curriculum theory and organization
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Curriculum Theory and Organization
Prepared by:
Eva Noviana Budiyanti
G0823450
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The Tylers model of curriculum design suggested four fundamental questions, which
are considered crucial factors in developing the curriculum.
Explain clearly all the questions and their related elements.
Many educators have been argued that before planning or developing a curriculum,
the planners should follow the four questions that had been represented by Raplh Tyler.
However, the Tyler questions have been popular as Tyler Rationale for curriculum planning.
It has been a major influence on curriculum thought since its publication in 1949 (Posner,
2004).
Tyler suggested that when the educators want to plan a curriculum for a school, four
questions need to be answered.
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?2. How can learning experiences be selected which are likely to be useful in
attaining these objectives?
3. How can these experiences be effectively organized?4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?Firstly, when planners want to develop a curriculum, they should identify clearly the
purposes that the school wants to attain. However, why the purposes or objectives become
necessary for developing a curriculum? As known, the objective could be a guideline for
planners when their want to create educational programs for their schools. It means materials,
contents, instructional procedures and examination could be designed systematically and
intelligently by looking into the objectives that the schools have. For example, if the school
has an objective is to create education based on Islamic character building, the educational
programs such as materials and contents should include or refer into the Islamic character.
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How the objectives should be obtained by schools? Many ways could be indicators
for obtaining objectives. The Posner (2004) believes that the objectives should be derived
from systematic studies of the learners, society, and subject matter. These three sources are
screened through the schools philosophy and through knowledge that is available about the
psychology of learning. However, Tyler (1949) argues that the objectives could be
identifying by looking into value judgment of the school and the problems that are faced from
the society.
Deciding the objectives for the schools, the educators need the information and
knowledge. In addition, Tyler mentioned about essentialist and progressive information. The
essentialist information is referring to cultural heritage; it means the objectives can be derived
from the culture of society. For example, if the culture of the society is Islam culture, better
for planners to make objectives based on Islamic value. Whereby, the progressive
information is focusing on the learners, it means child psychology could be a source for
deriving objectives.
However, the subject specialists also could be a source for deriving objectives. The
specialists are focused with the students want to achieve. If the planners already know, the
subject specialists that wants to focus. As a consequence, it easy for them to clarify the
objectives for their schools. For instance, in Indonesia there are many schools that the
objective of the schools is focused on a skill of Technology Information (IT). It indicates that
the schools refer to one of specialist that the students want to achieve.
To sum up, Tyler believes that the first step for planning a curriculum is deciding the
purposes of the schools, and in order to investigate the objectives that want to achieve, the
planners should consider with the learner needs, society problem that is faced, and the subject
specialists.
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Secondly, after the objectives have been clasified, the other step that should be
focused by planners in order to develop the curriculum is what educational experiences can
be provided to attain the purposes. However, Tyler argues that the meaning of educational
experience is referring to the interaction between the learners and the external conditions in
the environment to which he or she react.
Learning experience is very important for attaining the objectives. If the planners just
make a curriculum without consider into the learning experiences, it might lead the students
get troubles during their study. Furthermore, the students would not understand the contents
that is thought by their teachers.
However, the second step from the Tyler Rationale relates to the contents, processes
and methods are teachers going to use to deliver instruction and information. However, the
contents and methods are planned based on development of students cognitive, affective,
psychomotor, social, and spiritual domains.
In addition, the learning experiences could bring benefits for the students. First, it
could develop students thinking, helping in acquiring information, helping in developing
social attitudes, and helping in developing interests.
Thirdly, how can these experiences be effectively organized? After identified the
experiences as sources for developing a curriculum, the next step that should be considered
by planners is deciding the ways that be used for organizing the experiences to the process of
teaching.
There are two concepts that are used for organizing experiences: Horizontal and
Vertical organization (Orstein and Hunskin, 1998). The horizontal organization engages the
curriculum worker with the concept of scope and integration. Tyler referred the scope as
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consisting of all the content, topics, learning experiences, and organization. Whereby, the
integration refers to the linking of all types of knowledgeand experiences contained within
the curriculum plan. Thus, the contents and the topics that want to be pursued to the students
should have integration from one topic to others topics, and from one content to the other
contents.
However, the vertical organization is concerning to the concept of sequence and
continuity. The sequence as a criterion emphasizes that the importance of having successive
experience build upon the preceding one, but to go more broadly and deeply into the matters
involved. There are four principles of sequencing content, which is Introduced by Smith,
Stanley, and Shores (Orstein and Hunkins, 1998).
1. Simple to complex learning2. Prerequisite learning3. Whole to part learning4. Chronological learning
All of these contents should be considered by the planners when organize the experiences to
the students. Generally, the planners should arrange educational experiences from easiest to
hardest and from most general to more specific.
Fourthly, how can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? The
planners need to determine whether the educational purposes are being attained or not with
the objective of evaluation. It means evaluation such as test, work samples, and
questionnaires are developed to check the effectiveness of the curriculum. Furthermore, this
final step is more focused on evalution that involves determining to what extent the
objectives are being achieved from the selected content and method. However, Tyler allows
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for students to be evaluated throughout the teaching process, and he argues that formative
evaluation should be used by teachers.
