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8/8/2019 Global Environmental (2)
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The problems addressed in order to attempt to falsify this
hypothesis are:
H1. What are the attributional LIME scores, expressed
in Japanese Yen, for an LCA comparison between LF
and TL?
H2. What is the consequential change in LIME score when
a global change between TL and LF is made?
Environmental life-cycle assessment of solders inelectronics
The total global environmental load and impact on the
biosphere, troposphere, and stratosphere is mainly the result
of the industrial metabolism connected to product systems in
which resources continuously are converted into useful
products and services demanded by human societies.
Environmental LCA is most commonly used by universities
and companies as a method to evaluate the mass balance of
inputs and outputs of specific product systems and to organise
and convert those inputs and outputs into environmental
themes or categories relative to resource use, human health,
and ecotoxicity explained by Rebitzer et al. (2004) and
Pennington et al. (2004). In Figure 1 the phases of LCA and
their inter-relationships are schematically shown.
In this context, an example of a LCA goal could be to
compare the life cycle impact of a mobile phone using Pb and
one without Pb. The scope, which means what is intended to
be included with the system boundary, could be just the
solder life-cycle or also include the life cycles of all those parts
of the phone using Pb, e.g. printed wiring board finishes,
termination finishes, ball grid array interconnections, and
internal chip-to-substrate interconnects for controlled
collapse chip technology (Garner et al ., 2 00 0) . T he
functional unit, the basis of the calculation, must be chosen
and must reflect the function of the life-cycle. In this case, it
could be “the average use of one mobile phone during threeyears”. The scope decides which unit processes to quantify in
the inventory analysis within the system boundaries, of which
examples are shown in Figure 2. In LCA a unit process is
defined as the smallest system for which data is collected
(Andræ et al., 2005). One variant of LCA is the so-called
attributional LCA (ALCA), sometimes also referred to as
retrospective or accounting LCA. The ALCA aims to specify
how much of the global environmental load within the system
boundaries belongs to a certain human activity. ALCA
commonly uses average data in contrast to specific data, and
is used to compare two or more alternatives and also to findthe most environmentally relevant unit processes. Another
variant of LCA is the so-called Consequential LCA (CLCA)
where the consequences of decisions, such as phasing out Pb
from electronics, are evaluated. These consequences can also
relate to activities outside of the system boundaries, should
these activities be affected (Ekvall and Andræ 2006). In
CLCA, the change in the global environmental load as a
result of adding or removing a specific human activity is
studied. The CLCA make use of marginal data as it is the
marginal producers and consumers that are affected by a
small change. One of the practical problems with the CLCA is
how to identify who these marginal actors will be. An attempt
was made to model the Pb and Pb scrap markets (Ekvall and
Andræ 2006). The inventory flows (obtained in the data
collection step as emissions, resource consumptions, and
waste amounts) from either an ALCA or CLCA, are classified
according to which possible environmental impacts, e.g.
global warming, they could cause. Anthropogenic and
potential environmental impacts, which may be global,
regional, local or a combination of these, include global
warming, ozonelayer depletion, photo-chemical oxidant
creation, acidification, local air pollution, human toxicity,
ecotoxicity, eutrophication, and resource consumption. For
example, the CFC’s are classified as being able to contribute
both to global warming and to ozone layer depletion. After the
classification the flows are characterised according to their
relative importance for each environmental impact indicator.
The present research will focus on the integration of the
environmental impact indicators for resource depletion,global warming, and ozonelayer depletion as these
environmental effects are global. In Figure 2 the scope of
the present attributional solder paste life-cycle model, as
currently used by most LCA practitioners, is shown. The use
of the electronic product is outside the system boundary.
Figure 3 shows the scope of the present consequential
model from the perspective of the global shift to LF from TL.
