history of science history of philosophy faghrie mitchell
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History of ScienceHistory of Philosophy
Faghrie Mitchell
What is History?
What is Science?
What is Philosophy?
What is History?
What is Science?
What is Philosophy?
History? Science? Philosophy? Curiosity? Almost in the beginning was curiosity.
Asimov’s New Guide to Science (Asimov 1987)
Early Man: Curiosity Science
CURIOSITY
EXPLORATION
DISCOVERY
SCIENCE
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Ancient Egypt: Curiosity Science
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Ancient Egypt: Evolution of the Pyramids
Djoser2630-2611 BC
Step Pyramid Saqqara, Egypt
Djoser2630-2611 BC
Snefru2575-2551 BC
Cheops/Khufu2551-2528 BC
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Ancient Egypt: Evolution of the Pyramids
Snefru2575-2551 BC
Intermediate PyramidMaidum, Egypt
Djoser2630-2611 BC
Snefru2575-2551 BC
Cheops/Khufu2551-2528 BC
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Ancient Egypt: Evolution of the Pyramids
Cheops/Khufu2551-2528 BC
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Smooth PyramidsGiza, Egypt
Djoser2630-2611 BC
Snefru2575-2551 BC
Cheops/Khufu2551-2528 BC
Why show the Evolution of the Pyramids?
Ref: Shaw (2003)
DjoserStep
2630-2611 BC
SnefruIntermediate2575-2551 BC
Cheops/KhufuSmooth
2551-2528 BC
Did the ancient Egyptians have science To build a pyramid you need to have knowledge and skills about
stone and rock
E.g. how much stone, how many men to cut and move the stone, etc (quantity surveying)
E.g. how do I find good quality stone, how do I move the stone (geology and engineering (mathematics))
Evolution of pyramids is an example of the evolution of ancient Egyptian science
Why show the Evolution of the Pyramids?
Images: www.touregypt.net
DjoserStep
2630-2611 BC
SnefruIntermediate2575-2551 BC
Cheops/KhufuSmooth
2551-2528 BC
Did the ancient Egyptians have evolving science Ancient Egyptians had to improve their building techniques going
from Step to Intermediate to Smooth pyramid (increasing difficulty and challenge of building a smooth pyramid)
The Intermediate pyramid at Maidum could be seen as a prototype pyramid
The Maidum pyramid is speculated to have been either abandoned, or to have collapsed because of the slope of the pyramid
The lessons learnt from this pyramid and previous pyramids were: (1) to build on rock instead of sand and (2) to tilt the stone blocks inward to stabilise the pyramid (see next slide)
Why show the Evolution of the Pyramids?
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SnefruIntermediate2575-2551 BC
Cheops/KhufuSmooth
2551-2528 BC
Why show the Evolution of the Pyramids?
Ref:
Did the ancient Egyptians have science
Did the ancient Egyptians have evolving science
Did the ancient Egyptians have philosophy of science ???
So you do not need to have PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE to have SCIENCE? YES and NO
Why show the Evolution of the Pyramids?
Ref:
So you do not need to have PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE to have SCIENCE? YES and NO
SCIENCEPHILOSOPHY can
MYTHOLOGYRELIGIONDOGMA
can SCIENCEPHILOSOPHY can
MYTHOLOGYRELIGIONDOGMA
SCIENCEcan
Why show the Evolution of the Pyramids?
Ref:
Conversely, you also have three similar paths, leading to NONSCIENCE, instead of SCIENCE
NONSCIENCEPHILOSOPHY can
MYTHOLOGYRELIGIONDOGMA
can NONSCIENCEPHILOSOPHY can
MYTHOLOGYRELIGIONDOGMA
NONSCIENCEcan
Ancient Egyptian Medicine
Ref:
The Evolution of pyramids serve to show that the ancient Egyptians had SCIENCE. I will now show a clearer example, to show ancient Egyptian SCIENCE and NONSCIENCE
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SCIENCE
can
NONSCIENCEcan
Example: Ancient Egyptian Medicine
Ancient Egyptian Medicine
Ref: Wikipedia, www.nyu.edu, Crystalinks
Example: Ancient Egyptian Medicine
Some of the oldest scientific artefacts
Edwin Smith papyrus (c 1600BC), 22 pages which deals mainly with the treatment of wounds
Ebers papyrus (c1550BC), 110 pages which contains 700 magical formulas and remedies
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Ancient Egyptian Medicine
Ref:Wikipedia
Out of the Edwin Smith and the Ebers Papyruses, one can draw examples of SCIENCE and NONSCIENCE (of which I will list only a few)
SCIENCE
NONSCIENCE
Use of ox liver, to treat night blindness(www.es.flinders.edu.au)
Use of honey as antibiotic on open wounds(www.nature.com)
Half an onion and the froth of beer as a remedy against death
Use of lettuce or castor oil for alopecia
Impression of Ancient Egyptians
Ref:Robinson
So, they got some right, some wrong. Pretty impressive though to have a structure (Giza pyramid) still standing after more than 4,000 years (c2500BC-2000AD)
Coming back to the earlier point:There is no evidence available to say that the ancient Egyptians had a philosophy of science.
