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Copyright©2015SocietyofAutomotiveEngineersofJapan,Inc.Allrightsreserved
1 Hybrid Vehicles
1. 1. IntroductionDemand forvehicleswithbetter fuel efficiencyand
cleanerexhaustemissions isgrowing in lightof risingfossil fuelpricesandenvironmentalproblemssuchasair pollution andglobalwarming. Automakershavebeenworkingtoexpandthenumberofvehiclemodelsequippedwithhybridsystemsasonewayofaddress-ingthisdemand.Japanesemanufacturershavefocusedon fuel-efficienthybridelectricvehicles (HEVs),whichcombinean internalcombustionenginewithanelectricmotor. Section1of thisarticledescribesthetrends inHEVsthatoccurredin2014.1. 2. Popularization of HEVs in JapanFigure1showsthatthenumberofHEVsontheroads
inJapan is increasingyearafteryear. Thenumberofhybridpassengervehicleshassignificantlyexceededthe3millionvehiclemarkandisquicklyapproaching4mil-lionvehicles.In2013,thenumberofHEVsontheroadinJapanincreasedbynearly1millionvehiclescomparedtothepreviousyear. Thenumberof trucksandothernon-passengerhybridvehiclesisalsoexpandingsteadily.Thenumberofplug-inHEVs(PHEVs)isalsoincreasingandthereareapproximately30,000on theroad. Thisnumbershouldcontinuetoexpandinthefutureasauto-makerscontinuetoincreasetheavailabilityofPHEVs.1. 3. New HEVs that launched in Japan in 2014Table 1 lists the hybrid passenger vehicles that
launchedinJapanin2014accordingtothemonthofre-lease.Themaintrendswereasfollows.
InJanuary,ToyotaMotorCorporationreleasedhybridversionsoftheNoahandVoxyminivans.Thesearethefirstminivanswithaheightof1.8metersormore,seat-ingfor7to8people,andinthe1.8-literto2.0-literclassthatareequippedwithafullhybridsystem.ThehybridsystemisalmostthesameastheoneinthePrius.Thesevehiclesareequippedwitha1.8-literinlinefour-cylinder
engineandthetotalsystemoutputis100kW.Thefueleconomyis23.8km/L(undertheJC08testcycle).
InJuly,ToyotaMotorCorporationaddedafour-wheeldriveversionof theCrownMajesta. This is the firstfull-timefour-wheeldriveHEVfromToyota.Theorigi-nalhybridsystem in the two-wheeldrivevehiclewasequippedwitha3.5-literV6engineandthetotalsystemoutputwas252kW. Inthisnewfour-wheeldrivever-sion, a 2.5-liter inline four-cylinderenginewasadded,creatingatotalsystemoutputof162kW.Thefuelecon-omyis19.0km/L(undertheJC08testcycle).
On the sameday in July,ToyotaMotorCorpora-tionalsoaddeda four-wheeldriveversionto itshybridCrownmodel. Thehybridsystem is thesameas theoneintheCrownMajesta.Itisequippedwitha2.5-literinlinefour-cylinderenginewithatotalsystemoutputof162kW.Thefueleconomyis21.0km/L(undertheJC08testcycle).
AlsoinJuly,LexuslaunchedtheNX300h.Thehybridsystem in the four-wheeldriveversion is almost thesameasthatintheToyotaHarrier.Itisequippedwitha2.5-literinlinefour-cylinderengine,a105kWmotoronthefrontaxleanda50kWmotorontherearaxle.This
Hybrid Vehicles, Electric Vehicles, Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles
Fig. 1 Trends in the number of HEVs on the road in Japan (1)
Number of vehicles (millions)
Passenger vehicles4
3
2
1
0
Number of vehicles (10,000 vehicles)
TrucksPHEVs
4
3
2
1
02004 05 06 07 08
Year
09 10 11 12 13
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makesthetotalsystemoutput145kW.Inthetwo-wheeldriveversion, thehybridsystemconsistsofa2.5-literinline four-cylinderengineanda105kWmotoronthefront axle, creatinga total systemoutput of 145kW.Thefueleconomyis19.8km/Lforthefour-wheeldriveversionand21.0km/Lfor thetwo-wheeldriveversion(undertheJC08testcycle).
InAugust, SuzukiMotorCorporation launched the
hybridWagonR. This is the first time thatahybridsystemhasbeenequippedonaminivehiclewith the“tallwagon”design(i.e.,amini-vehiclewithaheightof1.55metersormore). Thehybridsystemisaso-calledmildhybridthat isequippedwithan integratedstartergenerator(ISG).TheISGusestheenergyfromdecelera-tion (braking) tocharge thevehicle's leadand lithium-ionbatteriesandthenthiselectricalpower isused for
Table 1 Main hybrid passenger vehicles launched in Japan in 2014(2)─(6)
Dateannounced/wentonsale 2014/1/20 2014/7/9 2014/7/9 2014/7/29 2014/7/29 2014/8/25
Nameofcompany ToyotaMotorCorporation Lexus Suzuki
Nameofvehicle Noah/Voxyhybrid CrownMajestaFour
CrownHybridFour
NX300h NX300h WagonRFZ
Typeofhybridsystem Series-parallel Series-parallel Series-parallel Series-parallel Series-parallel Parallel
Drivetrain Front-wheeldrive Four-wheeldrive Four-wheeldrive Four-wheeldrive Front-wheeldrive Front-wheeldrive
Fueleconomy(JC08testcycle,km/L) 23.8 19.0 21.0 19.8 21.0 32.4
Engine Model 2ZR-FXE 2AR-FSE 2AR-FSE 2AR-FXE 2AR-FXE R06A
Displacement(cc) 1797 2493 2493 2493 2493 658
Output(kW) 73 131 131 112 112 38
Motor Type ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
DCsynchronousmotor
Output(kW) 60 105 105 Front105+Rear50
105 1.6
Battery Type Nickel-metalhydride
Nickel-metalhydride
Nickel-metalhydride
Nickel-metalhydride
Nickel-metalhydride
Lithium-ion
Capacity(kWh) 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.6 0.04
Dateannounced/wentonsale 2014/9/9 2014/10/23 2014/10/29 2014/11/10 2014/12/1 2014/11/25
Nameofcompany ToyotaMotorCorporation
Lexus ToyotaMotorCorporation
HondaMotorCompany Mercedes-Benz
Nameofvehicle CamryHybrid RC300h EsquireHybrid Legend Grace S550plug-inhybridwithlong
wheelbase
Typeofhybridsystem Series-parallel Series-parallel Series-parallel Series-parallel Parallel Parallel
Drivetrain Front-wheeldrive Rear-wheeldrive Front-wheeldrive Four-wheeldrive Front-wheeldrive Rear-wheeldrive
Fueleconomy(JC08testcycle,km/L) 25.4 23.2 23.8 16.8 34.4 13.4
Engine Model 2AR-FXE 2AR-FSE 2ZR-FXE JNB LEB 276M30
Displacement(cc) 2493 2493 1797 3471 1496 2996
Output(kW) 118 131 73 231 81 245
Motor Type ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
Output(kW) 105 105 60 35 + 27× 2 22 85
Battery Type Nickel-metalhydride
Nickel-metalhydride
Nickel-metalhydride
Lithium-ion Lithium-ion Lithium-ion
Capacity(kWh) 1.6 1.5 1.3 1.3 0.9 8.7
Copyright©2015SocietyofAutomotiveEngineersofJapan,Inc.Allrightsreserved
theengineassistduringaccelerationandalsotorestarttheengineafteranidlingstop.Thefueleconomyis32.4km/L(undertheJC08testcycle).
