documenmto anai parataxonomos 2011
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Asociacion
ANAI:Stream
Biomo
nitoringP
rogram
DocumentationofuseofriversintheinterioroftheLaAmistadWorld
HeritageSite(PILA)bydiadromousfishandshrimps;acollaborativeeffortbyindigenousparataxonomistsandtheAsociacionANAI
StreamBiomonitoringProgram. ReporttoUNESCOandthegovernmentsofCostaRicaandPanama
ANAI,Inc: 1120MeadowsRd.
Franklin,NC28734,UnitedStates
billmclarney@gmail.com
(828)524-8369
Asoc.ANAI:Apdo.170-2070
SabanilladeMontesdeOca,CostaRica
mmafla@anaicr.org
(506)2756-8120
July,2011
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DocumentationofuseofriversintheinterioroftheLaAmistadWorldHeritageSite(PILA)bydiadromousfishandshrimps;acollaborative
effortbyindigenousparataxonomistsandtheAsociacionANAIStreamBiomonitoringProgram. ReporttoUNESCOandthe
governmentsofCostaRicaandPanama
Dr.WILLIAMO.McLARNEYProgram Director
LIC.MARIBELMAFLAHERRERAProgram Codirector
LIC.ANAMARIAARIASMORENOResearch Coordinator
MARCIOBONILLAParataxonomist
HUGOSANCHEZParataxonomist
July,2011ANAI,Inc: 1120MeadowsRd.
Franklin,NC28734,UnitedStates
billmclarney@gmail.com
(828)524-8369
Asoc.ANAI:Apdo.170-2070
Sabanillade
Montes
de
Oca,
Costa
Rica
mmafla@anaicr.org
(506)2756-8120
Web:www.anaicr.org
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TABLEOFCONTENTSEXECUTIVESUMMARY 4RESUMENEJECUTIVO 4INTRODUCTION 6PERSONNEL 8PLANNING 9FIELDSTUDYMETHODS 10EXPEDITIONNARRATIVESANDSURVEYRESULTS 13
RioTeribe
13
QuebradaBocachica 17
RiosYorkinandTscui 17
RioKatsi 21ADDITIONALSURVEYWORK 22CONCLUSIONS 24ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 26
ViewoftheupperRioTeribeWatershed
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DocumentationofuseofriversintheinterioroftheLaAmistadWorldHeritage
Site(PILA)bydiadromousfishandshrimps;acollaborativeeffortbyindigenous
parataxonomistsandtheAsociacionANAIStreamBiomonitoringProgram.
ReporttoUNESCOandthegovernmentsofCostaRicaandPanama
EXECUTIVESUMMARY
DuringAprilandMay,2011theANAIStreamBiomonitoringProgramdeployedtwoPanamanian
Nasoparataxonomists,MarcioBonillaandHugoSanchez,tocarryout4separateexpeditionsinorderto
inventorydiadromous fishandshrimp in thePanamanianhalfof theAtlanticslopeof theLaAmistad
International Peace Park and World Heritage Site (PILA). By means of visual survey in streams of the
Teribe, Bocachica, Yorkin/Tscui and Katsi watersheds, they verified the presence of 6 species of
diadromousfishandoneshrimpatdistancesofupto15km.upstreamofthePILAboundaryandupto
750 m. elevation. The data strongly suggest the presence of at least some diadromous species well
above the maximum penetration of our survey, which for the most part corresponds to the highest
pointaccessibletoinvestigatorsnotequippedwithhelicopters.Of the7diadromousspecies identified,3 fish (Joturuspichardi,Agonostomusmonticola, and
Sicydium spp.) , plus the Palaemonid shrimpMacrobrachiumheterochirus, may fairly be described as
ubiquitous below natural vertical barriers at altitudes of up to at least 720 m. Sicydium and
Macrobrachium,whichhavetheabilitytoclimbmoistverticalsurfaces,arealsofoundabovebarriers;in
theRioKatsiwatershedwewereabletoverifytheirpresenceveryclosetotheupperlimitofperennial
flow,atthehighestelevationssurveyed.
Surveyworkwascomplementedby informalmeetingsinthegatewaycommunitiestothePILA
watershedsandby involving localresidentsasfieldassistantsandapprenticeparataxonomists.Bythis
meansweseektoincreaseawarenessofthreatstotheintegrityofPILAposedbyhydrodamproposals,
andalsotostrengthensupportforconservationofPILAintheneighboringindigenouscommunities.
Thework
reported
here
comprises
the
first
ichthyological
inventory
undertaken
anywhere
in
the
10,000 sq. km. World Heritage Site. It complements previous work carried out by ANAI at peripheral
sites in the watersheds draining into Costa Rica from PILA (with documentation of several additional
diadromousspecies),andstronglysuggeststhatdiadromousfishandshrimpsarethedominantanimals
in most streams of the Atlantic slope watersheds of PILA in both countries up to undetermined
altitudinallimits.
We recommend that, so long as plans remain for construction of hydroelectric dams on the
principalriversdrainingPILA,theentireparkshouldbelistedasaWorldHeritageSiteinDanger.
RESUMENEJECUTIVO
Durante abril y mayo de 2011 el Programa de Biomonitoreo de Ros de la Asociacin ANAI
contrat a los parataxnomos Panameos Naso, Marcio Bonilla y Hugo Snchez, para inventariar, en
cuatroexpediciones,lospecesycamaronesdidromosdelaporcinPanameadelavertienteAtlntica
del Parque Internacional de la Paz y Sitio de Patrimonio Mundial La Amistad (PILA). Por medi de
revisiones visuales en ros y quebradas de las cuencas Teribe, Bocachica, Yorkin/Tscui y Katsi,
confirmaron la presencia de seis especies de peces y un camarn a distancias de hasta 15 km aguas
arribadellmitedelPILA,yalturasde750msnm.Estosdatossugierenfuertementelapresenciadepor
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lomenosalgunasespeciesdidromasbastantearribadelpuntodepenetracinmximaenelpresente
estudio,elcualgeneralmentecorrespondialsitioaccesiblemsaltosinusodeunhelicptero.
Delassieteespeciesdidromasidentificadas,3peces(Joturuspichardi,AgonostomusmontcolaySicydiumsp.),mselcamarnPalaemonidoMacrobrachiumheterochirus,puedenserdescritascomoubicuas por debajo de barreras verticales naturales, en alturas de hasta por lo menos 720 msnm.