So how could they establish themselves one of the great ancient civilisations?
A civilisation, like the ancient Egytians, endures and maintains itself because it:(1) solves practical problems (feeding and defending its people) and (2) puts in place a form of government able to preserve it.
So, science and governance, not philosophy, are needed to have a developed culture or civilisation.
Impression of Ancient Egyptians
Ref:epnet
A more important point relates to:“So, they got some right, some wrong.”
How do we maximise right and minimize wrong?
Or rather, How do we maximise SCIENCE and minimise NONSCIENCE?
Summary of section on ancient Egyptians
Ref:
The two points made in the preceding slides, effectively summarise this section
I have covered the first path so far (striked out). I will combine the second and third paths, and discuss them as if they are one
SCIENCEPHILOSOPHY can
MYTHOLOGYRELIGIONDOGMA
can SCIENCEPHILOSOPHY can
MYTHOLOGYRELIGIONDOGMA
SCIENCEcan
What is Philosophy?
RefRobinson:
How do we maximise right and minimize wrong?
Or rather, How do we maximise SCIENCE and minimise NONSCIENCE?
Just by asking these questions we are asking philosophical questions. We are also answering what philosophy is.
“So what is philosophy anyway? Philosophy is not there to solve practical problems, problems of society or individual. Rather philosophy tests our most fundamental beliefs, values and convictions that we have, and to test them for the purpose of getting them right. This testing is in the form of asking critical questions, of debating, which is the central aspect of the philosophy. Philosophy is the love of wisdom. The love of getting to the right answer using debate.”(Daniel Robinson, Georgetown University).
What is Philosophy of Science?
RefRobinson:
Understanding philosophy can be simplified by asking two simple questions, namely:1. What is good, what is bad?2. What is right, what is wrong?
The first question relates to human behaviour, specifically, for example, ideas on virtue, morals and ethics.BROAD STATEMENT: Scientists are less interested in this.
The second question relates specifically to ideas on logic and reason, and perception and reality.BROAD STATEMENT: Scientists are more interested in this.
So even though we can say that “…Philosophy is not there to solve practical problems, …”, it does not mean that we cannot use philosophical thought to help us solve scientific or practical problems.
The Age of Mythology
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Prior to the establishment of the first Greek school of thought by Thales of Miletus (c. 624-546BC), the Greeks looked only towards Olympia (heaven) and the gods for explanations relating to their world
Thales theorem: An inscribed angle in an semicircle is a right angle
Also predicted an eclipse would happen in 585BC which actually occurred
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The Age of Mythology The role of the gods in the thinking of
the ancient Greeks is illustrated in the epic by Homer (c. 7th century BC), called the Iliad
The Iliad is a story which is believed to combine myth (fiction) and ancient Greek history, and is supposed to have happened in the 12th century (The films Helen of Troy and Troy is based on this story)
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The Iliad starts off with the Greek gods Zeus and Poseidon who both desire the sea-nymph, Thetis
They become afraid of pursuing Thetis when it is prophesized that any future son of Thetis wil be greater than his father; so they back off
The Age of Mythology
RefRobinson:
They allow Thetis to marry the mortal king, Peleus
At the wedding, you have gods, goddesses, demi-gods and mortals in attendance
A dispute arise as to who is the most beautiful goddess. The gods decide that the young Trojan prince, Paris, must decide
He opts for the goddess, Aphrodite, because she promises him the most beautiful woman in the world, which is Helen
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The Age of Mythology
RefRobinson:
Some time later, Paris meets Helen, but unfortunately finds her to be married to Melenaus, a Spartan prince
Helen had many suitors before marriage, each of which who made a pledge to her father to protect Helen and her future husband
So with Helen’s abduction, they set off to Troy
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The Rise of Philosophy
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The Iliad clearly illustrates the fickle, emotional, and unpredictable nature of the gods
It also illustrate that the gods interfere with mortals’ lives, but they remain mainly interested in their own needs
The ancient Greeks felt; there was a distance between Olympia (Heaven) and Athenia (Earth)
However, this does not necessarily mean that they started to discard their religion, Olympianism It means that they had to deal with this dualism, each in their own way for example Plato stated: The Earth is imperfect and changeable, the heavens were perfect and immutable
The Rise of Philosophy
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The Greek philosophers, Plato (427-347BC) and Aristotle (384-322BC), were the first Greek philosophers to adequately deal with questions about their world, their beliefs and their reality – to confront dualism
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The Rise of Philosophy
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The Rise of Philosophy
RefRobinson:
Plato (on the left) pointing upwards: he is interested in the forms, universals, generals
Aristotle (on the right): he is interested in particulars, specifics
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The Rise of Philosophy: PLATO
Ref:fWikipedia
Knowledge is that which is true and that which is believed
1. Something can be true, but is not believed e.g. some truth about our universe which has not been discovered yet2. Something can be believed, but is not true e.g. urban legends, myths, conspiracy theories
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Plato has a top-down perspective on knowledge, he favours deductive reasoning
The Rise of Philosophy: ARISTOTLE
RefRobinson:
Aristotle (384-322BC) differed from Plato in that he had favoured a bottom-up approach, and preferred empiricism over deduction
Aristotle more interested in specifics, so he writes the Physics, and then the Metaphysics and later on Historia Animalium
The Historia Animalium was written rather hastily, but contains lenghthy descriptions of countless species of fish, shellfish, and other, animals and their anatomies.
