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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005

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Chapter 4Chapter 4

Psychological Development

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Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology

Developmental psychology –The study of how organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences

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How Do PsychologistsHow Do PsychologistsExplain Development?Explain Development?

Development is a process of growth and change brought about by an interaction of

heredity and the environment

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The Nature-NurtureThe Nature-NurtureInteractionInteraction

Nature-nurture controversy –Long-standing dispute over relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes

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The Nature-NurtureThe Nature-NurtureInteractionInteraction

Twin studies – Developmental investigations in which twins, especially identical twins, are compared in the search for genetic and environmental effects

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The Nature-NurtureThe Nature-NurtureInteractionInteraction

Adoption studies – Studies in which the adopted child’s characteristics are compared to those of the biological family and the adoptive family

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Gradual versus Abrupt ChangeGradual versus Abrupt Change

Continuity view vs. Discontinuity view

Age

Per

form

ance

Continuity view

Discontinuity view

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Gradual versus Abrupt ChangeGradual versus Abrupt Change

Developmental stages – Periods of life initiated by significant transitions or changes in physical or psychological functioning

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Psychological Traits in Your GenesPsychological Traits in Your Genes

While psychological traits are formed by interaction of heredity and the environment, many traits have a strong genetic influence

Self-fulfilling prophecy –An expectation that becomes realized because it guides people’s behaviors

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What Capabilities Does theWhat Capabilities Does theChild Possess?Child Possess?

Newborns have innate abilities for finding

nourishment, interacting with others, and avoiding harmful

situations; the developing abilities of infants and

children rely on learning

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Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal Development

Prenatal period –The developmental period before birthZygoteEmbryoFetus

Placenta –An organ that developsbetween the embryo/fetusand the mother

Teratogens –Toxic substances that can damage the developing organism

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Neonatal PeriodNeonatal Period(from birth to one month)(from birth to one month)

Sensory abilities

Motor abilitiesPostural reflex

Grasping reflex

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InfancyInfancy(from one month to about 18 months)(from one month to about 18 months)

Babies learn through classical conditioning

Humans apparently have an inborn need for attachment Secure attachment

Anxious-ambivalent attachment

Avoidant attachment

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InfancyInfancy(from one month to about 18 months)(from one month to about 18 months)

Maturation –The unfolding of genetically programmed processes of growth and development over time

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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion

BirthBirth

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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion

Responds to soundResponds to sound

Becomes quiet when picked upBecomes quiet when picked up

Vocalizes occasionallyVocalizes occasionally

Birth 1 mo.1 mo.

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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion

Smiles sociallySmiles socially

Recognizes motherRecognizes mother

Rolls from side to backRolls from side to back

Lifts head and holds it erect and Lifts head and holds it erect and steadysteady

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo.2 mo.

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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion

Vocalizes to the smiles and talk Vocalizes to the smiles and talk of an adultof an adult

Searches for source of soundSearches for source of sound

Sits with support, head steadySits with support, head steady

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo.3 mo.

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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion

Gaze follows dangling ring, vanishing Gaze follows dangling ring, vanishing spoon, and ball moved across tablespoon, and ball moved across table

Sits with slight supportSits with slight support

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo.4 mo.

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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion

Discriminates strangers from familiar Discriminates strangers from familiar personspersons

Turns from back to sideTurns from back to side

Makes distinctive vocalizationsMakes distinctive vocalizations

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo.5 mo.

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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion

Lifts cup and bangs itLifts cup and bangs it

Smiles at mirror imageSmiles at mirror image

Reaches for small objectReaches for small object

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.6 mo.

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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion

Makes playful responses to Makes playful responses to mirrormirror

Sits alone steadilySits alone steadily

CrawlsCrawls

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.

7 mo.7 mo.

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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion

Vocalizes up to four different Vocalizes up to four different syllablessyllables

Listens selectively to familiar Listens selectively to familiar wordswords

Pulls to standing positionPulls to standing position

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.

7 mo. 8 mo.8 mo.

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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.

7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo.9 mo.

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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion

Plays pat-a-cakePlays pat-a-cake

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.

7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo.10 mo.

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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion

Stands aloneStands alone

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.

7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo. 11 mo.11 mo.

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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion

Walks aloneWalks alone

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.

7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo. 11 mo. 1 year1 year

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What Are theWhat Are theDevelopmental Tasks ofDevelopmental Tasks ofInfancy and Childhood?Infancy and Childhood?