SicydiumyMacrobrachium,alsercapacesdeascenderporsuperficiesverticaleshmedas,tambinse
encuentranarribadelasbarreras;enlacuencadelRoKatsiseconfirmosupresenciamuycercaallmite
delflujoperenne,enlasmayoreselevacionesvisitadas.
El trabajo de inventario fue complementado por medio de reuniones informales en las
comunidades cercanasalparqueen las cuencasvisitadasya travsdel involucramientodepersonas
localescomoayudantesdecampoyparataxnomosaprendices.Deestamaneraseesperaincrementar
laconcienciaacercade lasamenazasa la integridaddelPILAque representan laspropuestaspara la
construccinderepresashidroelctricas,alavezquesefortaleceelapoyoparalaconservacindelPILA
enlascomunidadesindgenasaledaas.
Eltrabajoaqureportadocomprendeelprimer inventario ictiolgicohechoencualquierparte
deesteSitiodePatrimonioMundialde10,000km2.Escomplementarioaltrabajopreviorealizadopor
ANAIensitiosperifricosdelosrosquedrenanelPILAhaciaCostaRica(con documentacindevarias
especiesdidromas
adicionales)
ysugiere
fuertemente
que
los
peces
ycamarones
didromos
son
los
animalesdominantesen lamayorade ros yquebradasde la vertienteAtlnticadelPILAen ambos
pases,hastalmitesaltitudinalesnodeterminados.
Recomendamosquemientraspermanezcanvigenteslosplanesparalaconstruccinderepresas
hidroelctricasen losprincipalesrosquedrenanelPILA,elparqueenterodebeser listadocomoSitio
dePatrimonioMundialenPeligro.
TheRioTeribeabovethemouthofRioPjer
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INTRODUCTION
ANAIs 2010 report to the UNESCO
World Heritage Committee (The Threat to
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function of
ProposedHydroelectric
Dams
in
the
La
Amistad
World Heritage Site, Panama and Costa Rica)
successfullymadethecasethatconstructionof
hydroelectricdamsontheriversflowingoutof
theLaAmistadInternationalPeacePark,World
HeritageSiteandBiosphereReserve(PILA,from
itsSpanishacronym)wouldseverelyimpactthe
function of the rivers of the area as altitudinal
biological corridors, specificallybyblocking the
migratorymovementsofasuiteofdiadromous
fishandshrimpspecieswhicharethedominant
large aquatic animals athigher altitudes in the
LaAmistad
area.
However, the significance of these
findings for PILA itself has been questioned,
based on the justifiable criticism that our
studies of the aquatic fauna of PILA were all
carriedoutwithinafewhundredmetersofthe
park boundary, with three exceptions outside
the actual park boundary. This is due to
logisticalrestraints:Atnopoint inCostaRica is
the PILA boundary located less than 2 days
travelbyfootfromthenearestpointaccessible
by
motor
vehicle
or
boat.
And,
while
the
park
boundaryinPanamaiswithinafewhourswalk
of motorized access, we have until this year
been unable to obtain scientific collection
permits for work in Panama. There exists no
otherinventorydataforaquaticanimalsinPILA
for the same reason that our surveys were
concentratednear theboundary accesstothe
interior of PILA is normally extremely time
consumingandthereforecostly.
Partly in response to thesedoubts, the
UNESCO
World
Heritage
Committee
directed
the governments of Panama and Costa Rica to
carry out a Transboundary Strategic
Environmental Assessment (TSEA) of PILA if
theywishtoavoidPILAbeingofficially listedas
aWorldHeritageSiteinDanger.Responseby
the governments was slow in coming; when
they ultimately published Terms of Reference
forthestudytwopointswereclear:
1. They were structured such that ANAIcould
not
hope
to
successfully
compete
forfundstodothestudy.
2. The specified time interval (report duein April, 2011) made it difficult for
anyone using conventional methods to
complete meaningful surveys within
PILA, even if funding is adequate.
Ultimately, the work was not even
begun until after the presumptive
deadline.
At this point, the ANAI Stream
BiomonitoringProgram
found
itself
in
aunique
position to respond to the challenge of
shedding light on the presence and relative
abundance ofdiadromousanimals within PILA.
We are the only organization capable of
deploying trained indigenous parataxonomists
fromtheLaAmistadareatoswiftly,accurately
and at low cost identify and roughly quantify
diadromous (and nondiadromous) fish and
shrimp in selected rivers well within PILA. We
were fortunateto findsupport forthiswork in
PILA/Panama
(though
not
in
Costa
Rica)
from
theInternationalCommunityFoundation.
The present report, summarizing the
results of 4 separate expeditions into the
interior of PILA/Panama will presumably serve
asacomplementtothebinationalTSEAforuse
by UNESCO, the governments of Panama and
Costa Rica, and all others concerned for the
future of the La Amistad World Heritage site
and surrounding protected areas and
communities. We believe it will also prove
valuable
as
a
contribution
to
the
scant
biologicalknowledgeofPILA,and incontinuing
a process, fomented by ANAI, of engaging the
indigenous communities which border PILA in
theprotectionoftheWorldHeritageSite.
Onadifferentscale,wetrustthatitwill
also serve as a reminder to UNESCO and
international conservation organizations of the
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importance of rivers as altitudinal biological
corridors. We hope this will contribute to
greater attention being paid to diadromy and
other riverine corridor functions in making
decisions about dam construction and other
activities which can disrupt the continuity of
fluvialsystems.
In addition to reporting on the results
of investigations undertaken by
parataxonomists in 2011, we have organized
and appended selected information from
previousandcurrentstudies inthewatersheds
draining the Atlantic slope of PILA in both
countries tobuild thecase for thepresenceof
diadromousfishandshrimpinalargeportionof
the World Heritage Site and, as a logical
consequence, their status as part of the
Outstanding Universal Value of the protected
area. Our report will also describe efforts to
build upon and strengthen support for the
conservation of PILA and preservation of
diadromousanimals locally,particularlyamong
theindigenousNgobe,Naso,BribriandCabecar
populationsborderingPILA.
Three of thewidespread diadromous species of PILA: A) Camaron rayado or banded shrimp
(Macrobrachiumheterochirus). B) Lisa,sartenormountainmullet(Agonostomusmonticola).c)Bobo,bocachicaorhogmullet(Joturuspichardi)
A B
C
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PERSONNEL
To carry out the field work we
contracted two Panamanian parataxonomists.