InSeptember,ToyotaMotorCorporationaddedaver-sionof itsCamryhybridwith16-inchwheels. Therewerenochangestothehybridsystemandthefuelecon-omyis25.4km/L(undertheJC08testcycle).
InOctober,LexuslaunchedtheRC300h.Itisequippedwitha2.5-liter inline four-cylinderengineandthetotalsystemoutputis162kW.Thefueleconomyis23.2km/L(undertheJC08testcycle).
In the samemonthToyotaMotorCorporationalsolaunchedtheEsquire.ThehybridsystemisalmostthesameasthatintheNoahandVoxythatwerelaunchedinJanuary.TheEsquire isequippedwitha1.8-liter in-line four-cylinderengineandthetotalsystemoutput is100kW.Thefueleconomyis23.8km/L(undertheJC08testcycle).
InNovember,HondaMotorCompanylaunchedthehy-bridLegend.Thisvehicle isequippedwiththeworld'sfirstthree-motorhybridsystem,asshowninFig.2.Po-sitionedatthefrontofthevehicleareanewlydevelopedV63.5-literdirect-injectionengineanda7-speeddual-clutchtransmission(DCT)withanintegratedelectricmo-tor.Therear-mountedtwinmotorunit(TMU)containstwomotors thatdistribute torque to the rearwheels.This hybrid system features three distinct drivingmodeswherethehybridsystemautomaticallycontrolstheengineand threemotors foroptimalperformance.InEVdrive,thetworearelectricmotorspowertheve-hicle. Inhybriddrive, thegasolineenginepowers thefrontwheelswhilethetworearmotorspowertherearwheels. Inenginedrive, thegasolineengineprovidespowertothefrontwheels.Thehybridsystemautomati-
callyselectsthemostenergy-efficientdrivingmodeandtheoptimalchoiceoffront-wheeldrive,rear-wheeldrive,orfour-wheeldrivebycontinuouslyrespondingtodriverinputsandthedrivingconditions. Thetwomotorsontherearaxleare independentlycontrolledandcansup-plyadvancedtorquevectoringtotheleftandrightrearwheels independently. Thistorquevectoring isnotde-pendentontheenginetorquesoitispossibletoprovideeitherpositive (drive) torqueornegative (declaration)torquetoeachrearwheel. Thetotalsystemoutput is281kWandthe fueleconomy is16.8km/L (under theJC08testcycle).
InDecember,HondaMotorCompany launched thehybridGrace.Thehybridsystemisalmostthesameasthat in theFitHybrid. TheGrace isequippedwitha1.5-liter inline four-cylinderengineandthetotalsystemoutputis101kW.Thefueleconomyis34.4km/L(undertheJC08testcycle).
Inthecaseofimportedhybridvehiclesfromnon-Jap-anesemanufacturers,Mercedes-Benz launchedtheS550plug-inhybridwitha longwheelbaseasanadditionalmodel to itsS-Class inNovember. Thevehicle isde-signedfornormalchargingonlyandittakes4hourstofullychargeadepletedbatteryusinga200Voutlet.Itisequippedwitha3-literV6engineandthetotalsystemoutputis325kW.Thefueleconomyis13.4km/L(undertheJC08testcycle).1. 4. Trends in standardizationISO/TC22/SC37iscarryingoutstandardizationactivi-
tiesforgeneralvehiclespoweredbyelectricity(i.e.,elec-trically-propelledroadvehicles),includingHEVs,fuelcellvehicles (FCEVs),andbatteryelectricvehicles (BEVs).(Upuntil2014thisworkwascarriedoutbySC21,butthischangedtoSC37in2015duetoareorganizationofthe ISO/TC22parentcommittee). Themain trend intheseactivitiesin2014hasbeenthecreationofISO6469-4(anewstandard)sinceJanuaryof2012inWG1,whichisthegroupthathandlessafetyaspectsandterminology.Thisnewstandardconcerns thepost-crashelectricalsafety specifications forelectrically-propelled roadve-hicles.InthefutureitisplannedforthisstandardtobeformallyissuedafterproceedingthroughtheFinalDraftInternationalStandard (FDIS)voting. Furthermore, in2014, revisionworkalsobeganon ISO6469-1 (Safetyspecificationsfortheon-boardrechargeableenergystor-agesystem(RESS)),ISO6469-2(Vehicleoperationalsafe-tymeansandprotectionagainstfailures),andISO6469-3
Fig. 2 Composition of the 3-Motor Hybrid System(3)
Copyright©2015SocietyofAutomotiveEngineersofJapan,Inc.Allrightsreserved
(Protectionofpersonsagainstelectricshock).Therearealsoplans toholddiscussionsonotherelectricalsafetyissues, suchas thegrades toapply todifferent levelsofhighvoltage. Incontrast,WG2,which is thegroupthathandlesperformanceandenergyconsumption,hasbeenworkingonthecreationoffuelconsumptiontestingmethods forallHEVs (ISO23274-1and23274-2). ThisincludesbothHEVswithandwithoutexternalchargingfunctionsandbothof these testingmethodswerepro-posedbyJapan.ISO23274-1(revised),whichisthestan-dardforvehicleswithoutanexternalchargingfunction,wasissuedonJanuary13,2013andISO23274-2,whichisthestandardforvehicleswithanexternalchargingfunc-tion,was issuedonJuly26,2012. Inaddition, ISO/TR(TechnicalReport)11955 (Guidelines forchargebalancemeasurement)wasalsoissuedinOctoberof2008astheguidelinesforthefuelconsumptiontestingmethods.