Infants and children face especially important

developmental tasks in the areas of language, acquisition,

cognition, and social relationships – tasks that lay a foundation for further growth in

adolescence and adulthood

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How Children Acquire LanguageHow Children Acquire Language

Innateness theory of language –Children learn language mainly by following an inborn program for acquiring vocabulary and grammar

Language acquisition device (LAD) – Structure in the brain innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar

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How Children Acquire LanguageHow Children Acquire Language

Babbling stage

Vocabulary and grammarOne-word stage

Two-word stage

Telegraphic speech (short, simple sentences)

Morphemes (meaningful units of language that make up words)

Overregularization (e.g. using “hitted” and “feets”)

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How Children Acquire LanguageHow Children Acquire Language

Other language skills

Social rules of conversation

Abstract words (e.g. hope, truth)

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Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

Cognitive development –The process by which thinking changes over time

Schemes –Mental structures orprograms that guide adeveloping child’s thoughts

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Accommodation –Mental process thatrestructures existingschemes so that newinformation is better understood

Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

Assimilation – Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existingschemes

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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

SensorimotorSensorimotor

PreoperationalPreoperational

Concrete Concrete OperationalOperational

Formal Formal OperationalOperational

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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

SensorimotorSensorimotor

Preoperational

Concrete Operational

Formal Operational

• Birth to about age 2

• Child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli

• Sensorimotor intelligence

• Mental representations

• Object permanence

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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

Sensorimotor

PreoperationalPreoperational

Concrete Operational

Formal Operational

• About age 2 to age 6 or 7

• Marked by well-developed mental representation and the use of language

• Egocentrism

• Animalistic thinking

• Centration

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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

Sensorimotor

Preoperational

Concrete Concrete OperationalOperational

Formal Operational

• About age 7 to about age 11

• Child understands conservation but is incapable of abstract thought

• Conservation

• Mental operations

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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

Sensorimotor

Preoperational

Concrete Operational

Formal Formal OperationalOperational

• From about age 12 on

• Abstract thought appears

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Social and Emotional DevelopmentSocial and Emotional Development

Temperament –An individual’s characteristic manner of behavior or reaction

Socialization –The lifelong process of shaping an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society

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Authoritarian parents

Authoritative parents

Permissive parents

Uninvolved parents

Social and Emotional DevelopmentSocial and Emotional Development

Most approaches to child rearing fall into one of the following four styles:

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Social and Emotional DevelopmentSocial and Emotional Development

Other factors influencing a child’s development may include:Effects of day care

School influences

Leisure influences

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Erikson’s Psychosocial StagesErikson’s Psychosocial StagesAge/PeriodAge/Period Principal ChallengePrincipal Challenge

0 to 1 1/2 years0 to 1 1/2 years Trust vs. mistrust

1 1/2 to 3 years1 1/2 to 3 years Autonomy vs. self doubt

3 to 6 years3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt

6 years to puberty6 years to puberty Confidence vs. inferiority

AdolescenceAdolescence Identity vs. role confusion

Early adulthoodEarly adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation

Middle adulthoodMiddle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation

Late adulthoodLate adulthood Ego-integrity vs. despair

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What Changes Mark theWhat Changes Mark theTransition of Adolescence?Transition of Adolescence?

Adolescence offers new developmental challenges

growing out of physical changes, cognitive changes, and socio-emotional changes

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The Transitions of AdolescenceThe Transitions of Adolescence

Adolescence – Developmental period beginning at puberty and ending at adulthood

Rites of passage – Social rituals that mark the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood

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Puberty – Onset of sexual maturity

Around puberty, boys and girls become more aware of their physical attractiveness

Physical Maturation in AdolescencePhysical Maturation in Adolescence

Menarche – Onset of menstruation, which signals puberty in girls

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Hormones rise to high levels

The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel”

This leads to sensation seeking and risk taking, and preoccupation with body image and sex

Cognitive Development in Cognitive Development in AdolescenceAdolescence

Adolescence brings Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth (abstract and complex thought)

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The increasing influence of peers

Common social problems in adolescence

Delinquency

Social Identity in AdolescenceSocial Identity in Adolescence

Identity crisis

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Masturbation

Same-sex orientation

Heterosexual behavior

Sexual Issues in AdolescenceSexual Issues in Adolescence

Sexual issues in adolescence often include the following:

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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral ReasoningReasoning

I. Preconventional moralityStage 1: Pleasure/pain orientation

Stage 2: Cost/benefit orientation; reciprocity

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II. Conventional morality

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral ReasoningReasoning

• Stage 3: “Good child” orientation• Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation

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III. Postconventional (principled) morality

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral ReasoningReasoning

• Stage 5: Social contract orientation• Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation

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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral ReasoningKohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning

Culture and morality

Gender and morality

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What DevelopmentalWhat DevelopmentalChallenges Do Adults Face?Challenges Do Adults Face?

Nature and nurture continue to produce changes throughout life, but in

adulthood these changes include both growth and

decline

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The Developmental Challenges of The Developmental Challenges of AdulthoodAdulthood

Love and workIntimacy versus isolation

Generativity versus stagnation

Generativity –A process of making a commitment beyond oneself to family, work, society, or future generations

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The Last Developmental Problems The Last Developmental Problems You Will FaceYou Will Face

Ego-identity –The ability to look back on life without regrets and to enjoy a sense of wholeness

According to Erikson, the final crisis involves ego-identity vs. despair

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The Last Developmental Problems The Last Developmental Problems You Will FaceYou Will Face

Some of the most obvious changes that occur with age affect physical abilities such asVision

Hearing

Thinking, learning, and problem solving

Memory

Sexual functioning

Social interaction

Emotions

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End of Chapter 4End of Chapter 4