generative morphology
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Morphology is the field within linguistics that studies the internal
structure of words. (Words as units in the lexicon are the subject matter of
lexicology). While words are generally accepted as being (with clitics) the
smallest units of syntax, it is clear that in most (if not all) languages, words can
be related to other words by rules. For example, English speakers recognize that
the words dog, dogs, and dog-catcher are closely related. English speakers
recognize these relations from their tacit knowledge of the rules of word-
formation in English. They intuit that dog is to dogs as cat is to cats; similarly,
dog is to dog-catcher as dish is to dishwasher. The rules understood by the
speaker reflect specific patterns (or regularities) in the way words are formed
from smaller units and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this way,
morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word-formation
within and across languages, and attempts to formulate rules that model the
knowledge of the speakers of those languages.
The term 'morphology' has been taken over from biology where it is used
to denote the study of the forms of plants and animals. It was first used for
linguistic purposes in 1859 by the German linguist August Schleicher (Salmon
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2000), to refer to the study of the form of words. In present-day linguistics, the
term 'morphology' refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and of
the systematic form-meaning correspondences between words. “The notion
'systematic' in the definition of morphology given above is important. For
instance, we might observe a form difference and a corresponding meaning
difference between the English noun ear and the verb hear. However, this
pattern is not systematic: there are no similar word pairs, and we cannot form
new English verbs by adding h- to a noun."
In linguistics, morphology is the identification, analysis and description
of the structure of morphemes and other units of meaning in a language such as
words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context. (words
in a lexicon are the subject matter of lexicology). Morphological typology
represents a way of classifying languages according to the ways by which
morphemes are used in a language —from the analytic that use only isolated
morphemes, through the agglutinative ("stuck-together") and fusional
languages that use bound morphemes (affixes), up to the polysynthetic,
which compress lots of separate morphemes into single words.
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CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
A. Generative Morphology
1. The Principles of Generative Morphology
According to Chomsky (1965:3-9), the principles or the assumptions
underlying generative transformational grammar in general and generative
morphology in particular can stated as follows :
First, generative transformational grammar is theory of competence.
Chomsky distinguishes between competence and performance. Competence is
the native speaker’s knowledge of his language, while performance is the real
language use by native speaker in real situations.
Generative transformational grammar starts from competence, not from
performance. In this connection, Chomsky states that linguistic theory is
metalistic, because this theory attempts to find out the mental reality underlying
real behavior.
Furthermore, it is stated that linguistics is the study of competence. The real
object of linguistic study is the homogeneous speech community in which all
people use the same language and study that language properly. The linguistic
data are not the utterance of the individual that must be studied, but his
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intuition of his language, particularly his judgment on what sentence are
grammatical and what sentences are ungrammatical and his judgment on the
interrelationship of sentence, which means what sentences have the same
meaning. The theory of language should be formed to explain this intuition.
Second, language has creative innovative characteristic. The creativity of
language is meant the ability of the native speaker to generate new sentences,
that is, sentences that have no similarities with usual sentences. The native
speaker has the capability of generating and understanding new sentences or he
has the capability of making judgments of their grammaticality.
Third, generative transformational grammar is the set of rules that gives
structural description to the sentence. The aims of the linguist who attempts to
explain the creative aspect of grammatical competence are to formulate a set of
sentence formation rules (syntactic rules), sentence interpretation rules
(semantic rules) and pronunciation rules (phonological rules). Thus studying a
language means studying a set of syntactic rules, semantic rule, and phonological
rules.
Fourth, language is the mirror of mind. Chomsky (1972:103) atates that
there is a number of questions that cause someone to study language. By
studying language in detail, we will know the inherent features of human mind.
In other words, we can achieve better understanding on how human mind
produces and processes language.
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Akmajian et. Al, (1984:5-7) complete the basic assumtions of generative
transformational grammar as follows :
First, human language in all levels in governed by rules. Every language that
we know has syntactic rules governing pronunciation, word formation, and
grammatical constructions.
What is meant by rules here are descriptive rule, namely, rules that describe
real language of certain groups of speakers. The descriptive rules actually
express the generalization and regularity of various aspects of language.
Second, various human language from unified phenomena. The linguist
assume that it is possible to study human language in general and certain
languages to express universal language features.
From the point of view of surface structure, human languages are very
different from each other, but from the point of view of deep structure, those
languages have universal features.
Next, the assumtions underlying generative morphology are stated as
follows:
First, generative morphology is an integral part of the syntactic component.