This image summarizes the steps of the Tyler rationale (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998),
from this image we can identify clearly that all these steps is important for planning a
curriculum.
In conclusion, the Tyler rationale can be described simply into something that exists
of the objectives, contents, method and evaluation. However, stating objective, selecting
learning experiences, organizing learning experience and the last is evaluation are the steps
that should considere in developing and planning a curriculum.
Society
Learners
Tentative ObjectivesSubject Matter
Philosophy
Psycologhy
Precise Objectives
Selected ex erience Evaluation
Sources Screens
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A curriculum cycle explains systematically the process of curriculum planning from
the formulating of policies, planning of the programme to its implementation and
evaluation of the curriculum.
There are some elements that include in developing a curriculum. The first process is
desiging curriculum and following with others process.
Curriculum development process (Orstein and Hunskin,1998)
However, in the curriculum planning, the first important that should be considered by
the schools or planners is formulating of policies. It indicates what kinds the policies that they
should formulate and follow.
Some of countries over the world, they have centrelized education system. It means,
the governments under the ministry of education have created the curriculum for all schools
in their countries. They have already formulated the policy for their curriculum, and the
policy usually refers to the philosophy of education that the countries have.
As a sample, in years ago Indonesia had centralized system, and the last curriculum
was called as KBK (Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi) or curriculum based on competency.
Develop
Implement
Monitor
Evaluate
Review
Design
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This curriculum had a policy, and the policy had been created due to the government had
wanted education in Indonesia applied affective, cognitive and psychomotor systems.
After the policy has been clarified, planning the programs that could be the next step
process. In addition, planning the program could be called as a planning the contents and
methods that will be used on practical. Thus, the contents and methods follow the policy.
Contents and methods are parts of instructional teaching. However, instructional
consists of the means that educators employ in an attempt to achieve the curricular end. Put
more simply, instruction describes the things teachers do to help students learn what those
students are supposed to learn. Thus, instruction is a way to implement the curriculum.
Instructional strategies and designs are an important idea for all curriculum workers to
understand (Willes and Bondi, 2002). Curriculum developers need to go this step, to the
classroom level, and design instructional episodes that highlight in the curriculum.
There is some of designing instructional, which are normally used in implementing
curriculum: skills, inquiry and exploration, conceptual, interdisciplinary, cooperative,
problem-solving and critical and creative. However, these designs can be identified with the
bloom taxonomy and Krathwohls affective taxonomy in the following manner (Willes and
Bondi, p. 340):
Blooms Cognitive Krathwohls Affective Designing Instructional
Evaluating
Synthesizing
Analyzing
Applying
Characterizing
Organizing
Valuing
Critical and creative
Problem-solving
Cooperative
Interdisciplinary
Conceptual
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Comprehending
Knowing
Responding
Receiving
Inquiry and exploration
Skills
Content
Thus, from Bloom taxonomy and Krathwohls Affective could be a guide for
implementing curriculum trough instructional learning.
The last cycle in the process of planning curriculum is evaluation. In order to analyze
whether the curriculum is good or not for education is trough evaluation. Evaluation data that
can be achieved and be measured from tests and interview. However, the curriculum
developers have examined evaluation data for making decision.
There are some of principles for assessment a curriculum (Brady and Kennedy, 2007),
some of the principles are:
1. Assessment should be varied2. Assessment should be valid3. Assessment should engage the learner4. Assessment should be diagnostic5. Assessment should value teacher judgmentThese principles should be considered in evaluation curriculum. However, evaluation has
dual purposes of development and improvement a curriculum, and the evaluation include the
technical issues of validity, reliability and fairness.
In Indonesia, which is decentralized system, means the schools have a right to develop
their own curriculum. It is common today; many schools in Indonesia utilize their own
curriculum. One of the curriculums, which are practiced by some schools, is nature school
(Sekolah Alam). This curriculum has an objective, and it more focuses on the students needs.
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They use a nature as materials for instructional education. The curriculum developers who
designed the nature schools believe that this curriculum can produce the cognitive, affective
and psychomotor areas of the students. It can be shown with the result that they got from
evaluation trough the test, and trough students attitudes.
Curriculum can be categorized as a good, if it conducts a good preparation. By looking to
the objectives that want to be faced, the contents and method that want to be used, and the
last is always doing evaluation.
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REFERENCES
Brady, L & Kennedy, K. (2007). Curriculum Constriction. Australia: Pearson Prentice Hall
Kysilka, L.M., & Stern, B.,S. (2008). Contemporary Readings in Curriculum. Los Angeles:
SAGE Publications.
March, C.J., & Willis, G. (2003). Curriculum: Alternative approaches, ongoing issues. New
Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Ornstein, A.C. & Hunkins, F.,P. (1998). Curriculum Foundations, Principles and Issues, (3
ed). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Posner, G. J. (2004). Analyzing the Curriculum. Boston: Mc Graw Hill
Wiles, J. & Bondi, J. (2002). Curriculum Development: A Guide to Practice. New Jersey:
Merrill Prentice Hall.
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