2 Electric Vehicles
2. 1. IntroductionElectricvehicles (EVs)havebeenattractingattention
inrecentyearsas thenextgenerationofenvironmen-tallyfriendlymobilitywithexcellentenvironmentalper-formanceandenergyefficiency. Despitethis, themainissuesholdingbackEVs, suchasbatteryperformance(cruisingrange, charging time), cost, and theavailablecharging infrastructure,haveyettoberesolved. How-ever,technologicaldevelopmentstoimprovebatteryper-formanceandreducethecostofEVshavebeenmakingsteadyprogress. Front-runners intheEVfieldsuchasNissanandMitsubishiMotorsCo.,Ltd.haveexpandedthenumberofEVmodelstomeetavarietyofdifferentneedsanduses,whilealsoreducingprice. Inaddition,theJapanesegovernmenthasactivelyworkedtofurtherpromotetheintroductionofEVsintothemarketbyex-pandingtheavailablecharginginfrastructure,aswellasbyencouragingtechnologicaldevelopmentandlaunchingbudgetaryand taxmeasures to improveperformanceand reducecost. Asa result, thepopularizationandadoptionofEVshasstarted togainmoremomentum.Section2of thisarticledescribes thecurrent stateofEVuseinJapan,theinitiativestakenin2014tofurtherexpandtheusageofEVs,andthetrendsinstandardiza-tion. Section4of thisarticlewillprovidemoredetailsaboutthebatterycharginginfrastructureinJapan.2. 2. Popularization of EVs2. 2. 1. Market introduction and sales
Figure3shows thenumberofEVson theroads inJapan,excludingmotor-drivencyclesandmini-vehicles(7).ThenumberofsuchvehiclesinJapanhasincreasedsince2009whenMitsubishiMotorsandFujiHeavyIn-dustriesbegansalesof twosmallEVs, the i-MiEVandtheSubaruplug-inStella, respectively. By theendof2013thenumberofEVshadreached54,757vehicles(thegreatmajorityof thesearemini-vehiclesandpassengervehicles, thenumberof trucksandotherEVshashov-eredaroundseveraldozenvehicles).Table2showsthespecificationsof themainEVs launched inJapan from2009to2013 (8)-(14). InthecaseofpassengerEVs, theNissanMotorCo.,Ltd.begangeneral salesof itsNis-sanLeaf in2010,whileMercedes-Benzbeganselling itssmartfortwoelectricdrivemodelin2012.Alsoin2012,Honda,MazdaMotorCorporation, andToyotabeganleasingtheFitEV,DemioEV,andeQ,respectively.By2013Mitsubishihadestablisheddifferentgrades forthei-MiEVdepending on the cruising range on a singlecharge(thetopmodelfeaturedanextendedrangeonasinglecharge). The lineupof i-MiEVmini-vehiclesalsofeaturedcommercialmodelssuchas theMinicab-MiEVVan(2011)andtheMinicab-MiEVTruck(2013).Mitsubi-shirevisedthepricesofalloftheseEVsinanefforttohelplowerthepricesofotherEVsinJapan.Nissanalsoworkedtoextendthecruisingrangeonasinglechargeof itsLeafEVandrevised itspricingtohelp lowerthesalespricesofotherEVsinJapan.
Table 3 shows the specifications of themainEVslaunchedinJapanin2014(10)(15)(16).InApril,BMWbe-gansellingthei3.Thissamevehicleisalsoofferedwiththeoptionofarangeextender(anengineforgeneratingelectricity) that isexpectedtohelpextendthecruisingrange.
Fig. 3 Trends in number of EVs in use in Japan (7)
505
2006
421
2007
389
2008
1 941
2009
9 030
2010
22 262
2011
38 707
2012
54 757
2013
■Mini vehicles ■Passenger vehicles ■Trucks ■Other
Number of vehicles
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
Year
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InSeptember,deliveriesof theModelS fromTeslaMotorsfinallybeganafterreservationshadopenedbackinthespringof2011.TheModelScanbechargedusingtheCHAdeMOfast-chargingstandard thatwasdevel-opedinJapan,a200Voutlet,orTesla'sownproprietarySuperchargerrapidchargingstand.Themaximumout-
put that theSuperchargercanprovide is120kW (16),whichmakesitpossibletochargetheModelSattwicethespeedoftheCHAdeMOstandard.
InOctoberthee-NV200commercialvehiclefromNis-sanwentonsale.Thissamevehicleisalsoavailableinawagonversion thatcanalsobeusedasapassenger
Table 2 Specifi cations of main EVs launched in Japan from 2009 to 2013(8)─(14)
i-MiEV Subaruplug-inStella
NissanLeaf MINICAB-MiEVVAN
smartfortwoelectricdrive
Externalappearance
Manufacturer MitsubishiMotorsCo.,Ltd.
FujiHeavyIndustriesLtd.
NissanMotorCo.,Ltd.
MitsubishiMotorsCo.,Ltd.
Mercedes-Benz
Salesformat General Fleet General General General
Occupantcapacity 4 4 5 2( 4 ) 2
Cruisingrangeonasinglecharge(km) 120 /180*1,3 90*2 228*1 100 /150*1,3 181*1
ACpowerconsumptionrate(Wh/km) 110*1 114*1 125*1 110*1
Motor Type ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
Max.output(kW) 30 /47*3 47 80 30 55
Battery Type Lithium-ion Lithium-ion Lithium-ion Lithium-ion Lithium-ion
Totalpower(kWh) 10.5 /16*3 9 24 10.5 /16*3 17.6
Chargingtime
Normal 4.5h/7h*3,4
(AC200 V)8h*5
(AC200 V)8h*4
(AC200 V)4.5h/7h*3,4
(AC200 V)8h*4
(AC200 V)
Rapid*6 15min/30min 15min 30min 15min/35min Notapplicable
FitEV DemioEV eQ Minicab-MiEVTruck
Externalappearance
Manufacturer HondaMotorCompany
MazdaMotorCorporation
ToyotaMotorCorporation
MitsubishiMotorsCo.,Ltd.
Salesformat リース リース リース 一般
Occupantcapacity 5 5 4 2
Cruisingrangeonasinglecharge(km) 225*1 200*7 100*1 110*1
ACpowerconsumptionrate(Wh/km) 106*1 100*7 104*1 120*1
Motor Type ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
Max.output(kW) 92 75*7 47 30
Battery Type Lithium-ion Lithium-ion Lithium-ion Lithium-ion
Totalpower(kWh) 20 20*7 12 10.5
Chargingtime
Normal 6h*4
(AC200 V)8h
(AC200 V)3h*4
(AC200 V)4.5h*4
(AC200 V)
Rapid*6 20min 40min 15min 15min
*1 :JC08testcycle *2 :10 -15testcycle *3:Differentdependingongrade*4:ChargingviaAC100Valsopossible(recommendedtochargewithAC200V)*5:ChargingviaAC100Valsopossible *6:50kWoutput,chargingupto80 *7:Measurementvaluefrommanufacturer
Copyright©2015SocietyofAutomotiveEngineersofJapan,Inc.Allrightsreserved
vehicle.Volkswagenhasannouncedthat itwillbeselling its
e-up!ande-GolfEVsinJapan.OrdersstartedinFebru-ary2015(17).