Marcio Bonilla S. and Hugo Sanchez V. are
members
of
the
Naso
tribe
who,
followingparticipation in a biomonitoring training
workshophostedbyANAIinTalamancain2004,
were principals in fish surveys of their native
Teribewatershed in 2006 and 2007 and in the
upper Uren watershed in Costa Rica during
2009 and 2010. Both are skilled in underwater
inventory of fish and shrimp species of the La
Amistaddrainagesandhavealso functionedas
educators, including in training for other
parataxonomists.
It was decided that permanent ANAI
staffwould
not
participate
in
the
field
work
for
several reasons: Srs. Bonilla and Sanchez are
much more efficient in doing instream surveys
in large, turbulent and sometimes dangerous
rivers, and can also set a faster pace in the
rugged crosscountry travel necessary to reach
sites within PILA. They are also necessarily
better at gaining confidence in remote
indigenouscommunities,wherenonindigenous
visitorsarenormallyatleastsuspectedofbeing
agents for dam builders, mining interests and
the
like;
this
was
particularly
important
in
the
Teribe and Bocachica watersheds where ANAI
doesnothavealonghistoryofpresence.
Ineachofthe4watershedswehired2
other local individuals to serve as guides,
bearers and field assistants. While all actual
counts in the field were carried out by the
parataxonomist team, these individuals were
encouragedtoparticipate,asafirststeptoward
possible parataxonomist training (a process
initiated in theYorkin/Tscuiwatershedpriorto
the inception of the present project). Perhaps
equally importantwastheirrole in interpreting
the activity in their own communities and
helping
relate
the
conservation
of
PILA,
aboutwhichmanyindigenouspeoplehaveambivalent
feelings, to issues of universal concern in their
communities.
In the Naso communities of the Teribe
watershed,whereSrs.BonillaandSanchez live,
identifyingtheseindividualswasnoproblem.In
the Yorkin/Tscui and Katsi watersheds, for
which access to PILA is through Bribri
communities in Costa Rica, we were able to
drawonlongtimecontactsestablishedthrough
the Stream Biomonitoring Program and other
activities
of
ANAI.
The
most
culturally
and
politically sensitive situation we encountered
wasintheNgobecommunitiesatthelowerend
of the Bocachica watershed. There we were
abletoworkthroughcontactsmadeduringthe
controversy over construction of the CHAN75
damontheRioChanguinola.
Inaddition,itwasnecessarytocontract
the services of skilled boatmen to access the
boundary of PILA in the Teribe watershed and
the expedition jumpoff points for the
Yorkin/Tscuiand
Bocachica
watersheds,
via
the
Rios Yorkin and Changuinola, respectively.
ANAI Biomonitoring Program co
directors Dr. William O. McLarney and Maribel
MaflaH.wereinvolvedinallphasesofplanning
and in debriefing of Srs. Bonilla and Sanchez
aftereachexpedition.StaffmemberAnaMaria
Arias M. assisted in all phases and had the
specific responsibility of preparing the maps
whichappearinthisreport.
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PLANNING
Site selection and expedition planning
was done in collaboration between the
parataxonomistsandANAIstaff.Sincewewere
restricted
to
work
in
PILA/Panama,
weeliminated the Lari, Coen, Telire and Estrella
watersheds, which drain important portions of
PILA and would be affected by hydroelectric
damsplannedforCostaRica.(Inourproposalto
ICF we suggested the possibility to separately
fundparallelsurveys inPILA/CostaRica.While
thispossibilitywasnotrealized,wedidmanage,
without additional funding, to carry out our
ownsurveys inportionsoftheLariandEstrella
watershedsjustdownstreamofPILA;resultsare
includedintheAppendix.)
The
five
principal
rivers
draining
the
AtlanticslopeofLa Amistad/Panama are, from
east to west, the Changuinola, Teribe, Yorkin,
Tscui and Katsi. We excluded the mainstem of
the largestofthese,theRioChanguinola, from
considerationforseveralreasons:
WiththeimminentclosureoftheCHAN75dam on the Changuinola, extirpation of
diadromousspeciesinthegreatmajorityof
theChanguinolawatershedisassured.
The best access to the upper Changuinolais
through
Panama
from
the
Pacific
side.
To
carry out surveys there would have
mandated a disproportionate amount of
travelcosts.
Wehadhopes(whichwerenotrealized)ofincorporating a parataxonomist trainee
from a Panamanian conservation
organization based in Chiriqui province on
thePacificslopetoindependentlycarryout
surveysintheupperChanguinola.
We
did
however,
elect
to
surveyQuebrada Bocachica, tributary to the
Changuinolajustbelow the CHAN75dam site.
Once CHAN75 is completed, the Q. Bocachica
watershedwillbetheonlypartofPILA/Panama
in the Changuinola watershed above the
confluence of the Rio Teribe which remains
opentoentrybydiadromes.
For each of the 4 rivers (except Q.
Bocachica)thelocationofthesurveyreachwas
the same: from the downstream boundary of
PILAup
to
the
point
where
foot
travel
became
impossibleorunacceptablydangerousorwhere
noevidenceofdiadromeswasseen,whichever
came first. Our original thought was to survey
goingupstream,presumablynotingthedrop in
diversity and abundance of some species with
altitude. Our parataxonomy team, anticipating
whatturnedouttobethecase,suggestedthat
they were more likely to reach an impassable
reach than run out of fish and shrimp, and
opted to travel upstream by whatever route
was expedient, then concentrate on survey
work
during
the
return
trip.
As
it
turned
out,
impassableconditionswerereachedinallofthe
watershedsexceptRioKatsi,thesmallestofthe
5 rivers surveyed. The wisdom of this decision
willbemorereadilyunderstoodonreadingthe
accountoftheTeribeexpedition.
ANAIstaffwasresponsibleforproviding
or arranging transport to thejumpoff points,
while the tasks of arranging guides and other
taxonomists and securing provisions was
shared. The other main task during the weeks
prior
to
initiating
field
surveys
was
to
secure
collectionpermits(Eventhoughnocollection,
noreventemporarycapture,ofspecimenswas
contemplated, ANAM requires a permit to
collect data within PILA). Because the
Biomonitoring Program had already received a
permit to do capture and release surveys of
aquatic animals in Bocas del Toro province
outside PILA, through our participation in the
Binational Sixaola Watershed Project, we
assumed that getting the additional permit
would
be
an
efficient
process.
