the character of the pentatonic scale7
!8einhold, 9::;, p. E9%. 8einhold suggested that the music created with the children(s
harp constitutes 7a protective sheath, which small children need for their emotional
development7 !8einhold, 9::;, p.E9%, but that it can also 7create a structuring
atmosphere for very weaened adults7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. E9%.
The 'antele
The original antele is a traditional Finnish instrument !see also
http"##virtual.finland.fi%. A smaller version is the wing antele, which has ten strings and
is often used in anthroposophical music therapy !8einhold, 9::;%. This instrument
enables the player to practise building up simple melodies or playing freely !8einhold,
9::;%. &ossibilities to tune this instrument in different scales mae its therapeutic
implications +uite fle6ible !8einhold, 9::;%.
The Bordun -yre
This instrument is 7strung crosswise with low- and high-pitched strings7 !8einhold,
9::;, p. E=%. 'ue to its small si$e, it can also be played by patients who are bed-bound
!ibid%. hen one strums the instrument, 7all tones sound as one harmony7 ! 8einhold,
9::;, p. EE%. The bordun lyre is usually tuned in a chord or an open chord !omitting
thirds and using only prime and fifth%.CG 4ven clients unfamiliar with musical
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instruments 7can en>E%. /ne way of using the instrument consists of two players playing a minor anda ma
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EE% but also listening to the essence of tone, in a more spiritual way !8einhold in Felber
et al., =>>E%. istening in this sense 7penetrates into the depths of matter and discloses
its truths7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. EE%.
Therapeutic %se of Instruments in Anthroposophical Music Therapy and
Why Instrument hoice is so Important
The music therapist who wors with an anthroposophical orientation needs to study the
musical instruments, including those from different epochs and cultures, diligently. This
also pertains to their effect on the human being !8einhold 9::;%. The therapist 1 in
listening to the client 1 needs to be able to identify which instrument he or she needs
!8einhold 9::;%. The instrument 7should be easy to play and should mae it possible
for the client to e6perience the character of the instrument as purely as possible7
!8einhold, 9::;, p. =%. /ften it is enough to let the patient?Gblow one note or bow
one string to achieve a particular therapeutic effect !8einhold, 9::;%. 8einhold stated
that 7the more one connects with a musical element the simpler the actual activity loos
from the outside7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. =%. If the outer means are reduced in favour of a
deepening of the inner e6perience the perception of +ualities is enhanced !8einhold,
9::;%. This could be the reason why sometimes the therapist 1 while woring with a
patient 1 7hears with his inner ear what ind of a sound this person needs7 !8einhold
9::;, p. =%. 3ometimes through this process new musical instruments for therapeutic
use can be invented in collaboration with instrument builders !8einhold, 9::;%.
4very anthroposophically oriented music therapist compiles his or her own instrument
collection individually 1 according to his particular style of woring !8einhold, 9::;%.
In anthroposophical music therapy the choice of instruments is vital in the therapeuticprocess !8einhold, 9::;%. /n the one hand 7the instruments help to intensify the effect
of music on the human organism 1 both as an active playing and a listening e6perience7
!8einhold, 9::;, p. =9%. They are helping to connect the psyche with the body. /n the
other hand they can also wor in the opposite way. If in the course of an illness the
7inner music7 !8einhold, 9::;, p. =9% of a person has become too wea, the musical
instrument acts as a replacement for it !8einhold, 9::;% until it is reinforced enough by
the therapeutic process. This revitalisation of ones own inner music is 1 according to
3usanne 8einhold 1 the only thing the client taes away with him out of the music
therapy situation !7das ein$ige was er mitnimmt aus der Musitherapie7, 8einhold,
9::;, p. =9%.
Summary. "iscussion and onclusions
In anthroposophical music therapy the instruments play a specific role, since from an
anthroposophical point of view, instruments correspond to certain parts or capacities of
the human being. In this way, from an anthroposophical point of view, instruments can
be used for various therapeutic indications, especially in connection with balancing out
and treating one-sidedness and imbalances in the human organism. In anthroposophical
terms, the human being includes body, soul and spirit !3teiner, =>>, p. =%.