Consequently,itisclearthatthenumberofEVmodelsthatJapaneseconsumerscanchoosefromhasonlybeenincreasingsince2009andthatthevarietyvehiclemodelshasbeenexpandingsteadilytomeetdifferentneedsanduses.2. 3. Initiatives to expand EV popularization2. 3. 1. Adoption of EV buses, trucks, and taxisThe JapaneseMinistryofLand, Infrastructureand
Transport (MLIT) is looking to effectively acceleratethepopularizationandadoptionofelectricvehicleswithparticularlygoodenvironmentalperformance (includingPHEVs).Electricbuses,taxis,andtrucksarebeingusedtopromotemoreenvironmentally friendlyregionsandtransportation-relatedbusinessesandalso topromotelow-carbonurbandevelopment. To thisend,MLIT iscarryingoutaprojecttomakeregionalandtransporta-tionbusinessesmoreenvironmentallyfriendlyasawaytoinducetheadoptionofEVsbyotherregionsandbusi-nesses (18). Thisprojectprovides targetedsupport tospecificautomobileandtransportationbusinesses(limitedtobus, taxi,or truckbusinesses) thathavebeen identi-fiedaspioneerstohelpencouragetherapidpopulariza-
tionofEVs.Everyyearnumerouspotentialtargetsforsupportareselectedandthecreationofwell-conceivedinitiativesisexpectedtohelppopularizetheadoptionofEVsallacrossJapan.2. 3. 2. Adoption of ultra-compact vehiclesInrecentyears,ultra-compactvehicles thatareeven
smaller thanmini-vehicleshavebeenattractingan in-creasingamountofattention.TheguidelinesdevelopedbyMLITtohelppromotetheuseoftheseultra-compactvehiclesdefinetheseasvehiclesthataremorecompact,maneuverable, andenvironmentally friendly thancon-ventional automobiles, and that cancarryoneor twopeopleonshortlocaltrips.MLIThasintroducedrelaxedstandardsbasedontheSafetyRegulationsforRoadVe-hiclesundertheRoadTruckingVehicleLawasawayofensuringthesafetyofultra-compactvehicles. Thesestandardsprohibit thedrivingofultra-compactvehiclesonexpressways, restrictusage to locationscapableofensuringsafeandsmoothtrafficflows,andapplycondi-tions forsizeandperformance. Thisrelaxingofsomeregulationsisallowedonlyinthecaseswherethesafetyandenvironmentalperformanceof thesevehicles isnotadverselyaffected. Thesestandards (theultra-compactvehiclecertificationsystem)wereestablishedinJanuary2013andallowultra-compactvehicles tobedrivenonpublicroadsinJapan(18).
Table 3 Specifi cations of main EVs launched in Japan in 2014(10)(15)(16)
BMWi3 ModelS e-NV200
Externalappearance
Manufacturer BMW TeslaMotors NissanMotorCo.,Ltd.
Salesformat General General General
Occupantcapacity 4 5 Van:2or5Wagon:5or7
Cruisingrangeonasinglecharge(km) 229*1 390/502*2 185/188/190*1,3
ACpowerconsumptionrate(Wh/km) 98*1 ─ 142
Motor Type ACsynchronousmotor
ACinductionmotor
ACsynchronousmotor
Max.output(kW) 125 225/270/310*3 80
Battery Type Lithium-ion Lithium-ion Lithium-ion
Totalpower(kWh) 21.8 60/85*3 24
Chargingtime
Normal 7 ~ 8h(AC200 V)
24.4h/31.4h*5
(AC200 V)8h
(AC200 V)
Rapid*4 30min 3.1h/4h*5 30min
*1:JC08testcycle *2:NEDC *3:Differentdependingongrade*4:50kWoutput,chargingupto80 % *5:Source=JARI
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Since thedefinitionof theseultra-compactvehiclesclearlystatesthatexcellentenvironmentalperformanceis required,mostof thesevehiclesareEVs. Thishasraisedexpectations thatvehiclessuchas thesewillbeable tomakeamajorcontribution toa transportationsystemthatusessignificantlylessenergyandemitsfarlesscarbon.Combiningthesevehicleswithurbanplan-ningmayhelptoimprovequalityoflifeandmobilityasanew formofurbanand local transportation. Thesevehiclesmayevenhavemanyotherpositivesocialben-efits,suchasprovidingaboost totourismandregionalregeneration,aswellassupporting themobilityof theelderlyandchild-raising families. Consequently, localgovernmentsare leadingtrial introductionsof theseul-tra-compactvehiclesandtrialdemonstrationsarebeingcarriedout inconjunctionwithurbanplanningprojectsallacrossJapan.Table4showsthespecificationsofthemainultra-compactvehicles(10)(12)(14)(20).2. 4. Trends in EV standardizationSection1.4explainedhowthe internationalstandard-
ization of electric vehicles is beinghandledby ISO/TC22/SC37. ThesafetyaspectsofEVsarebeingad-dressed in ISO6469-1 to ISO6469-4 (seeSection1.4).The international standards that concern theperfor-manceaspectsofEVs include ISO8714 (Referenceen-ergyconsumptionandrangeforBEV),whichwasissuedin2002,andISO8715(RoadoperatingcharacteristicsforBEV),whichwasissuedin2001.
3 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles
3. 1. IntroductionSince fuelcellvehicles (FCVs)havezerotailpipeCO2
emissions, the increasedadoptionandpopularizationofthesevehiclesisseenasanimportantwayofhelpingtoreducegreenhousegasemissions (21). FCVsbegantobeleasedtogovernmentagenciesinJapaninDecember2002and,by2014, thedrivingrangeof thesevehicleshadbeenextendedduetotheimprovedhydrogenstor-ageefficiencyof theon-boardhigh-pressurehydrogenfuel tanks. In addition, thewarm-upperformanceofthesevehicleshasalsoimprovedtoallowuseinsub-zerotemperatures. Asaresult, theconvenienceofFCVs isnowconsideredtoberoughlyonaparwithgasolineen-ginevehicles. TheFuelCellCommercializationConfer-enceofJapanhasproposedascenariotohelppromotethepopularizationofFCVs,and2015 is thetargetyeartobeginexpandingtheadoptionofFCVsbythegeneralpublic(22).Inanefforttofollowthroughonthisscenar-io,onJune25,2014Toyotaannouncedthatitwouldbe-ginsellingasedan-typeFCVinJapanduringfiscalyear2014andthatitwouldcostapproximately7millionyen(23). OnDecember15,2014ToyotaputtheMiraiFCVonsaleinJapanfor7,236,000yen(includingconsumptiontax) (24)andHondaannouncedonNovember17that ittoowouldstartsellinganewmodelFCVinJapandur-ingthe2015fiscalyear(25).Thissectionintroducesthe
Table 4 Specifi cations of main ultra-compact vehicles(10)(12)(14)(20)
COMS NewMobilityConcept
MC-β i-ROAD
Externalappearance
Manufacturer ToyotaAutoBodyCo.,Ltd.
NissanMotorCo.,Ltd.