In
fact,
although
weformallyappliedforthepermitonFebruary
19, an affirmative response was not received
until April 13. This forced us to crowd
expeditions together, with consequent loss of
flexibility leading to loss of effective field time
duetorain,turbidityandhighwaterlevels.
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FIELDSTUDYMETHODS
In the field methodology was basically
as described in our proposal. At selected sites
on each survey river, 2 or more survey sites
were
selected.
At
a
minimum
these
includedonesitejustabovethePILAboundaryandone
at the upperend ofsafe, feasibleaccess (or in
thecaseoftheRioKatsi,whereit becamevery
small). The lower reaches of tributary streams
were also occasionally surveyed, as
opportunitiespresentedthemselves.
At each site visual survey of fish and
shrimp was carried out, first by walking the
banks and observing from vantage points over
pools,theninthewaterwithuseofsnorkeland
face mask. Fish (both diadromous and non
diadromousspecies)
and
shrimp
observed
were
identified to species and abundance estimated
(Abundant = constantly in view in suitable
habitat, Common = more than 5 individuals
observed in half an hour of snorkeling, Rare =
less than 5 individuals observed). Care was
takentosurveyalltypesofhabitatpresent,and
searching was continued at least until no new
specieswereobservedovera15minuteperiod.
Minimumsearch time was 30 minutes per site
by two persons. The parataxonomists were
equipped
with
underwater
flashlights
which
permitted searching under rocks, undercut
banks, etc. while also facilitating species
identification in pools where some species of
fish might maintain a considerable distance
from observers. At survey sites corresponding
to campsites, the flashlights were also used to
searchforshrimpatnight.
While all identification and data
recording was done by the parataxonomists,
other assistants often participated with
preliminary
or
supplementary
surveys.
This
consistedprimarilyingoingaheadofthesurvey
crew to identify concentrations of fish,
promising survey sites and special habitats.
Somefieldtimewasalsodevotedtoinstruction
for those assistants who expressed interest in
becomingparataxonomists.
InourexperienceinTalamancawehave
learnedthatmostspeciesoffishandshrimpare
easily observable and identifiable, but certain
exceptions
must
be
noted.
Among
these
aretwo important diadromous forms the
American eel or anguila de mar (Anguillarostrata)andshrimpofthefamilyAtyidae.Both
tend tobenocturnal,andspendmuchof their
time buried in substrate. One other diadrome
should be mentioned here; Gobiesox nudus(chupapiedracabezonorclingfish)wasreported
from the Teribe watershed by our
parataxonomists in 2006, but this small, rare
and cryptic species was not seen during the
present survey. Among nondiadromous forms
the
only
fishes
not
readily
visually
detectable
andexpectedattheelevationsofPILAaretwo
speciesofcatfish(Rhamdia)whichinadditional
to being nocturnal and cryptic, normally occur
in very small numbers everywhere. GobiesoxandAtyidaewerenot foundduringthesurvey;
Anguilla and Rhamdia were, but their
distributionislikelyunderestimated.
ForeachsiteGPScoordinates,altitude,
water temperature and time of survey were
recorded, together with a physical description
ofthe
site.
This
information
was
supplemented
with ample photodocumentation (photos are
included).
Since part of our purpose was to raise
consciousnessoftheimportanceofdiadromous
speciesintheriversofLaAmistad,thethreatto
these species from dam construction, and the
relationship of PILA as a protected area to the
wellbeing of downstream Naso, Ngobe and
Bribri communities, meetings open to all
interested parties were held in gateway
communities
prior
to
the
first
day
of
field
work
and at the conclusion. The following
communitieswerevisited:
SiekinandSieyik(RioTeribe,Nasoethnia) Bocachica(QuebradaBocachica,Ngobe) Yorkin(RioTscui,Bribri) KatsiandNamuUoki(RioKatsi,Bribri)
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In the Yorkin/Tscui and Katsi
watersheds, the downstream limit of PILA
corresponds to the international boundary, so
that while all survey work was conducted in
Panama, selection of field assistants and pre
and postsurvey meetings were held in Costa
Ricangatewaycommunities.
AccesstoPILA.A)Expeditionmembersclearingatrail.B)Liningadugoutthroughrapidsonthe
RioTeribe
A
B
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Fieldmethodology.A)GeoreferencingwithGPS. B)Recordingdatainfieldnotebooks.C)Visual
surveyusingfacemasks.D)Nocturnalsurveysusingunderwaterflashlights
C
A B
D
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EXPEDITIONNARRATIVESANDSURVEYRESULTS
Results of our 2011 survey work in
PILA/Panama are summarized in Table 1. The
followingindividualexpeditionaccountspainta
fuller
picture
of
the
role
of
diadromy
in
therivers of PILA/Panama and the context within
whichitoccurs.
RioTeribe(12days):
The original plan for surveying the Rio
Teribe, by far the largest of the rivers to be
visited,contemplated15daysinthefield.Itwas
decidedtoembarkfromSiekin,theseatofNaso
government and the uppermost permanent
settlement in the Teribe watershed and
proceed by outboard dugout as far as the
mouthof
Quebrada
Shey,
not
far
from
the
PILA
boundary. The team then took a circuitous
overland route to a point at the mouth of the
RioPjer,where the RioTeribeemerges from a
narrow canyon over a considerable waterfall,
abovewhichpointtherewasreasontosuspect
that the nonclimbing diadromous species
(everything except Sicydium and shrimps)
would be absent and travel would be
exceedingly difficult. The plan was, after
surveying at this point, to build a raft and
descendthe
Teribe,
carrying
out
visual
surveys
onthemainstemandtributariesenroute.
Theinitialobjectivewasrealizedaftera
half day boat trip, followed by a 3 day hike,
during which 2 tributary streams were
surveyed. However, the downstream trip was
aborted by torrential rains, which caused the
riverto risewellbeyond levelssafe for rafting.
The team was thus forced to invent a new
overlandroute,andranoutoffoodhalfadays
hike from their food cache. By this time two
members
were
ill
with
fever
and
diarrhea.
Fortunatelytheywereabletomakecellphone
contact with their boatman and return to
Siekin. As a consequence the expedition was
condensed to12days,but itwasonlypossible
tocarryoutinventorieson3ofthosedays(total
of5sites).
The Teribe was the largest river
surveyed and, as expected, had the most and
largest diadromous fish, particularly Joturuspichardi.