Active and receptive music therapy methods can be found in anthroposophical music
therapy, using different scales and musical media !8einhold, 9::;5 8uland, 9::>%. &re-composed pieces of music are employed, as well as specifically created therapy
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se+uences. 3ome therapists also use planetary scales !3chlesinger, 9:=E5 8uland, 9::=%,
such as the mercury scale or music composed in these planetary modes.
As described above, the act of listening to and inwardly e6periencing music plays a
specific role in the anthroposophical approach, as it is e6pected to create a connection to
the spiritual !8einhold, 9::;5 8uland, 9::=% and to help build up 7creative forces7 in thehuman being !Fachner, =>>C, pp. 9C9-9CE%. As opposed to other, more improvisation-
oriented approaches to music therapy, the emphasis is on the affinity in structure
between music and the human being, with the help of which certain losses and deficits
can be addressed and treated. From this point of view, as we have seen, the choice of
instruments plays a very important role.
*owever, within the model of anthroposophical music therapy, a number of different
therapeutic approaches e6ist and it is conse+uently difficult to define this approach
completely. In addition, the use of instruments is actually left to the
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wasn(t limited to the lyre and to the mercury bath. It wored
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claim that certain instruments, timbres, scales, etc., produce certain effects in clients, as
well as the assumption that certain intervals have specific (meaning( and effects, as
postulated by 3teiner himself !3teiner, 9:C>% and other authors in the anthroposophical
music therapy conte6t !8uland, 9::>5 8uland, 9::=% seems to be of central importance
in anthroposophical music therapy. *owever, these ideas seem difficult to reconcile
with the discussion in contemporary music therapy, which includes musicalsocialisation, idiosyncratic personal responses to music, social and cultural bacground,
local social surrounding as well as musical elements, te6ture, idioms etc. when looing
at the effect of music on the human being !see 8uud, =>>>%.
It interests me that there are so few references to the therapeutic use of the piano in the
anthroposophical literature and that music therapists who wor in this conte6t do not
often seem to use the piano. 3teiner(s comments about the piano, as cited above, don(t
really mae sense to me personally, although I am not sure I understand them the way
they are intended. I believe that there are certain advantages and disadvantages in the
use of the piano in music therapy. They may refer to the tempered tuning of the
instrument, its loudness its possibilities of dynamics and e6pression, its timbre, itsstructure-giving, grounding and supportive potentials.
In the music therapy practice in the )amphill )ommunity where I wored and lived, the
piano was occasionally used with certain clients, especially when they had a natural
affinity towards it. iewise, certain other eyboard instruments were used, such as the
harpsichord.
I am of the opinion that it is worthwhile to e6plore some of the instruments used in
anthroposophical music therapy for their therapeutic potential and +ualities from a non-
anthroposophical stance. *owever, a number of considerations are notable when
looing at the +uestion of the e6tent to which the ideas and theories behind the
anthroposophical approach are congruent with other approaches in music therapy. For
e6ample, there seem to be some differences in the role the therapist plays, as well as
referral, assessment and evaluation processes. uite often, anthroposophical music
therapy is prescribed or recommended by a doctor !see 8uland, 9::>5 8einhold 9::;%,
and instructions can be given to a music therapist by the physician. Alternatively, the
music therapy treatment is discussed between the music therapist and the medical team,
as would be the case in an anthroposophical clinic !see 8uland, 9::>%. In this conte6t,
music therapy is closely connected to anthroposophical medicine and the music therapy
client very much plays the role of a (patient( !see 8einhold, 9::;%.
A further point is the acceptance and re5 3tige, =>>=5 Brown,
=>>=%.
The claim that music is a pure, ob
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approaches, which wor within assumption that music can be seen as an individual
e6pression of feelings or a 7language of feelings7 !3tige, =>>E, in reference to Mary
&riestley%. Further study and research would be necessary to e6plore the area of musical
meaning in anthroposophical, as well as other music therapy approaches. In this conte6t,
the +uestion arises whether the anthroposophical approach bears some resemblance to
the 2ordoff#8obbins approach in its view of the role of music as the actual therapeuticagent, rather than e6tra-musical aspects. )an anthroposophical music therapy be seen as
a music-centred approach, using music 7as therapy7 rather than 7in therapy7 !see Aigen,
=>>@%
Further potential for conflict with some of the contemporary music therapy approaches
lies in the re>%, as well as in the (e6ercise( character of anthroposophical
music therapy applications !see 8einhold, 9::;%.
hile there are engaging issues in the theoretical bacground of the anthroposophicalapproach that would benefit from further e6ploration and discussion, as far as I am
concerned a ma
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therapists. There are +uite a few different ways of tuning these instruments, and it also
depends on the intentions and preferences of the therapist. 'ifferent bordun lyres can be
tuned in I, IR, R-chords, so that 1 for e6ample with a group of clients 1 songs can be
accompanied +uite easily and all the clients have to do is to strum their instrument at the
right time. *owever, for certain client groups this can present a difficulty as well.