HondaMotorCompany
ToyotaMotorCorporation
Salesformat General Notforsale Notforsale Notforsale
Occupantcapacity 1 2 2 1*1
Cruisingrange(km) 50 100 50 50
Max.speed(km/h) 60 80 70ormore 60*1
Motor Ratedoutput(kW) 0.59 8 2× 2 2×2
Battery Type Lead Lithium-ion Lithium-ion Lithium-ion
Totalpower(kWh) 5.2 6.1 ─ ─
Chargingtime 6h(AC100 V)
4h(AC200 V)
3hoursorless(AC200V)
7hoursorless(AC100V)
─
*1:Japanesespecifications
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researchanddevelopmentofFCVs, startingwith theMirai,andthetrendssurroundingtheestablishmentofhydrogenfuelstationsinJapan.3. 2. Trends in FCV research and developmentTherewerenewsreleasesaboutFCVs fromtwoof
Japan's largestautomobilemanufacturers,ToyotaandHonda,in2014.
OnAugust29,2014Toyotaannouncedthatithadob-tainedtheapprovaloftheJapaneseMinistryofEconomy,TradeandIndustry (METI)asa“registeredcontainermanufacturer” for its high-pressure hydrogen fueltanks(26).Allcontainersandaccessoriesforstoringgasat1MPa (10atm)ormoreofpressure,suchasahigh-pressurehydrogen fuel tank,mustbetype-certifiedbyMETI. Inaddition, theHighPressureGasSafetyLawin Japan requires that thismanufacturingprocessbemadeavailableforofficialsafetyinspectionsbytheHighPressureGasSafetyInstituteofJapan.NowthatToyotahasobtainedthisapproval,itisallowedtoself-inspectitsownhigh-pressurehydrogenfueltanks,whichisexpect-edincreasemanufacturingefficiencyandproductivity.
Asmentionedabove,ToyotaalsobegansellingitsfirstFCVtothegeneralpublic.Figure4showstheToyota'sMiraiFCV,whichhasthefollowingdistinguishingchar-acteristics(24).
(1) AdoptionoftheToyotaFuelCellSystem(TFCS),which realizes excellent environmental perfor-manceandconvenience
(2) Enhancedequipmentandavehicledesignthaten-suressafetyandsecurity
(3) Adesignthat is instantlyrecognizableasthatoftheMirai
(4) Superiorlevelsofquietnessandexcellentsteeringstabilitythatinstillsthejoyofdriving
(5) A large-capacity,external, electricpowersupplysystem
Table5 shows themain specificationsof theTFCS
andTable6 shows themain specificationsof theMi-rai. TheFC stack andhigh-pressurehydrogen fueltankwerebothdeveloped in-housebyToyota. Thesetechnologiesdeliverapoweroutputdensityof3.1kW/L,2.2timesgreaterthanthatachievedinToyota'sprevi-ousFCHV-advmodel. Powergenerationefficiencyhasbeenimprovedbyusing3Dfinemeshflowchannelsthatensureuniformgenerationofelectricityonthecellsur-faces. Thehydrogenstoragecapacityof the fuel tankhasbeen increasedbyaround20%andtheweightandsizehavebeenreducedtoaround5.7wt%,whilealsoen-suringevenhigherperformance.ToyotaannouncedthattheMiraihasahydrogenrefuelingtimeofaroundthreeminutesandadrivingrangeofapproximately650km(24).
OnNovember17,2014Hondaunveiledboth itsnew-modelFCVconcept car, called theHondaFCVCON-CEPT(Fig.5),andalsotheconceptmodelofitsportableinverterbox, called theHondaPowerExporterCON-CEPT(Fig.6),whichcanprovideanexternalsupplyofelectricityfromaFCVatamaximumoutputof9kW(25).
TheHondaFCVCONCEPT isequippedwithanewfuelcellstackthatis33%smallerthantheoriginalmod-el,producesanoutputof100kWormore,andrealizes
Table 5 Main specifications of the TFCS(24)
FCstack NameTypeVolumeoutputdensityMax.outputHumidificationsystem
ToyotaFCStackSolidpolymerelectrolyte3.1kW/L114kW(155PS)Internalcirculationsystem(nohumidifier)
High-pressurehydrogenfueltanks
NumberNominalusagepressureStoragecapacityFueltankvolumeAmountofstoredhydrogen
2tanks70MPa(approximately700atm)5.7 wt%122.4L(Front:60.0L.Back:62.4L)Approximately5 .0kg
Motor TypeMax.outputMax.torque
ACsynchronousmotor113kW(154PS)335N・m(34.2kgf・m)
Drivebattery Type Nickel-metalhydride
Table 6 Main specifications of the Mirai FCV(24)
LengthWidthHeightWheelbaseTread(front/rear)Min.groundclearanceInteriorlengthInteriorwidthInteriorheightVehicleweightPassengercapacity
4890mm1815mm1535mm2780mm1535/1545mm130mm2040mm1465mm1185mm1850kg4people
Fig. 4 Toyota Mirai FCV(24)
Copyright©2015SocietyofAutomotiveEngineersofJapan,Inc.Allrightsreserved
apoweroutputdensityof3.1kW/L,animprovementofapproximately60%comparedtotheoriginal.Accordingtotheannouncement fromHonda, thehydrogen fuel issuppliedfromahigh-pressuretankthatstoresthefuelatapressureof70MPaandthedrivingrangeofthevehi-cleis700kmormore.Oneofthemeritsofthevehicle'sdesignisthatthefuelcellstackiscontainedentirelyun-derthehoodandwithinthefrontofthissedan-typeve-hicle,whichleavesroomfor5adultpassengers.AnewmodelFCVfromHondabasedonthisconceptvehicleisplannedtogoonsaleinJapansometimeduringthe2015fiscalyear(25).3. 3. Trends in establishing hydrogen refueling
station infrastructureThedevelopment of ahydrogen fuel infrastructure
hasbecomeanurgenttaskasFCVshavebeguntobecommerciallyavailabletothegeneralpublic.HydrogenrefuelingstationsmustbelocatedinareasthatareclosetoFCVusersandanenvironmentmustbeestablishedthatallowshydrogenrefuelingatanappropriatepriceforFCVstogrowinpopularity.
OnJuly14,2014IwataniCorporationopenedthefirstcommercialhydrogenfuelstation inAmagasakiCity inHyogoPrefecture (27). Thisstationhasadoptedanoff-sitemethodtosupply fuel totheFCVsanduses liquid
hydrogen that is transported to the stationon trucksfrom liquidhydrogenproductionbases. Thehydrogenfuelsupplycapacity is6vehiclesperhour (340Nm3/h),thepressureoftheliquidhydrogenduringrefuelingis70MPa,and it takesabout3minutespervehicletofinishrefueling.OnAugust28,2014Iwatanialsoannouncedaplantobuildhydrogenrefuelingstations incentralTo-kyo,theplacewheredemandforahydrogenfuelsupplyismostdesired(28).Inaddition,IwataniCorporationhascommitteditselftobuilding20commercialhydrogenfuelstations inthe fourmajormetropolitanareasofTokyo,Nagoya,Osaka,andFukuokaby2015.Clearly,progressisbeingmadeinpreparationstoestablishasolidfounda-tionforahydrogenfuelsupplyinfrastructureforFCVs.