In standard generative transformational grammar, morphology is not an
autonomous component, but a part of syntactic component.
Second, morphology analysis is carried out in two levels, namely, the level of
deep structure and the level of surface structure. Based on this assumption, we
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first trace the deep structure or underlying representation of morphological
construction. Then we see the process that occur to that underlying
representation in order to be able to determine its derived or surface structure.
2. Basic Concepts of Generative Morphology
a. Competence and Performance
Crystal (1980:73) states that competence is a term used in linguistics,
particularly generative transformational grammar, to refer to someone’s
knowledge of his language, that is, the system of rules which he has mastered, so
that he is able to generate and understand an infinite number of sentences, and
to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.
According to Bechert et.al (1976:18), competence covers the following
abilities:
1. The ability to generate and understand the infinite number of
sentences.
2. The ability to determine whether an utterance or expression belongs to
the language concerned.
3. The ability to give meanings to utterance or expression belonging to a
certain language.
4. The ability to determine the level of derivation from those utterances.
5. The ability to determine the different kinds of derivation.
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6. The ability to determine the identities of the expression concerning
their membership on one utterance.
7. The ability to give judgments concerning the formal similarities among
various utterances.
8. The ability to determine the similarities of meaning of those utterances.
9. The ability to determine the variability of meaning of an utterance.
b. Deep Structure and Surface Structure
Crystal (1980:102) states that deep structure is a theoretical term central
in generative transformational grammar, contrasted with surface structure.
Deep structure is an abstract syntactical representation of a sentence, that is, a
basic level of structural organization explaining all factors that govern the way
how sentences should be interpreted.
Furthermore, Crystal (1980:341) states that the surface structure of a
sentence is the final stage in the syntactical representation of a sentence, which
prepare input to the phonological component, which is very in accord with the
structure of sentence which we articulate or hear.
3. The Models of Generative Morphology and Their Organization
There are two models of generative used in the word of linguistic,
namely:
a. Halle’s Model and its organization
Hale’s Model consist of four component :
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1) List of morpheme
According to Halle, the basic unit of lexicon are morpheme.
Every morpheme is indicated as a sequence of phonological segments
and it is put between labeled brackets. The representation by nouns,
verb and affixes for example:
a) [home]N
b) [discuss]v
c) [-ty]Suf
2) Word formation rules
There are two kinds of Word Formulation Rules namely, (1) Word
Formulation Rules which apply to stems and form the linear sequence
“ stem + one or more morpheme” with or without the internal
structure, and (2) Word formulation rules which apply to words.
Example:
(i) [STEM + I + ty]N (ii) [verb] + a] N
[STEM + an]Adj [Adjective + (i) + (Ty)]N
[STEM + al]N [ADJECTIVE + en]v
[be + STEM]N [NOUN + ish]Adj
The two kinds of word formulation rules above generate two
kinds of derived words, as can be seen in the following example:
(i) Srendip + i + ty (ii) arrive + al
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Vac + ant obes + ity
Tot + al dark + en
Be + lieve child + ish
All word formulation rules perform a number of tasks, and have
the following features:
a) Word formulation Rules specify sequences in which
morphemes must be arranged to form words of language.
b) Word formulation rules specify (i) the syntactic category of the
base, example: Noun, Verb, (ii) the syntactic category of the
output. Example: noun, Verb), (iii) the internal boundary in the
output example: “+” and (iv) regular semantic information
c) Word formation rules specify the semantic and syntactic
features of the derived words that are not in accord with the
features of the base.
d) Word formation rules operate in the same way as derivational
morphology and inflectional morphology.
e) Word formation rules are more powerful than phonological
rules.
f) Since word formulation rules that create new words, then they
also function to analysis the existing words.
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3) Filter
The filter component is a mechanism tat handles the
idiosyncrasies occurring in a language. Not all words can be derived
by word formulation rules. Word formulation rules can form words
that are phonologically, syntactically, and semantically, but not occur
in surface structure. The filter functions to mark such formation wit
the features [-LI], that means that those formation cannot enter the
dictionary.
4) Dictionary
The words that have gone the filter form the dictionary of a given
language, which the last component of this morphological model. The
dictionary covers either regular formation that have not been
modified by the filter by adding or deleting certain features, or
idiosyncratic formation have been modified in certain ways by filter.
b. Arronof’s Model
1) Criticism on Halle’s Model
Scalise (1984: 34) state that the researches carried out later
shows a number of problems concerning generative morphology of
Halle’s model. The problems are related to every subcomponent of
this model, namely the list of morpheme, word formulation rules,
filter and dictionary.