Of
particular
interest
was
the
highest
altitude site, on the Rio Pjer, (which would
never have been reached had the
parataxonomists not argued strongly for
starting at the farthest point and working
downstream).Thedifficultyofaccesstothissite
maybejudgedbythefactthat,whileincursions
into PILA, particularly for purposes of fishing,
huntingandextractionofartifectsarecommon,
there was no sign of human access in recent
yearsatorduringtheapproachtothesite.
TheR.Pjersite,andtheuppermostsite
on
the
Teribe
mainstem
were
judged
to
be
extremelydangerousbytheparataxonomists,
who concluded that further upstream travel
was impossible. They were however able to
safely access some poolareas and were struck
by theabundanceandcomplete rangeofsizes
ofAgonostomusmonticolaandJoturuspichardi.Joturusisahighlyprizedfoodfish,andnormally
sensitive to disturbance. However, in the Rio
Pjer, alone among all the sites monitored, the
parataxonomists reported being able to swim
freelywith
groups
of
this
species,
including
very
large individuals. Based on lifelong experience
in the Teribe watershed, they considered this
sitetobeexceptional.
The upper site on the R. Teribe
mainstem,CruceYolu isthesiteofagauging
station (since destroyed by high water)
established during the early days of
hydropower exploration in the
Changuinola/Teribe watershed. There was no
sign of recent human visitation. However, the
lower
site
Shubloch
is
frequently
accessed
for
the purposes mentioned above. Shubloch was
the site of a Naso settlement, but was
abandonedsome80yearsago.
As would be expected, the diversity of
fish was greater at Shubloch than upstream,
with 3 additional diadromous species (Anguillarostrata, Awaous banana and Gobiomorus
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14
dormitor) reported, along with 2 non
diadromousspecies.
Other sites on the R. Teribe and 2
tributary streams tentatively scheduled for
inventory (R. Shey and R. Bley) could not be
accessed due to high water. Of 2 tributaries
whichwereaccessed,one (Q.Shur)hadstrong
populations of 3 diadromous fishes, including
large individualsofJoturus.Theothertributarysurveyed,Q.Unio, was theonlystream in the
project where no diadromes were found; the
only fish specieswas the residentPriapichthysannectens, characteristic of clean, cold forest
streamsintheregion.
RioTeribeexpedition.A)TheRioTeribeatCruceYolu.B)ParataxonomistHugoSanchezheaded
forasurveysite.C)BoboorbocachicafromtheRioTeribe.D)Passingfieldgearacrossariver
A
D
C
B
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TABLE1.Resultsofvisualsurveysforpresenceofdiadromousfishandshrimpsat15sitesinPILA/Panama,2011
Watershed
Stream
Site
Altitude
(m.)
Distanceabove
PILA
boundary
(km.)
Anguilla
rostrata
Agonost
omus
monticola
JoturusPichardi
Awaous
banana
Bocachica
1.Q.BocachicaUpperlimitof
cultivation200 7.7 A C
2.Q.Bocachica Cultivatedarea 180 5.9 A C
Teribe
3.R.Teribe CruceYolu 360 13.9 A A
4.R.PjerAbovemouthatR.
Teribe380 13.8 A A
5.Q.Shur5km.abovemouth
arR.Teribe440 13.1 A C
6.Q.Unio SenderoShublochic 460 10.3
7.R.Teribe Shubloch 340 8.1 R A A R
Yorkin 8.R.Yorkin ElSalto 450JustbelowPILA
boundaryC R
Tscui
9.R.Tscui LaJolla 730 8.6
10.R.Tscui Bateal 510 6.6 A
11.R.Tscui PuertoConcepcin 310 4.2 A C
12.Q.Draria EdgarAlanFarm 200 2.8 A R
Katsi
13.R.Katsi Falls 680 4.5 R
14.R.Katsi Above2falls 720 4.8
15.UnnamedJustabovewhereR.
Katsidivides750 4.4 R
16.R.Katsi PILAboundary 290 A R
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FIGURE1.SiteswithinPILA/PanamasurveyedfordiadromousfishandshrimpbyANAIparataxonomists,2011
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17
QuebradaBocachica(4days):
Although the Rio Teribe is tributary to
the Rio Changuinola, the 2 watersheds were
considered separately in this study, in part
because of the large size of the R. Teribe, but
also because thejuncture of the two rivers is
below the PILA boundary. With the pending
closure of the CHAN75 dam, the only portion
oftheupperChanguinolawatershedwhichwill
be accessible to diadromes will be the Q.
Bocachica, whichjoins the riverjust below the
dam site. Its watershed area of 103 sq. km.
represents just 7.1% of the watershed area
formerlyaccessible.
Q. Bocachica is also of concern due to
its position as a natural escape valve for
Ngobe communities being displaced by the
CHAN75
project.
Part
of
the
Q.
Bocachica
watershedwithinthepark isalreadypopulated
andalsousedforagriculturalpurposesbynon
residents.
Both sites surveyed on Q. Bocachica
had a similar mix of fish, with abundant
Agonostomus and Sicydium and a surprising
number ofJoturus of all sizes. Of the streams
surveyed,Q.Bocachicahasthe lowestgradient
and (despite its name) would not seem o
present high quality habitat for adultJoturus.
Based
on
observations
of
fish
and
habitat
as
well as conversations with local residents, we
surmise that a significant number of the
diadromes observed in Q. Bocachica represent
animals diverted by activities at the CHAN75
dam just upstream, which is already partially
closed. If this is the case, then in future years
wecanexpectnumbersofdiadromousspecies
to decline to a level reflecting the carrying
capacity of the stream (or less, if fishing
pressure increases with a denser human
population). Results of this survey should be
interpreted
as
overstating
the
value
of
this
streamashabitatfordiadromesinPILA.
RiosYorkinandTscui(6days):
The Rio Tscui, the largest tributary of
the binational Rio Yorkin watershed, arises
within PILA/Panama and ultimatelyjoins with
theYorkininCostaRicaatthevillageofYorkin,
whichhasbeena focalpointofactivity forthe
ANAI Stream Biomonitoring Team since the
inceptionofourprogram.Ouroriginalplanwas
to hike up the Tscui to the international/PILA
boundaryandworkupstreamto themaximum
feasible access point, then cross the flanks of
Cerro Xkokariu at altitudes of about 1,000 m.,
come down into the headwaters of the Rio
Yorkin, survey it down to the Park Boundary,
then continue down the river to base camp at
Yorkin.