OnNovember14, 2014 Iwatani announced that thepriceofhydrogenfuelwouldbe1,100yen/kg(100yen/Nm3) (29). Thisprice isequivalent to the fuelcost forhybridvehicles. Accordingto theHydrogenandFuelCellStrategyRoadmap (30)compiledbyMETI,thetar-gets for thepriceofhydrogen fuelwere“equal toorless thanthe fuelcostofgasolineenginevehicles”by2015and“equaltoor lessthanthefuelcostofhybridvehicles”by2020.Consequently,thepriceofhydrogenfuelhasbeensetatalevelthatrealizedthesegoalsafull5yearsaheadofschedule.
OnDecember10,2014 IwataniCorporationsignedacomprehensiveagreementwithSevenElevenJapanCo.tobuildhydrogenstationsandconveniencestoresinthesamefacilities.ItwasannouncedthatthefirsttwosuchfacilitiesarescheduledtoopeninTokyoandAichiPre-fecture in2015 (31). It is thoughtthatasingle locationwhereconsumerscanshopfordailynecessitiesandalsorefuelFCVswillmakeamajorcontributiontoimprovingtheconvenienceandpopularityofFCVs.
JXNipponOil andEnergyCorporation announcedonNovember12,2014that itwouldbeopeningitsfirstcommercialhydrogenrefuelingstation inDecemberofthesameyearandatotalof11suchstationsbytheendof the2014fiscalyear (32). Thefirststation is theDr.DriveEbinaChuoStore thatopenedonDecember25,2014 inEbinaCity,KanagawaPrefecture (33). Therearealsoplanstoopentwoadditionalhydrogenrefuelingstations in thesameprefecture in theIzumiWardandAsahiWardofYokohamaCity. Inaddition, therearealsoplanstoopenonestationinChibaPrefecture,threestations inSaitamaPrefecture, twostations inTokyo,andtwostationsinAichiPrefecture.
Fig. 5 Honda FCV CONCEPT(25)
Fig. 6 Honda Power Exporter CONCEPT(25)
Copyright©2015SocietyofAutomotiveEngineersofJapan,Inc.Allrightsreserved
JXNipponOilandEnergyCorporationalsoannouncedonDecember25,2014that theprice forhydrogen fuelwouldbe1,000yen/kg(excludingconsumptiontax)(33).ThecompanysaidthatitsetthepricetobeequivalenttothegasolinecostofahybridvehicleofthesameclassastheToyotaMiraiFCV. Thehydrogenrefuelingsta-tionsareoperatedwithan“off-site”method,wherecompressedhydrogen is transportedfromthemanufac-turingsiteusingahydrogentrailer,orotherappropriatecontainer.Thehydrogensupplycapacityofthestationsis300Nm3/hwhichmakes itpossible tofillfiveorsixFCVsperhour.Thefillingpressureis70MPa,whichisthesamepressureusedinthefuelstoragetanksoftheToyotaMirai,andittakesabout3minutestocompletelyfillthetanks.
Asdescribedintheprecedingparagraphs,ahydrogenfuel infrastructure isbeingpreparedandput intoplacefollowingthepaceofcommercialsalesofFCVs.3. 4. SummaryIn2014ToyotabegansellinganFCV.Thespreadand
popularizationofFCVs isbeingpromotedbytheJapa-nesegovernmentandlocalagenciesthroughsubsidiestohelpconsumerspurchasethesevehicles. However, thissubsidysystemandthepromotionpolicieshaveatimelimitandwillnotcontinue for long. Therefore, reduc-ingtheuseofexpensivematerials inthefuelcellstackandhigh-pressurehydrogenstorage tanks, aswell asimprovingdurabilitywillcontinuetobeissuesthatneedtobeaddressedtohelpbringdownthecostofFCVs.Itisalsoessentialtoenhancethehydrogenfuelinfrastruc-ture tohelpFCVstobecomewidelyacceptedbycon-sumers.ItisexpectedthatthenumberofhydrogenfuelstationswillcontinuetoincreaseasJapanmovestowardthefull-fledgeacceptanceandadoptionofFCVs.
4 Electric Power
4. 1. IntroductionTheelectrificationofvehiclesiscontinuingtoadvance
bothtoreduceCO2emissionsandtoimprovepowerper-formance. Asthiselectrificationadvances,electricmo-torsandbatteriesarebeingequippedonvehiclesinvari-ousdifferentcategories.Themotorsandbatterieswithoutputcharacteristicsthatarethemostsuitablefortherespectiveapplicationandlevelofperformancearebeingadopted.ExternalbatterychargingisnecessaryforEVsandPHEVs. Consequently,newchargingmethodsthatofferevenmoreconveniencearebeingdevelopedasthe
charginginfrastructurecontinuestospreadandbecomemorewidelyavailable.ThissectionintroducesthemaintrendsinelectricmotorsandEVcharginginfrastructurein2014.4. 2. Electric motorsTable7showsthemainelectricmotorsusedtopro-
videdrivepower inpassengervehicles sold in Japan.Almostallof thesemotors, regardlessof installation inanHVorEV,areACsynchronousmotorsusingperma-nentmagnets. Theoutputof thesemotorsvaries fromabout2kWforthemotorsused inmildhybridEVstoabout10to40kWinthemotorsforparallelhybridEVs,inwhichthesemotorsmainlyprovidedriveassist.Themotoroutputrises to20 to150kW inhybridsystemsthatenable fullyelectricdriving. Asaresult, there isagreatrangeinmotoroutputdependingonthesizeofthevehicleandthedrivingperformance.Inthecaseofmotorsused inEVs, themotoroutput isusuallyabout30to125kWand,sincethemotoristhemainsourceofpower, thisoutput is largelydependentonthevehicleweight. Thespeedof thesemotorsduringmaximumoutputvaries fromroughlyequivalent to thespeedofagasolineenginetomotorswithhighspeedsof10,000min–1orhigher.Inmostcases,thehighertheoutputofthemotor, thegreaterthechancethat it isalsoahighspeedmotor.