Methodology for impact assessment – LIME
Based on a finished inventory analysis where all data sources
are given (Ekvall and Andræ 2006), the method “Life-cycle
Impact assessment Method based on Endpoint modelling,
LIME” was applied (Itsubo et al., 2004b). The origin of this
methodology is a study conducted by the LCA National
Project of Japan aiming at the development of a Japanese
version of a damage-oriented impact assessment method. In
LIME, the potential damage is measured for four safeguard
objects: human health, the utilisation of non-renewable
resources (social assets), the increase of extinction risk
(biodiversity), and the loss of primary production caused by
mining of resources (primary productivity) are individually
measured. Modelling socio-economic impact was based on the
concept of user-cost, which accounts for the equity of future
generations. Interviews were performed in Japan where a
statistically representative population answered questions on
Figure 1 The phases in an LCA
1. Goal and Scope
definition
2. Inventory analysis
3. Impact
assessment
Interpretation
Source: International Organisation for Standardisation (1997)
Global environmental impact assessment of the Pb-free shift
Anders S.G. Andrae, Norihiro Itsubo and Atsushi Inaba
Soldering & Surface Mount Technology
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how they valued different types of damage to the environment.
This approach made it possible to make a monetary weighting
between, e.g. human health and biodiversity. The Yen scores in
this context are what the Japanese society is willing to pay to
avoid a unit of damage, caused by the environmental loadings,
t o t he s af eg ua rd o bj ec ts s how n i n Fi gu re 4 . Th e
present research made use of weighted LIME factors
expressed in Yen/kg enabling a comparison and integration of
the damage derived from different impact categories such as
global warming and ozonelayer depletion. In Figure 4 the
LIME concept is shown with a focus on global impacts. Pb
emissions are considered a local impact, as opposed to
compounds belonging to global impact categories, and are
therefore not included within the scope.
Figure 2 The scope of the attributional model for solder pastes
Primary Ag
production
Electricity
production
Fuel
production
Bulk alloy
production
Solder powder
production
Paste
production
Paste
application
(Reflow soldering)
Use of
Electronic
product
Preparation for
solder recycling
Solder
incineration
Landfill of
solder
Primary Sn
production
Primary Cu
production
Flux
production
Figure 3 The scope of the consequential model of the global shift
Primary Pb
production
Electricity
production
Fuel
production
Bulk alloy
production
Solder powder
production
Paste
production
Paste
application
(Reflow soldering)
Use of
Electronic
product
Preparation for
solder recycling
World
Market for
Pb scrap
World
Market for
Pb
Pb recycling
Alternative
Pb use
Function of
alternative Pb use
Function and
use of competing products
Production and
Use of complimentary products
Solder
incineration
Landfill of
solder
Scrap collection
from
other Pb products
Waste management
of other Pb products
Primary Sn
production
Flux
production
Global environmental impact assessment of the Pb-free shift
Anders S.G. Andrae, Norihiro Itsubo and Atsushi Inaba
Soldering & Surface Mount Technology
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For LIME, the resource consumption indices are originally
based on the resource characterisation as developed by the
French company Conception Development Durable
Environment CODDE (2007) for a Raw Material Depletion
(RMD) Indicator. Equation (1) explains how the indicator is
calculated:
RMD ¼X1
Ri £ Y i ¼ R i M i
£ I i . . .1
kg £ Years
£ kg
RMD is the total characterisation factor; Ri the available
reserve base of a resource (i ) such as a high-grade metal ore,
coal, etc. which realistically can be extracted; Y i the number
of years left of resource (i ) considering the rate at which it is
currently depleted; M i the production of resource (i ); and I i the inventory flow of resource (i ). The inventory flow is the
amount of, e.g. silver needed to produce the functional unit.
Table I shows the figures used to calculate the RMD values.
At this stage the recycling of metals is not included, but would
presumably delay the decrease of Y i .