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The Rise of Philosophy
RefRobinson:
The Physics is collection of lessons on theoretical, methodological, philosophical concerns, rather than physical theories or contents of particular investigations.
It sets the bases for scientists to study the world subject to change, and change, or movement, or motion (kinesis) is one of the chief topics of the work.
The Metaphysics is so named because it came after the Physics. It is divided into three parts (1) ontology, (2) theology and (3) universal science.
Ontology is the study of existence; it has been traditionally defined as 'the science of being'. Theology refers to the study of God (or the gods). Universal science is supposed to be the study of so-called first principles, which underlie all other inquiries.
Plato and Aristotle: Two Perspectives
RefRobinson:
Plato Aristotle
“Top down” approach
One starts with an idea
Theory laden observation
Rational traditionDEDUCTIVE REASONING
Bottom up approach
Drawing conclusions from observation
Empirical tradition
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Conclusion on Ancient Greek Philosophy
Ref:
With Plato and Aristotle, the foundations for deductive and inductive reasoning was put in place, methods of thinking which could maximise science and minimise nonscience
However, this was just a start on an otherwise long road
MYTHOLOGYRELIGIONDOGMA
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The Rise of the Roman Empire
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The Roman Empire started to emerge in 282BC, after the Etruscans were defeated at the Battle of Populonia, and the defeat of the Greek colony at Tarentum
Rome established colonies in strategic areas, which led to the demise of the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires (c 2nd century BC)
Rome was the superpower, they controlled the Mediterranean Sea
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The Rise of the Roman Empire
Ref:
Greek culture survived, because Rome took it as its own
However, in general, the Romans did not have the same penchant for the dialectic tradition (debate) and philosophy lost its appeal
Rome was more interested in conquest
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The Rise of the Roman Empire
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c. 49-45BCExpansion under Julius Caesar
14-117 CEHeight of Roman Power
284-305 CEThe Empire under pressure
Pull back from Britain, Dacia and Mesopotamia
The Decline of the Roman Empire
c. 400-526 CEBarbarian migrations and invasions
527-565 CEByzantium Empire under Justinian
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c. 632-750 CERise of Islam
Preservation of Scholarship
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9th and 10th centuries
Islam starts to occupy parts of the Byzantine Empire
War between the two blocs, but also dialogue (debate)
Start to see emergence of Islamic and Jewish scholars and philosophers who translates Greek texts into Latin
E.g. Al-Farabi comments on Plato’s Republic
Preservation of Scholarship
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9th and 10th centuries
Al-Farabi comments that justice and rational thought will not come when kings are philosophers and philosophers are kings, but rather it will come when the philosopher is a prophet and a prophet is a philosopher
Islam encourages scholarshipe.g. the first revelation received by the unlettered Prophet (SAW), instructed him to read,the Prophet (SAW) also said that knowledge must be sought even if in China
Read: In the name of thy Lord Who createth
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The Fall of the Byzantine Empire
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Steady outflow of Byzantine-Greek scholars heading west
Increases scholarship in the West
Scholarship stopped in 476 AD because1. disintegration of political structures
2. attack and invasions3. loss control of the Mediterranean and trade routes4. emergence of the Church
The Scientific Revolution 12th and 13th centuries
The Renaissance
1543Scientific Revolution
Publication of Archimedes (287-212 BC)
Copernicus (1473-1543)A heliocentric system
Vesalius (1514-1564)Published work on dissections replaces Galen (129-200AD)
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The Scientific Revolution 1543
Emergence of Philosophy
Father of Philosophy Rene Descartes (1596-1626)I think, therefore I am
Emergence of Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
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Plato Aristotle
“Top down” approach
One starts with an idea
Theory laden observation
Rational traditionDEDUCTIVE REASONING
Bottom up approach
Drawing conclusions from observation
Empirical tradition
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Rene Descartes Sir Francis Bacon
The Scientific Revolution
Sir Francis Bacon: Induction What is induction?