One recent trend influencing the research andde-velopmentofnewelectricmotors is theaimtogreatlyreduceoreliminate theuseof rareearthelementsbyactively seekingmore efficient arrangements for themagnetsandevenadoptingswitchedreluctance(SR)mo-tors,whichusenorareearthelementsatall.Othernewtechnologicaldevelopments, suchasadoptingdifferentwindingwires,arealsobeingpursuedtohelp increaserotationspeedandtoreducesizeandweight.4. 3. Charging infrastructureTheJapanesegovernmentandautomobile industry
groupsare implementingvariouspolicies tohelppro-mote the spread andpopularization of the charginginfrastructure forEVsandPHVs. The followingpara-graphsbrieflydescribethepoliciesbeingimplementedtopromotethespreadandpopularizationof thischarginginfrastructureandtherecenttrendsinbatterychargingtechnologies.4. 3. 1. Policies to promote popularization4. 3. 1. 1. Next-generation vehicle battery charging
infrastructure development and promotion
Copyright©2015SocietyofAutomotiveEngineersofJapan,Inc.Allrightsreserved
In the2012 fiscalyearsupplementarybudget, subsi-diesof100.5billionyenwereenacted for theestablish-mentofacharginginfrastructureandanother30billionyenwasenactedaspartof the2014fiscalyearsupple-mentarybudget. The lattersubsidieswereenacted inanefforttohelpenhancethecontent,suchasbyadding
the establishment ofbillingdevices to the applicabletargetsforthesubsidies,inordertomaketheapplicabletargetseveneasiertouse.4. 3. 1. 2. Establishment of Nippon Charge Service,
LLC (NCS)NCSwasestablishedonMay26,2014by fourmajor
Table 7 Main motors installed in EVs(35)─(44)
Nameofcompany Designation Type(*) Max.output(kW/min-1) Torque(Nm/min-1) Use Mainvehiclesequippedwiththismotor
ToyotaMotorCorporation
1 LM PM 45/─ 169/─ HEV Aqua,CorollaHybrid
2 JM PM 105/4500 270/0─1500 HEV Sai,Camry,EstimaHybrid(front),HarrierHybrid(front),AlphardHybrid(front),HS250 h,NX300 h(front)
3 JM PM 60/─ 207/─ HEV Prius,PriusPHV,CT200h
4 JM PM 123/─ 335/─ HEV RX450 h(front)
5 JM PM 60/─ 207/─ HEV PriusAlpha,NoahHybrid,VoxyHybrid,EsquireHybrid
1 KM PM
147/5615─13000 275/0─3840 HEV Majesta2WD,GS450h
105/─ 300/─ HEV CrownHybrid,Majesta4WD,GS350h,IS300h,RC300h
165/─ 300/─ HEV LS600h
2 FM PM50/4610─5120 130/0─610 HEV EstimaHybrid(rear),HarrierHybrid(rear),Alphard
Hybrid(rear)
50/─ 139/─ HEV RX450 h(rear),NX300 h(rear)
NissanMotorCo.,Ltd.
HM34 PM 50/1646─2000 290/0─1646 HEV FugaHybrid,Cima,Skyline350GTHybrid
SM23 PM 1.8/─ 53.6/─ HEV SerenaS-Hybrid
EM57 PM 80/3008─10000 254/0─3008 EV Leaf,e-NV200
Honda MotorCompany MF6
PM 15/2000 78/1000 HEV CR-Z
PM 10/1500 78/1000 HEV FreedHybrid,FitShuttleHybrid
MF8 PM 124/3857─8000 307/0─3857 HEV Accord,Accordplug-in
H1 PM 22/1313─2000 160/0─1313 HEV FitHybrid,VezelHybrid,Grace
H2 PM 35/3000 148/500─2000 HEV Legend(front)
H3 PM 27/4000 73/0─2000 HEV Legend(rear)
MCF3 PM 92/3695 -10320 256/0─3056 EV FitEV
FujiHeavyIndustriesLtd. MA1 PM 10/ ─ 65/─ HEV XVHybrid
Suzuki WA04A IM 1.6/1000 40/100 HEV WagonR
Mazda MotorCorporation MG PM 60/─ 207/─ HEV AxelaHybrid
MitsubishiMotorsCo.,Ltd.
S61 PM 60/─ 137/─ HEV OutlanderPHEV(front)
Y61 PM 60/─ 195/─ HEV OutlanderPHEV(rear)
Y51
PM 30/─ 160/─ EV i-MiEVM
PM 47/─ 160/─ EV i-MiEVG
PM 30/─ 196/─ EV MinicabMiEV
AudiJapan EAFA PM 40/─ 210/─ HEV Q5hybrid,A6hybrid
BMW ─ PM 40/─ 210/─ HEV ActiveHybrid3,ActiveHybrid5,ActiveHybrid7
─ PM 125/5200 250/100─4800 EV i3
Mercedes-BenzJapan
21227 PM 20/1800 250/0─800 HEV S400Hybrid,E400Hybrid
EM0003 PM 55/4000 130/0─4800 EV smartfortwoelectricdrive
22227 PM 85/3500 340/0─2400 HEV S550Plug-inHybridLong
(*)
Copyright©2015SocietyofAutomotiveEngineersofJapan,Inc.Allrightsreserved
Japanese automobilemanufacturers (Toyota,Nissan,Honda, andMitsubishi) topromote the installation ofelectricvehiclechargingdevicesandtobuildupacharg-ing infrastructurenetworkwithahigh levelofconve-nience(45).NCSisaimingtobuildanationwidenetworkof rapidchargers (in thisarticle thismeansachargerwithanoutputof10kWormore)thatareconnectedtoeachotherand thatalluse thesamecommoncard togainaccess. This isbeingcarriedout toeliminate theinconvenienceofneedingaseparatespecificcardtouseeachoftheoldchargingnetworks.AccordingtoapressreleaseonMarch19,2015,NCSisaimingtohavearound11,000chargers in itscharging infrastructurenetworkoperationalbytheendof2015(46).4. 3. 2. State of progressFigure7showsthecumulativenumberofrapidand
normalchargers(inthisarticle,achargerwithanoutputof less than10kW) thathavebeen installed inJapan.However,therapidchargersshowninthefigurearelim-itedtoonlythosethatreceivedCHAdeMOcertification(47).Thefollowingsectionsprovideexamplesanddetailsabout thestateofprogress in installingbothkindsofchargers.4. 3. 2. 1. Rapid chargersThenumber of these chargers thatwere installed
increasedsignificantlystartingat theendof2014dueto the subsidies thatwere enacted. Thedata isnotshown in thegraph inFig. 7,but thenumberof fastchargerswith theCHAdeMOcharging standard thatwere installedoutsideJapanalso increasedsignificantlystartingin2013andthecumulativenumberofoverseas
CHAdeMOlocationsisquicklyapproachingthatofJapan(48).
TheFamilyMartchainofconveniencestores inJa-panannounced inApril2014that itwould installrapidchargersat500ofitsstorelocationsstartinginthesum-merof2014.Accordingtoawebsitethatallowsyoutosearch forFamilyMartstore locations,680storeshaverapidchargersavailableasofApril 17, 2015. This isoneexample ofhow the subsidies from the Japanesegovernmentandtheeffortsofthefourmajorautomobilemanufacturers (Toyota,Nissan,Honda,andMitsubishi)throughthePHV,PHEV,andEVChargingInfrastruc-turePromotionProjecthavebeenutilizedtomaximumeffect.Bysomecalculations,thenumberoffastchargersin Japan increasedbyapproximately 30%within oneyear.