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2) The component of Arronof’s Model
a) Word- based Hypothesis
i) The bases of the word formulation rules are word
ii) These words are the existing words. Thus possible but non
existent
iii) The word formulation rules can take single words as bases, not
more like phrases and less like bound morpheme
iv) The input and output of the major the WFR must be the
members of the major lexical categories.
b) Word formulation rules
The word formulation rule is a specific mechanism that create new
words in a language that lies wholly in lexicon. Example : [W]x
[[W]x + AF] y “ semantic of Y”
The formulated : [read]v [[read]v + able]A “ capable of being
read”
c) Readjustment rules
According to Arronoff the readjustment rules are the rules that are
limited to special morphemes and occur only in the environment
of those special morphemes.
And Arronoff divides into two part, namely:
i) Truncation rules
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The general form of truncation rule is as follows:
[[root + A]x +B]v
1 2 3
1 Ø 3
ii) Allomorphy rules
Allomorphy rules are the rules that add morphemes or
formatives to the roots or bases when suffixes are added. The
formulated
[[root]x + Suf]y
1 2
1+Formative 2
In which X represents a lexical category of the root and Y
represent takes a morpheme of formative when a suffix I
added to the underlying representation.
4. The Analysis of Generative Morphology
All identified morphemes are classified into two main groups, namely:
a. Free morphemes
Free morphemes are morphemes that can stand alone as word.
Free morphemes consist of class or content words, like:
1) Class or content words:
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Nouns : fish, sea, house, shirt, drug, king ……………
Verbs : hit, go, cut, come, see, show, like ……………
Adjective : handsome, beautiful, cleaver, clean ……….
Adverb : here, there, now, yesterday, tomorrow ……
2) Function words:
Determiners (Det) : the, a(n), one, two, many, some, my ………..
Auxiliaries (Aux) : be, am, is, are, do, does, did, can, may ……..
Intensifiers (Int) : very, rather, somewhat, so, too ………………..
Question words (QW) : who(m), what, where, when, why, how …..
b. Bound morphemes
Bound morphemes are morpheme that cannot stand alone. Can be
further divided into:
Prefixes: a-, auto-, dis-, en-, for-, in-, inter-, mis-, re-, un-, …………..
Suffixes : -ion, -ty, -ment, -ness, -er, -ate, -en, -fy, -ize, -able, -al …….
The analysis of generative morphology divided into two, namely:
a. The Analysis of Generative Morphology of Halle’s Model
1) List of morphemes
All morphemes, either free morphemes or bound morphemes are
listed in the list of morphemes by using labeled bracketing.
Example
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a) Free morphemes
[decorate]v
[active]adj
[electric]adj
b) Bound morphemes
[-ion]suf
[-ty]suf
2) Word formation
After all morphemes are listed in the list of morphemes is to
formulate a set of Word formation Rules (WFR). And tan every rule
must be accompanied by its meaning or semantics.
Word formation rules (WFR)
Name Abbreviation
Noun Formation Rules (NFR)
Verb Formation Rules (VFR)
Adjective Formation Rules (AdjFR)
Adverb Formation Rules (AdvFR)
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In English, nouns, for example, can be formed with the following
rules:
(NFR-1) [[X]v + [-ion]suf]N
Semantics: ‘the act of X-ing
This rule states that some English nouns can be formed by adding
the suffix- ion to the base consisting of verbs with the meaning the act
of X- ing.
(NFR-2) [[X]adj + [-ty]suf]N
Semantics: ‘the state of being X’
This rule state that some nouns in English can be formed by
adding the suffix-ty to the base with the meaning ‘the state of being X’.
The application of (NFR-1) and (NFR-2) generate the following
underlying representations:
*[#[decorate] + [-ion]#]
*[#[educate] + [-ion]#]
*[#[nominate] + [-ion]#]
*[#[active] + [-ty]#]
*[#[electric] + [-ty]#]
All of the above underlying representations are ungrammatical or
unacceptable, so they cannot enter the dictionary.
3) Filter
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The filter is the mechanism that can change unacceptable
underlying representations into acceptable one. To be acceptable,
they must go through phonological processes, namely, two
assimilations and one syllable structure process.