Owing to lack of comparable cradle-to-gate resource data for
Ag, Pb, Cu and Sn production, it was assumed that the metal
resource consumption was only the produced metal. For
example, for 1 kg of Ag produced, 1 kg of Ag metal resources
was assumed as input, whereas the extraction and processing
energy inputs were taken from the literature. For Ag a mixed
model assuming Ag to be a by-product mainly of Canadian
Zn/Pb and Australian Au production was used (Teck
Cominco Metal Ltd, 2004; Stewart and Petrie, 2006; NewBoliden, 2005), for Pb a model assuming Pb to be a product
of primary Pb production (Althaus and Classen, 2005), for
Cu a model assuming Cu to be a by-product of Ni production
(Althaus and Classen, 2005), and for Sn a model assuming Sn
to be a product of primary Sn production (Althaus and
Classen, 2005). However, the most relevant LCI data would
have been a global average for ALCA and the marginal for
CLCA. Further, for the ALCAs, the outflow of printed board
assemblies from the preparation process has a positive
economic value. Therefore, it was not regarded as waste but
a raw material inflow to the life-cycles where the recycled
metals are used. Thus, for ALCA, the metal recycling
Figure 4 Conceptual figure of LIME
InventoryImpact
category
Category
endpoint
Safeguard
object
Ag
Sn
Oil
CH4
CO2
CFC
Resource
consumption
Global
warming
Ozonelayer
depletion
User
cost
Infectious
diseases
Thermal
stress
Forestry
production
Skin cancerHuman health
Social assets
Biodiversity
Net primary
productivity
Single index,
Yen, ¥
Crop
production
Terrestial
ecosystem
Vascular
plant speciesCharacterisationDamage
assessment
Weighting
PbOther cancerHuman-toxic
chemical
Notes: CFC = ChloroFluoroCarbons. Local toxic emissions like Pb are not part of the scope
Table I The basis for RMD indices
Substance R i (kg) M i (kg/year) Y i (year) Reference
Ag 5.7 £ 108 1.97 £ 107 28.9 USGS (2004a)
Sn 1.1 £ 1010 2.64 £ 108 41.7 USGS (2004b)
Cu 9.4 £ 1011 1.46 £ 1010 63.1 USGS (2004c)
Ni 1.4 £ 1011 1.4 £ 109 100 USGS (2004d)
Zn 4.6 £ 1011 9.6 £ 109 47.9 USGS (2004e)
Pb 1.4 £ 1011 3.15 £ 109 44.4 USGS (2004f)
Oil 1.76 £ 1014 3.87 £ 1012 45.4 GeoHive Global Statistics (2004a, b), Tomkiewicz (2006) and Asif and Muneer (2007)
Coal 9.09 £ 1014 3.79 £ 1012 240 GeoHive Global Statistics (2004c, d) and Ekawan and Duche ˆ ne (2006)
Natural gas 1.49 £ 1014 2.24 £ 1012 66.7 GeoHive Global Statistics (2004e, f) and Afgan et al. (2007)
Global environmental impact assessment of the Pb-free shift
Anders S.G. Andrae, Norihiro Itsubo and Atsushi Inaba
Soldering & Surface Mount Technology
Volume 19 · Number 2 · 2007 · 18–28
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processes belong to subsequent life-cycles. Owing to lack of
economic and marginal data, e.g. for the Sn market, the
inventory result for the consequential LF study was assumed
to be identical to the one for the attributional LF study. All
LIME results and others presented below are expressed per
0.53 cm3 solder paste (corresponds to 2.5 g TL having a
density of 4.7g/cm3, 90wt% metal alloy and 10wt% flux)
applied to a printed board assembly before the reflowsoldering process. The quantity 2.5 g was chosen based on the
USEPA study of a typical printed circuit board assembly
(Geibig and Socolof, 2005).
Inventory analysis results
Three LCI’s covering 416 substance flows were investigated.
Totally 97 resources and seven gases were relevant for global
impacts. In Table II the results for nine selected flows are
displayed and they were selected based on an initial LIME
screening of the product systems. Pb is included though it is
presently not quantified for global impact categories. The
column farthest to the right represents the consequential
inventory result of the shift.
Impact assessment results
The results were obtained by multiplying the obtained
inventory data by the corresponding weighting factors
(Itsubo et al., 2004b). The characterisation indices and
LIME factors used in the present study are shown in Table III.
