cities and the industrial revolution
Post on 30-Dec-2015
51 Views
Preview:
DESCRIPTION
TRANSCRIPT
1
Cities and the industrial revolution
2
as early as: dès
to underpin: sous-tendre
trend : tendance
to pioneer: ouvrir la voie
manuring: fumage
breeding: élevage / reproduction
improvement: amélioration
elsewhere: ailleurs
to occur: avoir lieu
plot : parcelle
to restrict: restreindre
increase: augmentation
I. Trends that underpinned* the industrial revolution
The agricultural revolution:
As early as 1650, Holland pioneered* new techniques such as
heavy manuring*. New breeding* techniques were also developed.
These improvements* were soon taken up in England and
elsewhere* in Europe.
Enclosure, which occurred* in the second half of the 18th Century,
was particularly influential in England: large fields were divided
into privately controlled plots* of land. Community access to these
fields was restricted*.
Population growth:
France: 18 million inhabitants in 1715 to 26 million in 1789
Italy: 11 million in 1700 to 16 million in 1770
England: 5 million in 1700 to 9 million in 1800
This increase* in population was accompanied by high levels of
urban to rural migration.
3
goods : biens
to boost: augmenter, renforcer
shift: changement, modification
pattern: motif, structure
factory: usine
outskirt: banlieue, périphérie
railroad: une voie ferrée
toll: un péage
II. Factors that influenced the spatial organisation
of cities
Population growth
An increase in the production of goods*:
This was obviously due to technological progress. But population
growth also contributed to boost* goods production by generating
more demand for different types of goods.
Shifts* in patterns* of employment:
Workers who had traditionally been self-employed in rural areas
moved to cities: their status changed as they often became
employed by large factories*. In England, most of these new
industries were located within the city, not in the outskirts*.
Infrastructure improvement:
- A major expansion of railroads* thanks to the iron industry .
- New roads financed through tolls*: Turnpike roads and trusts.
- Canals
4
iron: acier
to stop (sj.) from (vb+ing): empêcher .. de ..
northwards : vers le nord
planned: aménagé
pride: fierté
city hall / civic centre: mairie
civic centre: mairie
courtroom: tribunal
library: biblothèque
fire engins: camions de pompier
III. The industrial city
Spatial StructureA closer look at Middlesbrough
Middlesbrough’s population rose from 5,000 in 1840 to 75,500
in 1891. Its iron production was exported all over the world.
The river Tees, North of the original city centre, stopped the city
from expanding northwards*. Therefore, a new centre had to be
planned* further South.
A new city hall* (civic centre) was built. In many ways, this new
building was erected to reflect local pride*. The Mayor of
Middlesbrough is reported to have said « we are proud of our
smoke » (1887).
“One of the striking* features* of the development of many town
centres in the UK during the 20th century was the substantial*
increase in buildings and areas devoted to* municipal
administration and culture: the move from single ‘town halls’ to
entire ‘civic centres’”. (Larkham, 2004)
striking: frappant
feature: caractéristique
substantial: important
devoted to: dédié à
northwards : vers le nord
5
boundary : frontière
around: autour
along: le long de
working class: classe ouvrière
railway: voie ferrée
light / dark : clair / foncé
next to: à côté de
docks: docks (port)
wealthy: aisé
to manage to: parvenir à
to escape: s’échapper
further out: plus loin
Birmingham:The boundary of the built up area in 1828 is shown in red.
Black areas are major industrial concentrations. Housing is found
all around* the factories, in the central area of the city.
Neath:The industrial zone (green) is located along* the river (light blue*).
Working class* housing (dark blue*) is on the other side of the
railway* (red).
Liverpool:Working class housing (green) is located next to* the docks* (blue).
Wealthy* people lived peripheral areas. Some people managed to*
escape* the central areas, but often lived in a “transition area” (red)
until they had enough money to move further out*.
6
overcrowding : surpeuplement
to cram: entasser
accommodation: logement
backyard: arrière-cour
packed: bondé
dead-end: cul-de-sac
foul: immonde
alley: allée
damp: humide
cellar: cave
courts: cour
narrow: étroit
IV. The consequences of urbanisation
The main consequence of urbanisation was overcrowding*.