?G In conventional music therapy practice we are often speaing about the music
therapy client. *owever, 3usanne 8einhold uses the 0erman word P&atientQ, which is
PpatientQ in 4nglish, possibly because she has been woring and practising in a medical
conte6t.
:G The mercury bath is a piece of music usually played on the lyre, which uses the
tones of the mercury scale !identical with the 'orian church mode% in an ascending and
descending se+uence which alternates between minor and ma>@%. Music-centered music therapy. 0ilsum, 2*" Barcelona
&ublishers.
Bissegger, Monica !=>>9%. Anthroposophische Musitherapie. In" 'ecer-Roigt, *ans-
*elmut !ed.%. Schulen der Musiktherapie. Munich and Basel" 4rnst 8einhardt Rerlag
Brown, Sulie !=>>=%. Towards a culturally centered music therapy practice. onlineG
Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. 8etrieved /ctober ?th, =>>C, from
http"##www.voices.no#mainissues#Roices=!9%brown.html
Fachner, SJrg !=>>C%. anderer between worlds 1 Anthropological perspectives on
healing rituals and music. Music Therapy Today !/nline 9?th Suly% Rol. RIII !=%,
pp.9;;-9:@. 8etrieved =>th August =>>C, from
http"##www.musictherapyworld.de#modules#mmmaga$ine#issues#=>>C>C9?9>99E9#MTT
?=Suly=>>C.eBoo.pdf
Felber, 8osemarie, 3usanne 8einhold H Andrea 3tDcert !=>>E%. AnthroposophischeKunsttherapie 3. Wissenschaftliche Grundlaen ! Ar"eitsans#t$e ! Therapeutische
M%lichkeiten. 3tuttgart, 0ermany" rachhaus.
/berogler, Friedrich !9:C;%. Vom Wesen und Werden der Musikinstrumente.
3chaffhausen, 3wit$erland" 2ovalis Rerlag.
&avlicevic, MercUdVs H 0ary Ansdell !4ds.% !=>>%. &ommunity music therapy. ondon
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Schriftenreihe So$iale (yiene !9@C%. Bad ieben$ell, 0ermany" Rerein FDrAnthroposophisches *eilwesen 4.R.
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8einhold, 3usanne !=>>E%. 'ie Instrumente in der Musitherapie. In" Felber, 8.,
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rachhaus.
8uland, *einer !9::>%. Musik als erle"te Menschenkunde. 3tuttgart and 2ew Wor"0ustav Fischer Rerlag. assel, Basel and ondon" Baerenreiter Rerlag.
8uland, *einer !9::=%. '*pandin tonal a+areness. A musical e*ploration of the
e,olution of consciousness uided "y the monochord. ondon" 8udolf 3teiner &ress.
8uud, 4ven !=>>>%. 72ew Musicology7, music education and music therapy onlineG.
-ordic ournal of Music Therapy. 8etrieved /ctober ?th =>>C from
http"##www.n>C, from
3teiner, 8udolf !9:C>%. The human being(s e6perience of tone. In Art in the liht of
mystery +isdom. ondon" 8udolf 3teiner &ress !Translation of the source below%
3teiner, 8udolf !9:?>%. 0as Tonerle"nis im Menschen. 'ornach, 3wit$erland" 8udolf
3teiner Rerlag.
3teiner, 8udolf !=>>%. Study of man. Fourteen lectures "y 1udolf Steiner. Forest 8ow"
8udolf 3teiner &ress
3tige, Bryn>=%. &ulture2centered music therapy. 0ilsum, 2*" Barcelona
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3tige, Bryn>E%. &erspectives on meaning in music therapy, onlineG. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. 8etrieved /ctober ?th, =>>C from
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erbec-3vKrdstrJm, Ralborg !=>>= !8eprint%%. nco,erin the ,oice. The cleansin
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