Overall, 98 mass% of the resource input flows, 100 mass%
of the greenhouse gases, and 100 mass% of the ozone
depleting gases, had a corresponding LIME index. The total
LIME scores for the CLCA comparison between TL and LF
w ere around 1 .8 and 3 .4 ¥, respectively. T he total
LIME results for the ALCA were also near 1.8 and 3.4¥,respectively. In Table IV it is shown that Sn and Ag resources
from Sn and Ag production, respectively, were the hot spots
in this study.
F igure 5 shows the LIME result w here resource
consumption, global warming and ozonelayer depletion are
weighted into a single index.
The consequence is that the total LIME score will increase
by 1.6¥ or by 90 per cent.
Sensitivity check
A life-cycle impact assessment method which can be
compared to LIME is the Eco-indicator ‘99 (Eco-i. 99)
method as it is based on the disability adjusted life year
(DALY), concept (Abou-Zahr, 1999). The DALY concept
combines in one score the time lived with disability and the
time lost due to premature mortality. As shown by Table III
Eco-i. 99 has not reported a weighted index for damage to
resources caused by extraction of Ag and some other
resources. The results shown in Figure 6 were obtained by
multiplying the obtained inventory data by the corresponding
weighted damage factors. The major similarity is that
consumption of Sn resources is one of the dominating flows.
Completeness check
The robustness of the results in Figure 5 are hampered by at
least five factors:
1 not all emissions to air and the resources, which
theoretically could have globally related LIME indices,
were reported by Itsubo et al. (2004b), e.g. carbon
monoxide (Holloway et al., 2000);2 too low resolution of the inventory result, which means
more flows of for example CFC’s could possibly be
“hidden” inside the system boundaries;
3 poor precision in the numerical values of emissions and
resources, which means different kinds of temporal and
measurement uncertainties;
4 poor precision of the LIME indices, which means
different kinds of temporal, spatial, and geographical
uncertainties; and
5 poor representation of unit processes, which means that a
greater number of factories in reality represent the average
presently used.
However, considering what turned out to be the dominating
issues of the study, Ag and Sn resources, the global perspectiveof the study, as well as the relatively small product systems, it is
unlikely the results would change drastically should the effects
of these five factors be greatly improved.
Discussion and interpretation
The CLCA and the ALCA results both indicate that the
overall LIME scores in Yen will increase considerably per
Table II Selection of LCI results expressed per functional unit of TL and LF
Substance Category Unit ALCI TL ALCI LF ALCI LF – ALCI TL CLCI TL ALCI LF – CLCI TL
Coal Resource G 83 103 20 82 21
Oil Resource G 12 18 6 15 3Natural gas Resource G 12 15 3 12 3
Sn Resource G 2.9 3.9 1 2.9 1
Ag Resource G 0 0.16 0.16 0 0.16
Pb Resource G 1.7 0 21.7 0.73 20.73
Cu Resource G 0 0.03 0.03 0 0.03
CH4 Emission to air G 0.77 0.94 0.17 0.78 0.16
CO2 Emission to air G 228 290 62 234 56
Pb Emission to air G 0.032 ,0 20.032 0.03 20.03
Pb Emission to water G 0.15 ,0 20.15 0.13 20.13
Pb Emission to soil G ,0 ,0 0 20.001 0.001
Global environmental impact assessment of the Pb-free shift
Anders S.G. Andrae, Norihiro Itsubo and Atsushi Inaba
Soldering & Surface Mount Technology
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functional unit. The most important differences between TL
and LF are two-fold: Sn and Ag resource consumption. The Ag
resources from Ag production are significant due to the
relatively high LIME factor for Ag, about 6,900¥/kg. CO2
emissions from electricity production are also noticeable.
However, considering global warming results alone, it was
earlier reported for a similar inventory to the present study that
the solder application process and the Sn production were the
processes mainly affected (Ekvall and Andræ 2006). The
marginal Pb usage, as a result of the ban on the use of Pb in
solder, will be where the competition is the largest and where
the Pb consumers are most sensitive to a Pb price change. On
the margin, in remote areas, diesel combustion to generate
electricity is expected to be replaced by Pb back-up batteries
(the marginal Pb usage) when Pb is banned in solders.