Inductive reasoning starts with an observation. Repeated observation leads one to conclude that: All observed swans are white (specific statement) Therefore all swans are white (general statement)
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Observation(s)
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Problems with Induction There are weaknesses to the inductive
method of reasoning, for example looking at our argument:All observed swans are white (specific statement) Therefore all swans are white (general statement)
What would happen if we stayed in Europe and only saw, white swans during our lifetime?CONCLUSION: All swans are white
What would happen if we went to Australia and see a black swan? CONCLUSION: We were wrong, our reasoning is not sound
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Problems with Induction Below another example: Turkey has seen may days come and
go, why should 25 December be any different?Induction proves fatal
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Problems with Induction: David Hume The example of the swans and the turkey are
both hasty generalisations, which assumes all swans are white, and as a healthy turkey I can expect to see the next day
David Hume (1711-1776), Scottish philosopher, pointed out this weakness of induction
Hume was however, in agreement with Bacon that knowledge must be gained empirically, through observation, experience and experimentation
Despite Hume’s objection, and the problems with induction, we see three centuries of massive gathering of scientific knowledge using induction
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Empiricism vs Dogma (Induction vs Deduction)
Sir Francis Bacon emphasised that knowledge could only be gained by experiencing the world i.e. make observations, collect data, conduct experiments (empiricism)
The inductive method of inquiry was in opposition to the dogmatic teachings of the Church, which made biased, subjective assumptions
The Church is dogmatic because it assumes that religious knowledge is true and can be used to derive scientific knowledge or truths; the Church uses deductive reasoning
An example of this clash can be seen with the response of the Church to Galileo, after he supported Copernicus’ idea on a heliocentric system (the Earth is the centre and the other heavenly bodies revolve around it)
Empiricism vs Rationalism (Induction vs Deduction)
Bacon and Hume was also in opposition to the Continental Rationalists, for example Rene Descartes (1596-1626)
Descartes was a mathematician and he followed the same method used by the ancient Greek mathematicians, namely, start with a set of ideas (theorems, axioms) and derive a new theorem from that body of existing knowledge
The continental rationalist, like Descartes, Leibniz and Spinoza, drew a distinction between knowledge of eternal truth, for example, mathematics, and knowledge which had to be gained through experience (experimentation), for example, biology
Empiricism vs Rationalism (Induction vs Deduction)
New mathematical knowledge can be gained by using existing knowledge, using logic and reason to produce new mathematical knowledge, because mathematical truth is absolute, eternal, and certain
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Hypothetico-deductive Method
The natural and the physical sciences lends itself better to empiricism, and less so to rationalism (using logic and reason alone)
However, that is not to say that biologists do not use the deductive method of reasoning
Deduction and induction often work together in the natural and physical science
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Hypothetico-deductive Method
Induction ensures that there is an adequate number of unbiased observations (accumulated knowledge)
Deduction can use the accumulated knowledge to ask question based on reason and logic
An example of this is the Global Warming and Global Dimming issue
Hypothetico-deductive Method
An example of this is the Global Warming and Global Dimming issue
INDUCTIONexperienceexperiment
observeEMPIRICIST
DEDUCTIONreasonlogic
RATIONALIST
falsification
BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
Deduction draws from the body of knowledge
Induction increases
the body of knowledge
FACT THEORY
Hypothetico-deductive Method
INDUCTIONaccumulation
of weather datasupporting
Global WarmingEMPIRICIST
DEDUCTIONreason aboutweather data
and its effectsRATIONALIST
falsification
BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
Deduction draws from the body of knowledge
Induction increases
the body of knowledge
FACT THEORY
Hypothetico-deductive Method
INDUCTIONaccumulation
of weather datasupporting
Global DimmingEMPIRICIST
DEDUCTIONreason aboutweather data
and its effectsRATIONALIST
falsification
BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
Deduction draws from the body of knowledge
Induction increases
the body of knowledge
FACT THEORY
Hypothetico-deductive method The hypothetico method
uses falsification instead of verification to test theories
Sir Karl Popper developed the hypothetico-deductive method to counter the biased verification of theories
This method also tested existing theories and ideas, using deduction
Thomas Kuhn
Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996) stated that there are two types of knowledge or science, namely, core science and normal science
Core science is proven scientific knowledge, which scientists do not question, they do not try to falsify it
Normal science is the science that scientist do everyday to find answers, namely, the accumulation of data and to solve questions or puzzles
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Thomas Kuhn Normal science sometimes comes up with anomolies, which does
not threaten the core science, for example global dimming was explained to be a symptom of climate change
However, as anomolies accumulate over time, scientists have to revisit what they previously held to be true.They can no longer ignore the anomolies, and must instead replace or modify existing core science
Prescience
Crisis
Normal Science
Revolution
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