The phonological rule for these three phonological processes can
be formulated as follows:
(PR-1)
-sonorant
+anterior ……. + [-ion]
+coronal
(PR-2)
+ Syllabic Ø +high / … #
- back
This rule state that the high vowel phoneme /i/ is inserted at the
end of the base when the suffix –ty is added to te base.
(PR-3)
+consonantal -anterior + high +coronal +syllabic + back -voice / ….. +high-voice +continuant -back+continual +strident
-sonorant +high-anterior
+strident _voice
/…
C C
V
C CC
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-Delrel
4) Dictionary
All words have been formed through Word Formation Rule (WFR)
and have gone through the filter are listed in the dictionary. In the
dictionary, all words are accompanied their meanings and their
semantic feature.
b. The Analysis of Generative Morphology of Aronoff’s Model
1) Dictionary
In the formation, the steps must be taken is to list sets of words used
as bases of Word Formation Rule (WFR) in the dictionary as the first
of Aronoff’s Model. Example :
a) [active]Adj
b) [decorate]v
c) [educate]v
d) [electric] Adj
e) [examine]v
f) [nominate]v
2) Word Formation Rule
a) The Rule for the formation of English Noun with the suffix –ion
(NFR-1) [X]v [[X]v + [-ion]suf ]N
Semantics: ‘the act or result of X-ing’
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b) The Rule for the formation of English Noun with the suffix –ty
(NFR-2) [X] Adj [[X] Adj + [-ty]suf ]N
Semantic: ‘the state of being X’
3) Underlying Representation
The application of (NFR-1) and (NFR-2) can generate the following
underlying representations:
(a) *[#[active /æktive/]Adj + [-ty]suf#]N
(b) *[#[decorate /dek reit/]v + [-ion]suf#]Nе
(c) *[#[educate/ejucate/]v + [-ion]suf#]N
(d) *[#[electric/ilektrik/]Adj + [-ty]suf#]N
(e) *[#[examine/igzæmin/]v + [-ion]suf#]N
(f) *[#[nominate/nomineit/]v + [-ion] suf]N
All is underlying representation are ungrammatical or
unacceptable. The underlying representation (a), (b), (c), (d), and (f)
are phonologically unacceptable, while the underlying representation
(e) is morphologically and phonologically unacceptable.
4) Phonological Rule
The phonologically unacceptable underlying representations must
go through certain phonological process. The following underlying
representation:
*[#[active/æktive/]Adj + [-ty]suf#]N
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To be acceptable must go trough one phonologically process. The
syllable structure process in which the high vowel phoneme /i/ is
inserted at the end of the base when the suffix –ty is added to it.
The process of derivation can be described in the following:
UR : *[#[active/æktive/]Adj + [-ty]suf#]N
(PR-2) insertion of /i/ : [#[æktiv +i/] adj + [-ty]suf#]N
Output : [activity/æktivity/]
5) Readjustment Rule
The morphologically unacceptable underlying representation
must go through the readjustment process.
*[#[examine/igzæmin/]v + [-ion] suf#]N
The rule for this readjustment process can be formulated as
follows:
(RR-1) *[[base]v + [-ion]suf]N
1 2
1+at 2 This rule states the formative –at is inserted at the end of the base
when the suffix –ion is added to it.
6) Surface Representation
By applying (RR-1), the following unacceptable surface
representation can be generated:
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*[#[examine + at /igzæmineit/]v + [-ion]suf#]N
Because this surface representation is phonologically
unacceptable, so it must go through a phonologically process.
The process of derivation can be described as follows:
SR : *[#[/igzæmineit/]v + [-ion]suf#]N
(PR-1) /t/ /š/: [#[/igzæmineiš/]v + [-ion] suf#]N
Output : [examination/igzæmineišen/]
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CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION & SUGGESTION
A. Conclusion
Generative morphology is an integral part of the syntactic component.
Morphology is not an autonomous component, but a part of the syntactic
component. Nerveless, there have been efforts of making morphological
component as autonomous component, called Word Formation Rule (WFR).
Beside that morphological analysis is carried out in two levels namely the level
of deep structure and the level of surface structure. In generative morphology
we know two model to analysis morphological manely, Hale’s model and
Arronoff’s model.
B. Suggestion
Based on the explanation of this paper, we hope that all of the audience
can get the point and more understand about generative morphology
furthermore it can be applied in our daily life especially in learning morphology.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ba’dulu, Abdul M. 2010. Morphosyntax. Makassar: Badan Penerbit universitas Negeri Makassar.
Wikipedia. Morphology (linguistics). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page. (Downloaded on 27th September 2011)
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