All impacts attributable to Pb production will not disappear as,
on the margin, Pb will be used in Pb-acid batteries (instead of
solder pastes) which in combination with photovoltaic cells will
replace diesel combustion for electricity generation. In fact,CLCA helped identify this offset in the impact relatedto the Pb
production. Figure 6 shows the relative importance for
different processes as evaluated by LIME compared to Eco-i.
99 and the three environmental impact categories on which
they are based. Considering RMD results alone, they show a
big resemblance to the overall LIME results. The present
CLCA study predicts that the LIME score will rise as the
avoidance of the environmental impacts connected to diesel
combustion does not outweigh the increased resource
consumptions and emissions from Ag, Sn, and energy
production.
Table III Indices used
Substance Impact on LIME (Yen/kg) Eco-i. 99 (year/kg) RMD (102153 kg21
3 year21) GWP20 (kg/kg) ODP (kg/kg)
Ag Resource 6,900 61,000
U Resource 1,030
Sn Resource 390 14 2,200
Wood Resource 105
Cu Resource 53 0.87 16Ni Resource 47 0.39 71
Zn Resource 45 0.045 45
Mn Resource 39 0.0074
Pb Resource 29 0.18 160
Oil Resource 1.5 0.14 0.13
Coal Resource 1.27 0.006 0.0046
Al Resource 1.18 0.057
Natural gas Resource 0.69 0.11 0.10
Fe Resource 0.44 0.0012
Cr Resource 0.37 0.022
Bauxite Resource 0.19 0.012
Gravel and sand Resource 0.062
Mass of rock Resource 0.062
Rock salt Resource 0.062
C2F6, R-116 Air 22,900 52 7,700
Ozone-depleting gases Air 19,000 27 1
CFC/HCFC Air 19,000 27 1
CF4 Air 11,000 36 3,900
N2O Air 570 1.8 330
CH4 Air 44.3 0.11 64
CO2 Air 1.74 0.0055 1
Notes: Eco-i. 99 ¼ Eco-indicator ‘99 (hierarchist perspective, H, A) weighted damage factors (Dreyer et al., 2003), GWP20 ¼ global warming potential during20 years, ODP ¼ ozone depletion potential
Table IV Top contributors to LIME single index given per solder paste typeSolder paste Life-cycle stage Unit process Flow Percentage of contribution
TL Manufacturing Sn production Sn resource consumption 62
Use Solder paste application CO2 emissions to air from electricity production 15
Use Solder paste application Coal resource consumption from electricity production 5
LF Manufacturing Sn production Sn resource consumption 45
Manufacturing Ag production Ag resource consumption 31
Use Solder paste application CO2 emissions to air from electricity production 9
Global environmental impact assessment of the Pb-free shift
Anders S.G. Andrae, Norihiro Itsubo and Atsushi Inaba
Soldering & Surface Mount Technology
Volume 19 · Number 2 · 2007 · 18–28
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Further, it is likely that the Eco-i. 99 H, A weighted factor
for Ag resources would be relatively high, and obviously
would indicate more similarities between overall and
individual Eco-i. 99 and LIME scores.
Moreover, electricity production could be of higher
importance, although not likely to change any conclusions. The
data quality is poor for the model of the scrap Pb market and
waste management of competing sources of scrap Pb. However,
this part of themodel does nothavea biginfluenceon theresults.
Other analyses of the shift to Pb-free solders
USEPA performed an attributional cradle-to-grave LCA
comparison between Pb solders and Pb-free solders (Geibig
and Socolof, 2005). The present study cannot be easily
compared to the one by USEPA, among other things due
to the lack of inventory transparency. Nevertheless,
two similar solder pastes to the present ones were
evaluated by the USEPA. These were Sn63Pb37 (SnPb)
and Sn95.5Ag3.9Cu0.6 (SAC). The results from the
environmental impact categories “Nonrenewable resource
use (NRR)” “global warming (GW)” and ”Ozone depletion
(OD)” used by USEPA were used for a comparison with the
present LIME analysis. The USEPA functional unit was
1,000 cm3 of solder metal alloy applied before the reflow
oven, compared to the present 0.53cm3 of solder paste.