This plan was changed due to the
necessity to employ different local guides for
the Tscui and the Yorkin; both rivers were
accessedbytravelingupstreamfromYorkin.As
it turns out, it might have been better to
continuewiththeoriginalplan,sincethegroup
wasunable
to
penetrate
PILA
along
the
Yorkin.
Landslides which have occurred since the last
time anyone from Yorkin has gone to a place
knownasElSaltowouldrequirealongascent
over scree interspersed with boulders.
(However, it should be noted that the Ngobe
village of Alto Yorkin appears to be located
withinPILA,thoughnotdirectlyontheriver.)
Apartfromsafetyconcerns,thepresent
conditionoftherivermayposeabarriertofish
passage. One site was inventoried, at the foot
of
the
impacted
area,
barely
below
the
PILA
boundary.Thebraidedstreamchanneldoesnot
offer good habitat forJoturus, although some
small individuals were seen just below the
braidedreach.Theother3commondiadromes
(Agonostomus, Sicydium and Macrobrachiumheterochirus)werepresent.
The Rio Tscui has also suffered from
naturalevents inrecentyears, includingaflash
flood which originated near the
international/PILAboundaryinDecember,2008
and utterly altered the channel between there
andthe
mouth,
with
temporary
displacement
of
almost all fish. A more recent landslide
originatingonatributary(Q.Bateal)apparently
blocks passage by large fish at a point 6.6 km.
abovethePILAboundary.
The Tscui was inventoried at 3 points.
Notethatbeginningattheinternationalborder,
atanelevationofabout120m.,theTscuiitself
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18
forms the PILA boundary for about 4 km. For
purposesofthisstudythedownstreamborder
of PILA was taken to be the international
boundary,abovewhichpoint the rivermaybe
considered to be within PILA. The only Tscui
tributarysurveyed,QuebradaDraria,entersthe
TscuifromthePILAside.The lowermostsurvey
point on the Tscui, Puerto Concepcion is
located where the World Heritage Site
boundarycrossestheriver.
ComparisonofresultsfromtheR.Tscui
atPuertoConception,withanaltitudeofabout
310m.andthenextstation,Batealat510m.,
showstheexpectedgradientofdiversitywith4
diadromous and 2 nondiadromous species
observed at Puerto Concepcion, but only 3
diadromesandnootherspeciesat Bateal.
TheBateal
site
was
located
just
below
the tributary and barrier referred to above.
Above thebarrier, at an altitudeof about730
m. (La Jolla), the only large aquatic animals
detected were Sicydium and Macrobrachiumheterochirus, both of which are capable ofclimbinghigh,nearverticalbarriers if they are
moist. According to our guides, prior to the
landslide,thereachbetweenBatealandLaJolla
was characterized by abundance of
Agonostomusmonticola.
Q. Draria, at an altitude of about 210
m., lackedJoturus,but theother3widespread
diadromes were present, as well as Awaousbanana,alsorecordedfromthe lowermostsite
ontheR.Teribe.
Overaperiodofyearswehavecometo
consider the Rio Tscui between the
international/PILA boundary and Yorkin as an
outstanding site for diadromes, especially
including large Joturus. This changed in 2009
following the December, 2008 disaster, but
there is a definite trend toward repopulation,
particularlybythestrongswimmingJoturusand
Agonostomus. This trend is likely occurring
within PILA as well; were this work to be
repeatedwewouldexpectgradual increases in
abundance and size of diadromes between
PuertoConcepcion
and
Bateal,
with
possible
eventual repopulationupstreamof theslideat
Bateal.
It should be noted that the small
portionof theTscuiwatershedwithinPanama
but outside PILA, paralleling the river is the
focus of a smallwave of colonization by non
indigenous Panamanians; some encroachment
withintheparkmayalreadybeoccurring.
RioYorkinbelowthePILAboundary
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19
Yorkinexpedition.A)TheRioYorkinatthePILAboundary.B)ApprenticeparataxonomistLuis
SeguraofYorkinpracticingvisualsurveymethods.C)TheYorkinexpeditioncrew
B
A
C
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20
RioKatsi(3days):RiosYorkinandTscui(6days):
Tscuiexpedition.A)Macrobrachiumheterochirus fromQuebradaDraria.B)SigndesignatingthePILAboundaryontheRioTscui.C)WaterfallontheRioTscui.D)MarcioBonilladescendingtoa
studysiteontheRioTscui.E)TypicalreachoftheupperRioTscui
DC
BA
E
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21
RioKatsi(4days):TheRioKatsihasmoreofastairstep
profile than the other rivers visited, with
frequentpoolsseparatedby lowcascadesover
boulders.These conditionspermit thepassage
of all species of diadromes, but the lack of
powerful rapids may be a limiting factor for
Joturus,whichwasnot foundaboveabout300
m.Above thatpoint, all theotherwidespread
diadromes were present, although
Agonostomuswas represented almost entirely
bylargeindividuals.
In 2007 we took 3 species of non
diadromous fish (plus the diadrome Awaous
banana) at a site not far below the PILA
boundary,atabout200m.elevation.However,
A. banana was not recorded within PILA andonly one of the nondiadromous species
(Priapichthysannectens)wasfound.TheR.Katsiwatershedwassurveyedup
to a point, 4.8 km. above the PILA boundary,
where it divides into two branches, at an
elevation of 750 m. Above this point (within
about a kilometer of the head of permanent
flow)thetwobranchesweredeemedtobetoo
smalltojustifycontinuedsurvey.
WaterfallsintheheadwaterareaoftheRioKatsi
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22
ADDITIONALSURVEYWORK
Whilewewerenotsuccessful inraising
funds to support parallel work in PILA/Costa
Rica (Uren, Lari, Coen, Telire and Estrella
watersheds),
we
did
plan
our
regularmonitoringworkduringthe2011dryseasonso
as to include visual surveys of sites not far
below the PILA boundary on the Rio Lari
(Talamanca Bribri Indigenous Reserve) and Rio
Cariei (tributary totheRioEstrella in theTayni
Cabecar Indigenous Reserve). These results
appear in Table 2, which lists diadromous
speciesfoundattheuppermostsitemonitored
inrecentyearsonvariousstreamsdrainingPILA
in the Changuinola, Teribe, Yorkin, Uren, Lari
and Estrella watersheds. We include 2 sites
whichdo
not
form
part
of
PILA:
TheRioCereresite isfromtheHitoyCerereBiologicalReserve,intheEstrellawatershed.