One type of rapid charger that does not use theCHAdeMOstandard is theSupercharger fromTeslaMotors,Inc.(Fig.8)andittoohasbegunmakinginroadsintoJapan.ThischargerisdifferentfromCHAdeMOinthatitcancurrentlyonlybeusedtochargetheModelSluxurysedanEVfromTeslaMotors.AmajorfeatureoftheTeslaSupercharger is that itcanprovideachargeatamaximumof120kW,whichismorethantwotimesgreaterthantheCHAdeMOstandard(max.50kW).AsofApril15,2015, therewere6 locations inJapanwithTeslaSuperchargersandworldwideitisavailablein419locations(2,305chargers)(52).PlanstosetupadditionalSupercharger stations around theworld through theyear2016werereleasedvia theTeslaMotorswebsite.TheModel S is equippedwith aCHAdeMOadaptersothat itcanbechargedusingafastchargerwiththeCHAdeMOstandard,butcurrently there isnoadapterthatallowsEVsdesignedfortheCHAdeMOstandardtomakeuseoftheTeslaSupercharger.4. 3. 2. 2. Normal chargersFigure7showsthat thenumberofnormalchargers
hasbeenincreasingsteadily.Inrecentyearsitismore
Fig. 7 Cumulative number of chargers for EVs in Japan(48)(49)
Number of normal chargers (stand-type) in JapanNumber of rapid charger locations (CHAdeMO standard) in JapanNumber of rapid chargers (CHAdeMO standard) in Japan
10 000
8 000
6 000
4 000
2 000
0
Cumulative number of chargers installed & sold
Jan. 2008
Jan. 2009
Jan. 2010
Jan. 2011
Jan. 2012
Jan. 2013
Jan. 2014
Jan. 2015
Jan. 2016
Fig. 8 Tesla Motors, Inc. Supercharger (Port Island Golf Club in Kobe City, Hyogo Prefecture).
Copyright©2015SocietyofAutomotiveEngineersofJapan,Inc.Allrightsreserved
commontohearofsingle locationsequippedwithmul-tiplenormalchargers. In theTokyoMidtownparkingarea,125normalchargerswere installed inDecember2014(54).OnFebruary27,2015,MitsubishiMotorsCo.,Ltd.announcedtheinstallationofatotalof1,154normalchargers in its employeeparking lots to enhance theconvenienceofworkerswhocommute toworkusingEVs(Fig.9).AutobacsSevenCo.,Ltd.announcedinitsCSRandGovernanceReporttheinstallationofchargingstandsat102storesbytheendonMarch2015 (normalchargerswillbeinstalledat98ofthosestores)(55).Inalloftheseinstances,thenormalchargersareprovidedforusersleavingavehicleparkedforanextendedperiodoftime,suchaswhileshoppingorworking.4. 3. 3. Technological trends4. 3. 3. 1. Rapid chargersThe line-upofrapidchargermodelscontinues to in-
creasetomeetthevariousneedsofthe installers. Thenumberofdifferentmodelsthatcanbechosen,startingwith10kWmodels, is increasingtoreducetheburdenoftheelectricpowercontractsontheinstallers.Hybridmodel fast chargerswithan internalbatteryarenowalsoavailable for thissamepurpose. Somemodelsarealsoequippedwith twoconnectors tohelprelieve thestressofEVuserswhomustwaitforotherstofinishbe-forecharging.4. 3. 3. 2. Normal chargersTheestablishmentofbillingfunctionsonnormalchar-
gershashelpedturntheprovisionofEVchargers intoaviablebusinessmodel.Initially,mostnormalchargerswerequitesimpleandhadnobilling function,butnowallofthechargermanufacturersaresellingchargermod-elsthatcomewithanICcardauthenticationfunctionforthepurposeofbilling.4. 3. 3. 3. Vehicle-to-home (V2H)Inadditiontoanexternalchargingfunction,someEVs
arealsoequippedwithaV2Hfunctionthatsupplieselec-tricitytoahome. Thefirstsysteminthemarketwiththisfunctionisthe“LEAFtoHome”thatwentonsalefromNissaninJuneof2012.InJuly2014,Mitsubishibe-gansellingitsSMARTV2Hsystem.ThissystemmakesitpossibletouseamixofelectricpowerfromanEV,asolarpowergenerationsystem,andtheexistingpowergridofahome.Inaddition,it isalsopossibletoswitchbetweenchargingordischargingtheEVbatteryatwillwithoutapoweroutageoccurring. FunctionssuchasthesearehelpingtoboosttheaddedvalueprovidedbyEVs.
ReferencesNote:thefollowingreferencesareinJapanese.(1) http://www.cev-pc.or.jp/index.html(2) https://lexus.jp/(3) http://www.honda.co.jp/auto(4) http://toyota.jp/(5) http://www.suzuki.co.jp/car/(6) http://www.mercedes-benz.co.jp/(7) http://www.cev-pc.or.jp/(8) http://www.mitsubishi-motors.co.jp/(9) http://www.fhi.co.jp/(10) http://www.nissan.co.jp/(11) http://www.smart-j.com/(12) http://www.honda.co.jp/(13) http://www.mazda.com/ja/(14) http://toyota.jp/(15) http://www.bmw.co.jp/(16) http://www.teslamotors.com/jp/(17) http://www.volkswagen.co.jp/(18) http://www.mlit.go.jp(19) RoadTransportBureauofMLIT,guidelines for
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php?idx=1178
Fig. 9 Normal chargers for employees (Mitsubishi Motors Okazaki Plant Employee Parking Area)(56)
Copyright©2015SocietyofAutomotiveEngineersofJapan,Inc.Allrightsreserved
(28) http://www.iwatani.co.jp/jpn/newsrelease/detail.php?idx=1181
(29) http://www.iwatani.co.jp/jpn/newsrelease/detail.php?idx=1186
(30) http://www.meti.go.jp/press/2014/06/20140624004/20140624004.html
(31) http://www.iwatani.co.jp/jpn/newsrelease/detail.php?idx=1193
(32) http://www.noe.jx-group.co.jp/newsrelease/2014/20141112_01_0794529.html
(33) http://www.noe.jx-group.co.jp/newsrelease/2014/20141225_01_0794529.html
(34) http://toyota.jp/(35) https://lexus.jp/(36) http://www.nissan.co.jp/(37) http://www.honda.co.jp/auto(38) http://www.subaru.jp/(39) http://www.suzuki.co.jp/car/(40) http://www.mazda.co.jp/(41) http://www.mitsubishi-motors.co.jp/
(42) http://www.audi.co.jp/jp/brand/ja.html(43) http://www.bmw.co.jp/jp/ja/(44) http://www.mercedes-benz.co.jp/(45) NCScompanyoutline, http://www.nippon-juden.co.jp/profile/(46) NCS,pressreleaseonMarch19,2015(47) http://www.chademo.com/wp/japan/mission/(48) CHAdeMOwebsite,extractfromgraphshowing
rapidchargerinstallationtrends,May27,2015(49) EVPOSSAwebsite, shipmentstatistics,Septem-
ber2014(50) http://www.family.co.jp/services/batterycharger/(51) http://tnhm-juuden.com/(52) http://www.teslamotors.com/jp/supercharger(53) http://japan.teslamotors.com(54) NEC,pressreleaseonJune27,2014(55) http://www.autobacs.co.jp/ja/csr/ev.html(56) Mitsubishi,pressreleaseonMay27,2015(57) http://www.mitsubishielectric.co.jp/home/ smartv2h/
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