Figure 7 shows the comparative results for the two studies
expressed per USEPA functional unit, where 9,300 g of TL
and 8,170 g of LF correspond to that measure. The units
are kg resources for NRR, kg CO2-equivalents for GW, and
kg £ 106 CFC-11-equivalents for ODP.
Figure 6 The consequential LIME results compared to Eco-i. 99 and environmental impact categories GWP20
–20%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Global
LIME
Eco-i. 99 GWP20 ODP RMD
Pb production
Diesel combustion
Ag production
Sn production
Solder paste application
Others
Notes: Global warming potential during 20 years(GWP20), ODP = ozone depletion potential,
RMD = raw material depletion
Figure 5 The consequential LIME results expressed per functional unit obtained when subtracting the CLCA TL from the ALCA ( ¼ CLCA) LF
Global LIME (toxicity not included)
–0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
O t h e r s S o l d e r p a s t e a p p l i c a t i o n
S n p r o d u c t i o n
A g p r o d u c t i o n
D i e s e l c o m b u s t i o n
P b p r o d u c t i o n
Consequense of shift
Yen / F.u.
Global environmental impact assessment of the Pb-free shift
Anders S.G. Andrae, Norihiro Itsubo and Atsushi Inaba
Soldering & Surface Mount Technology
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The NRR difference is mainly due to the “inert rock”
resource consumption used in the USEPA model of electricity
generation. The relatively low ODP value for TL is due to
effects identified by the use of CLCA, where the ODP from
alternate Pb usage (battery production) offsets ODP
connected to electricity and Sn production. When the top
contributing inventory flows for NRR, GW and OD for SnPb
and SAC were multiplied by the respective LIME single
index, the Zn-Pb-Cu resource consumption and CO2
emissions related to electricity generation for solder
application were the dominating flows for SAC and SnPb,
respectively. This comparison shows that USEPA did not
characterise the resource consumption, but just reported the
magnitude and top contributors. For example, “inert rock”
having a moderate LIME index, dominated the NRR which
merely reports the amount of resources used. Should another
type of characterisation by for example RMD have beenperformed, other flows would have appeared as important.
Furthermore, the analysis of the USEPA study confirmed that
stratospheric ozone depletion is of minor importance for the
LIME score.
Verhoef et al. (2004) and Reuter and Verhoef (2004)
showed that dynamic modelling, as a life-cycle inventory of
the total upstream system, could be useful for assessing the
environmental aspects of the manufacturing of solders. The
system boundaries included the ore processing, metal
production and solder production activities for solder alloys
including Sn60Pb40 and several Pb-free combinations. No
inventory data were reported, but it was evaluated using the
Eco-i. 99 method. However, the question was raised, whether
a ban on use of Pb will lead to an environmental benefit, as
the manufacturing of solders could be considered a global
open loop recycling and production system. Verhoef argues
that the governmental decisions to introduce Pb-free will push
the system out of the existing steady state globally, and while
production of Pb, Cu and Sn would not be affected
s ig ni fic an tl y, lo ca l c ha ng es c ou ld b e i mp or ta nt .
Nevertheless, the resource depletion dominated Eco-i. 99
scores were higher for SnAgCu than for Sn-Pb, but became
smaller as the authors changed the weighting of resource
depletion to 5 per cent as compared to the initial settings of
Eco-i. 99. The findings indicated that preventing human
toxicity will instead lead to resource damage. An important
concluding remark is that there exists a limited production
infrastructure for co-products in Pb ore processing. In case of
an extended ban on lead, both the availability and recovery of
a range of metals will be affected (Verhoef et al., 2004; Reuter
and Verhoef, 2004).