While HitoyCerere is administratively
separatefromPILA,itisadjacentandenjoys
evenstricterlegalprotection.
AsiteontheRioDueri,whichdoesnotpassthrough PILA, is included as our highest
altitude site in the Rio Coen watershed,
whichdoes
drain
PILA.
Of 16 Costa Rican sites listed, 4 are
within PILA (or HitoyCerere) and 4 are
immediately below the boundary, while the
others (except for Rio Dueri) are located as
specified distances below the boundary.
Inferencesbasedonthisadditional information
willbedrawnintheConclusionssection.
TheConclusionssectionwillalsodiscuss
resultsofvisualandnetcapturesurveyscarried
out during 2005 and 2006 by Ngobe and Naso
parataxonomists
(including
Srs.
Bonilla
and
Sanchez) at or near the PILA boundary on 17
tributaries draining out of the World Heritage
Site to the Rios Changuinola and Teribe, at
altitudesof120to400m.
TABLE2.BiomonitoringsitesnearestthePILAboundaryon15streamsintheAtlanticslopewatersheds
ofPILA/CostaRica,withdiadromousfishspeciesrecorded
Watershed
Stream
Altitude
(m.)
Distance
belowPILA
boundary
(km.)Anguilla
rostrata
Pomada
sys
crocro
Agonost
omus
montico
la
Joturus
Pichardi
Awaous
banana
Sicydium
spp.
Gobiomorus
dormitor
Nofnon
diadromous
fishspecies
Yorkin
1.R.Yorkin 80 14.0 X X X X X X 6
2.R.Tscui 140 PILAboundary X X X X X 5
3.Q.Plas 140 PILAboundary X X X 8
4.R.Bris 240 PILAboundary X X 3
5.Q.Ambris 300 0.8 X X 5
Uren
6.R.Katsi 260 PILAboundary X X X X 3
7.R.Uren 320 6.2 X X X 0
8.R.Sukut 320 4.7 X X X 1
9.Q.Crori 500 9.6 X 1
10.R.
Uren
(LaIsla
7.5
km.
aboveTsoki)200
Within
X
X
X
2
11.R.Uren(LaIslainTsoki) 100 Within X X X X X X 6
12.Q.Niabri(LaIslainTsoki) 120 Within X X X X X 13
Lari 13.R.Lari 260 8.2 X X X X X 6
Coen 14.R.Dueri 160 *** X X X X X X 9
Estrella15.R.Cariei 280 4.8 X X X X X 6
16.R.Cerere 140 *** X X X X X X 12
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FIGURE1.SitesnearestPILAboundarysurveyedfordiadromousfishbyANAI,20062011.Numberscorrespondt
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24
CONCLUSIONS
While the focus of the work reported
here, and the discussion which follows, is on
practical biodiversity conservation issues and
their
relation
to
the
indigenous
communitiesborderingPILA,wewouldberemissnottopoint
out the value of this work from a purely
scientificpointofview.Otherthanworkcarried
outorsupportedbyANAIatafewsitesonthe
periphery of PILA in the upper Changuinola,
Teribe, Yorkin and Uren watersheds, the data
reported here constitute the first survey of
ichthyofaunaeverpublished foranyportion of
PILA. In this sense they are highly
complementary to inventory work on other
faunaandfloraofPILArecentlycompletedand
currently
ongoing
by
other
national
and
internationalagencies.
Looking first at the field work carried
out during 2011 with support from the
International Community Foundation, Table 1
showstheimportanceofdiadromyinthefluvial
ecosystems of La Amistad. A total of 7 species
ofdiadromousfishandshrimpwerefoundat15
of 16 sites surveyed in the 4 watersheds, at
altitudes of 180 to 750 m. Of these 4 were
widespread, being found at 1015sites. Only 4
nondiadromous
fish
species
were
reported,
at
7ofthe16sites.
In all but one case (Quebrada Unio,
tributary to the Rio Teribe) diadromes (1 to 4
species) were much more abundant than the
nondiadromous species. The only species
observed in Q. Unio was the sedentary
Priapichthys annectens, often found in foreststreams devoid of other fish. The most
widespreaddiadromewasSicydium,foundatall15 diadrome sites, and often in enormous
abundance.
Aswouldbepredicted,speciesdiversity
ofbothdiadromesandnondiadromesdeclined
with altitude, but there is no suggestion of an
absolute upper altitudinal limit, especially for
the Sicydium gobies and Macrobrachium
shrimp, which are capable of climbing
waterfalls, as demonstrated by their presence
intheRioTscuiabovewhatwouldappeartobe
an absolute barrier to species which rely on
swimming. In Costa Rica and elsewhere
Sicydium
have
been
reported
at
altitudes
ofnearly1,200m,andtheotherthreewidespread
diadromesareallknownfromaltitudesgreater
than500m.
The Rio Katsi data provide an example
of the potential to occupy habitat. Because of
itsrelativelysmallsize,itwaspossibletofollow
the Katsi up to a point near the actual
headwaters.Fromthehighestpointsampledon
theR.Katsimainstem,atanaltitudeof720m.
theRioKatsiextendsasabluelinedstreamon
the Sukut topo quad for barely a kilometer; at
thispoint
its
watershed
area
is
approximately
3
sq. km. Yet at this point it still contained
Sicydium. Sicydium, Macrobrachiumheterochirus and few but large Agonostomus
werefoundevenhigher,atanelevationof750
m.inasmalltributary.
What is true for the Teribe, Bocachica,
Yorkin/Tscui and Katsi watersheds is almost
certainly true for the other Atlantic slope
watersheds draining PILA. While due to a
combination of difficult and costly access and
failureto
acquire
permits
in
Panama,
the
ANAI
Biomonitoring Monitoring Programs efforts
withinPILAhavebeenfewand locatedcloseto
theboundary,wehavesampled inproximityto
the park boundary in all of the Costa Rican
Atlantic slope PILA watersheds except the Rios
CoenandTelire. (Andwehave found6species
ofdiadromousfishintheRioDueri,tributaryto
theCoen,butwhichdoesnotariseinPILA,atan
altitude of 160 m.) Results of this work are
showninTable2,spanning5sitesintheYorkin
watershed,
7
in
the
Uren,
2
in
the
Estrella,
and
oneeachintheLariandCoenwatersheds.