Effect of recycling
It is uncertain how much of the Sn, Ag, Pb, and Cu solder
metals that will be recycled will specifically be used for
production of new solders. Quantification of this is especially
important for Ag and Sn. Based on this research increased
recycling of Ag and Sn could be significant in decreasing the
global impact. In the present research it was not possible to
apply the LIME factors for other than global effects, as the
local LIME is adjusted for Japanese conditions. This
screening of the global situation was however useful as it
strengthens earlier results showing that the social andeconomic impacts, due to the consumption of resources for
Sn and Ag production, could rise as a result of the shift to Pb-
free solder paste (Itsubo et al., 2004c, p. 441 Figure 2(b)-(c)).
Consequential LCA including Ag and Sn
An important discussion is whether a consequential model for
LF would lead to different conclusions. How much will global
Sn and Ag usage rise as far as electronics solder is concerned?
Using Deubzer’s replacement scenario from the year 2003 to
2006 (Deubzer, 2007) the rise could be from about 68 Gg
before the shift (29 mass% of the global Sn consumption) to
about 113 Gg (35 mass%) for Sn after the shift, and from
0.075 Gg (0.2mass%) to 3.6 Gg (12 mass%) for Ag (it is
uncertain exactly how much electronic solder is globally used,
but it was about 120,000 tonnes in 2003 and probably more
than 10 per cent more in 2006). It mainly depends on the
primary production, recycling, pricing and electronics market
consumption of these metals, where economies such as that of
China Govern more and more the world market trends for Sn.
The shift to Pb-free solder could lead to a decreased use of Ag
and Sn in a mix of other products. Which marginal Sn
consumers, having the possibility to substitute Sn, are most
sensitive to a change in Sn price? Which marginal Ag
consumers, having the possibility to substitute Ag, are most
sensitive to a change in Ag price? A change in the Sn and Ag
prices will affect the uses of these metals. For some products
Figure 7 Comparative results for the USEPA solder LCA study and the present regarding three different environmental impacts
0
500
1000
1500
2000
kg
NRR ODP
Environmental impact category
USEPA SnPb
USEPA SAC
Present study TL
Present study LF
GW
Global environmental impact assessment of the Pb-free shift
Anders S.G. Andrae, Norihiro Itsubo and Atsushi Inaba
Soldering & Surface Mount Technology
Volume 19 · Number 2 · 2007 · 18–28
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the Sn or Ag cost is a small part of the total production cost,
while for others Sn or Ag have important functional
advantages, making the demand for Sn and Ag less sensitive
to changes in the Sn or Ag price. If the marginal products
using Sn cannot replace Sn in the long run, the total Sn
production will go up. This is under the condition that all
other major users of Sn, for example producers of Sn-coated
cans, also use the same amount of Sn after the shift to Pb-freesolder. However, if the Sn price increases too much,
materials such as Al, glass, paper, plastic and Sn-free steel
can substitute for Sn in, for example, pet food cans. On the
other hand, Sn can also find new markets for example as
alloys in automotive balance weights.
As for annual Ag consumption, industrial and decorative
uses, photography and jewelry and silverware represent more
than 95 percent, and the electronics and photography
industries are the main consumers (Lanzano et al., 2006).
The unique properties of Ag restrict its substitution in most
applications. Further, long-term analyses of the Sn and Ag
markets are required to forecast what can happen.
Comparing the ALCA results for TL and LF is not the
same as predicting the consequences of shifting from TL toLF. Occasionally, as seems to be the case regarding the solders
in the present study, the two techniques, ALCA and CLCA,
more or less provide the same conclusion. It is obvious that
ALCA is too rudimentary for estimating future environmental
impacts, but on the other hand CLCA needs to be more
developed in co-operation with econometricians to be more
accurate and comprehensive.
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn based on the
research carried out in the present study:.
as far as globally related environmental impacts areconcerned, the shift from TL to LF solder paste is likely to
increase them;. a significant increase was detected due to increased Ag
and Sn production;. no significant increase in the LIME score could be related
to the increased generation of electricity for the LF solder
application processes as compared to TL;. the LIME score is highly dependent on the Ag and Sn
weighting factors;. ozone depleting substances had an insignificant influence
on the LIME scores; and. this study confirms earlier work reporting that the
resource consumption will be higher for SnAgCu solder
pastes than conventional SnPb.For LIME it has earlier been shown, in a scenario for Japan,
that the toxicity of Pb was most important leading to the
overall environmental superiority of Pb-free solders. The next
step would be to make a trade-off between the global impact
of the locally related impacts, such as those originating from
the use of human-toxic chemicals, and the known global
impacts. For example, the existence of industrial Pb aerosols
could make way for updated LCA indices (Rankin et al.,
2005).
Globally focused CLCA’s of solders also need to be
improved in a number of areas:
. the design of quantitative partial economic equilibrium
models for the electricity, Sn and Ag markets and the
corresponding scrap markets for the metals;. identification of marginal consumers for Sn, Ag and other
solder metals;. marginal data for primary metal production need to be
collected; and.
system expansion including Au and Ag containing printedwiring board surface finishes could be worthwhile.
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About the authors
Anders S.G. Andrae received his MSc degree
in Chemical Engineering from theRoyalInstitute
of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, in 1997, his
Licentiate degree and PhD degree in Electronics
Production from Chalmers University of
Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden, in 2002 and
2005, respectively. Between 1997 and 2001 he
was at Ericsson working as an Environmental Engineer with
Life Cycle Assessment. He has published 17 papers in refereed
journals and conferences. Since, 2006, he has been a post
doctoral research scientist at the Advanced Industrial Science
and Technology (AIST), Research Center for Life Cycle
Assessment, Tsukuba, Japan. He is a Member of the IEEE and
Global environmental impact assessment of the Pb-free shift
Anders S.G. Andrae, Norihiro Itsubo and Atsushi Inaba
Soldering & Surface Mount Technology
Volume 19 · Number 2 · 2007 · 18–28
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8/8/2019 Global Environmental (2)
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wonthe IEEE Young Award at the International Conference on
Electronics Packaging in 2006 for the paper entitled
“Consequential Toxicity Assessment of the Global Shift to
Pb-freeSolder Paste”. Anders S.G. Andraeis thecorresponding
author and can be contacted at: a.andrae@aist.go.jp
Norihiro Itsubo received his BSc degree from
Osaka University in Osaka, Japan, and received
his MSc and PhD degrees from University of
Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, in 1993, 1995 and 1998,
respectively. Between 1998 and 2001 he was at
the LCA Development Department, Japan
Environmental Management Association For
Industry. In 2001 he became a Research Scientist at AIST’s
Research Center for Life Cycle Assessment (AISTLCA),
Tsukuba, Japan. In 2003 he was awarded by the Reliability
Engineering Association of Japan for his work “LCA of IC
packages”. Between 2003 and 2005 he was a researcher for
the Environmental Assessment Research Team at AISTLCA,
and since 2005 he has been Team Leader for the LCA
Methodology Research Team at AISTLCA. In 2005 he was
appointed Associate Professor at the Environmental and
Information Studies Department at the Musashi Institute of
Technology, Yokohama, Japan, and splits his time between
Musashi Institute of Technology and AIST. E-mail: itsubo-
n@yc.musashi-tech.ac.jp; itsubo-n@aist.go.jp
Atsushi Inaba received his BSc, MSc, and
PhD degrees in Chemical Engineering from
Tokyo University, Tokyo, Japan, in 1976, 1978and 1981, respectively. Between 1981 and 1986
he was at the National Institute for Resources
and Environment (NIRE) and between 1984 to
1986 at the National Bureau of Standard in the
USA. Between 1990 and 1992 he was at the International
Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Vienna, Austria before
being appointed Chief of the NIRE Planning Office where he
was from 1999 to 2001. In 2001 he was appointed Director of
AIST’s Research Center for Life Cycle Assessment, Tsukuba,
Japan. In 2005 he was appointed Professor for Research into
Artifacts at the Center for Engineering, The University of
Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, and splits his time between the Director
and Professor roles. E-mail: a-inaba@aist.go.jp
Global environmental impact assessment of the Pb-free shift
Anders S.G. Andrae, Norihiro Itsubo and Atsushi Inaba
Soldering & Surface Mount Technology
Volume 19 · Number 2 · 2007 · 18–28
28
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