Using electrofishing technology and
visualobservation,wehaveidentified7species
of diadromous fish within PILA all of those
observed during the present study, plus the
roncador or burro grunt (Pomadasys crocro).(Untilrecentlyourmethodologydidnotpermit
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25
us to quantify shrimp species, but both of the
familiesofdiadromousshrimpsknownfromthe
Talamanca region Palaemonidae and Atyidae
occurfrequentlyinoursamples.)Thenumber
ofdiadromousfishspeciespersitevariedfrom
1 (Sicydium was always present.) to 6, with a
meanandmedianof4.Aswouldbeexpectedat
these lower altitude (mostly 100300m.) sites,
there was greater diversity of nondiadromous
fish. Only one site, on an extremely high
gradient reach of the upper Rio Uren, had no
nondiadromous fish; others had from 1 to 13
species(mean4.7).However,diadromesnearly
always accounted for more than half of
individualfish.
Visual surveys of Changuinola and
Teribe tributaries within PILA during 2005 and
2006
yielded
the
same
7
diadromous
fish
speciesreportedforTalamanca,alongwiththe
chupapiedra cabezon or clingfish (Gobiesoxnudus) in the Rio Teribe mainstem. (We have
anecdotal reports of this species from the Rio
Uren in Costa Rica, and suspect it is more
widespreadthangenerallyrealized.)The3most
widespread diadromous fish (Sicydium,Agonostomus andJoturus) appeared at all 17sites. Both families of diadromous shrimp
(Palaemonidae, which includesMacrobrachiumheterochirus
and
Atyidae,
surprisingly
absent
fromthisyearsvisualsurveys)werepresentat
15ofthe17sites.
Webelievethatthecombinationofthis
years data from PILA/Panama, plus the earlier
studiesjustcited, laytorestthequestionofthe
significance of the diadromous presence
withinPILA,aspreviouslyestablishedbysurvey
ofperipheralsites.Wehavedemonstratedthat
several species of diadromous fish and shrimp
penetrateatleastupto15km.withinPILA(and
probably further) at altitudes of up to at least
750 m.,includinginverysmallstreamssuchas
the upper Rio Katsi. It would be unreasonable
toassumethatwhatwehavedemonstratedfor
portionsof4watershedsdoesnotalsoapplyto
therestofthesewatersheds,aswellastheLari,
Coen, Telire and Estrella (and until very
recently, the upper Changuinola). Some of the
streams sampled (Rios Lari, Uren, Sukut, Dueri
andCerere)arequite large,providingaccessto
manykm.ofstreamaboveoursurveysites.
With completion of the CHAN75 dam,
diadromes stand to be extirpated from the
entireupperwatershedoftheRioChanguinola.
A
small
portion
of
the
Rio
Bon
watershed,
tributary to the Rio Teribe, will be affected in
the same way. And if as few as 2 proposed
damsarebuiltontheCostaRicanAtlanticslope
oftheLaAmistadarea,similarextirpationswill
occurintheUren,Lari,Coen,TelireandEstrella
watershedsofPILA,leavingonlytheYorkinand
Teribe watersheds with a full complement of
aquaticfauna.
This does not seem to us compatible
with the stated purpose of conserving
biodiversity
through
designation
of
La
Amistad
as two National Parks and a World Heritage
Site. This in turn leads us to recommend the
designation of La Amistad as a World Heritage
Site inDanger, ifcorrectivestepsarenottaken
immediately to protect this aspect of the
OutstandingUniversalValueofLaAmistad.
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26
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
TheworkinPILA/Panamareportedhere
and the preparation of this report were made
possible by a grant from the International
Community
Foundation.
Thanks
to
ICF
andespecially to Anne McEnany, who championed
ourcause fromthebeginningandcontinuesto
raisetheissueofhowtobestapplytheresults.
We have supplemented the ICF
supported work in this report with relevant
results from previous and current
biomonitoring investigations intheCostaRican
PILA watersheds. Among numerous supporters
ofthiswork,weespeciallywishtoacknowledge
the DorothyAnn Foundation and Randy Curtis
oftheNatureConservancy.
Investigations
in
the
Uren
watershed,
includingtheportionofPILAknownasLaIsla,
were supported by a grant from the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, Division of International
Conservation;specialthankstoSarah Gannon
Nagle andEthanTaylor.
ThefocusontherelationbetweenPILA
and the neighboring indigenous communities
which informs this work was originally
stimulated by Felipe Carazo of The Nature
Conservancy.
Over
a
period
of
several
years,
Earl
Junier of MINAET (the Costa Rican natural
resources agency) and various leaders of
ADITIBRI (the Bribri tribal government) have
facilitated the scientific collection permits
necessary for us to conduct PILArelated and
other investigations inthewatersofCostaRica
andtheTalamancaBribriIndigenousReserve.In
2011AlfonsoSanabriaandMariettaFonsecaof
theBinationalSixaolaWatershedProjectplayed
catalytic roles in assisting us to obtain similar
permits
from
ANAM
(the
PanamanianEnvironmentalAuthority) forwork inBocasdel
ToroProvinceandPILA/Panama.
SpecialthankstotheYorkinCommunity
Biomonitoring Group, representing the
communities of Yorkin (Costa Rica), El Guabo
andDacle(Panama)fortheircollaborationwith
the ANAI parataxonomy in their work in the
Yorkin/Tscuiwatershed.
Theworkofourparataxonomistswould
not have been possible without the
participationofNgobe,NasoandBribriguides,
boatmen
and
parataxonomist
apprentices.
Following is a list of assistants by watershed,
withtheheadguidelistedfirstineachcase:
Rio Teribe: Antonio Sanchez, EnriqueGamarra,LuisGamarra.
Quebrada Bocachica: Azael Quintero,TomasJimenez,TeodoroQuintero.
Rios Yorkin and Tscui: ConcepcionMorales, Allan Vega, Luis Segura, Cirilo
Cerrut,DailerMorales.
Rio Katsi: Justo Layan, Diego Torres,Eduardo
Cordero,
Jose
Luis
Yaslin.
Finallyweneedtothankourcolleagues
inthecentralofficeofANAIinSanJose,without
whosedailyeffortsprojects likethisonewould
notbemanageable.
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7/31/2019 Documenmto Anai Parataxonomos 2011
27/27
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