“In the first half of the 19th century, the answer was all too often
by subdividing existing property and cramming* more
accommodation* into backyards*. Cities became more densely
packed*, creating dead-ends* and foul* alleys*, and damp* cellars*
offered miserable accommodation. In Liverpool, about a quarter
of the population lived in courts* in the early 1840s, and perhaps
ten per cent lived in cellars.” (source)
Back to back housing (uncontrolled)
7
widespread : répandu
oubreak: éruption
link: lien
map: carte
Hygiene Because of overcrowding, hygiene problems became widespread*.
Of particular concern were the regular cholera outbreaks*.
John Snow was the first to identify the link* between water supply
and cholera, as shown below.
Using maps*, Snow found that the number of deaths was highest
around water pumps.
8
a groundbreaking study : une étude
a worrying issue:un problème inquiétant
survey: enquête
to undertake: entreprendre
to lead / led / led: mener
finding: résultat (d’une étude)
Poverty In 1902, Charles Booth published a groundbreaking study*.
Life and Labour of the People of London threw light on a
worrying issue*: over a third of the capital’s population lived in
poverty at that time.
By pioneering survey* techniques, Charles Booth made a major
contribution to social sciences.
Similar studies were undertaken* in other cities, particularly the
one led* by Seebohm Rowntree in York. His findings* were
identical.
9
urban sprawl: l’étalement urbain
network : réseau
underground: (ici) métro
to allow: permettre
to afford: pouvoir se permettre de
obviously: évidemment
developer: promoteur
advert: publicité
Urban sprawl*From the second half of the 19th century, public transport
networks* were improved and extended. The world’s first
underground* opened in London in 1843. This allowed* people
who could afford* new suburban housing to move out of cities.
This trend obviously* encouraged speculation. Developers* used
public transport as an argument in their adverts*.
10
according to: d’après
to pave the way for… : ouvrir la voie à…
growth: croissance
uneven : inégal
to realise: se rendre compte
to act: agir
to reverse: renverser
IV. The Political context
According to* André Maurois, the industrial revolution paved the
way for* a political revolution.
According to many specialists, the 18th and 19th centuries were
characterised by laissez-faire.
In a paper published in 1969, Gordon E. Cherry identified three
factors that contributed to the development of town planning:
(1) the growth* of towns
(2) the concentration of urban problems,
(3) the uneven* development of industry.
Most importantly, he argued that until the early 1830s, the
situation in most towns could be referred to as “municipal
anarchy”.
Despite this, officials realised* they needed to act* in order to
reverse* these trends.
11
to be concerned with: être concerné / interessé par
not so much with…as with… : pas tant par … que par ...
to cater for…: pourvoir aux besoins de…
casualty: victime
Welfare State: Etat Providence
“ Traditional local government bodies were concerned* not so much*
with town improvement and the provision of social amenities* as
with the management of properties and the regulation of privileges.
The inherited system of poor relief had not been designed to cater*
for the casualties* of an industrial urban society, while predominant
philosophy of individualism generated a deep suspicion of
government intervention.” (Gordon E. Cherry)
(Poor relief was the system which provided social security in
England From the 16th Century until the Welfare State* was
established In the early 1940s.)
12
one-way: à sens unique
upon: sur
practice (noun): pratique
to grant: accorder
loosely defined: vaguement défini
law: loi
to apply: appliquer
standard: norme
numerous: de nombreux
a body: (ici) une organisation
to tackle: s’attaquer à (un pbm)
management: gestion
local authority: municipalité
ownership: propriété
“ […] The process of reform is never a one-way* influence of
Ideology upon* practice* or the empirical ‘pressure of facts’ upon
ideology, but a continuous interaction between the two, in which
both are continually modified.” (Perkin, 1977)
“Victorian governments, experimenting in new forms of regulation,
[…] had granted* to officials […] very general and loosely defined*
authorities to make laws* or to judge cases and had permitted
officials to develop and apply* their own standards* and
interpretations of the public interest* […].”
Numerous* ad hoc bodies* were set up in the 19th century to tackle*
specific problems.
During the 19th century, some services (water & electricity) were
‘nationalised’ and their management* was passed onto local
authorities* (municipal ownership*)
13
Victorian (adj.) : de la période Victorienne (1837-1901)
huge: énorme
amount: quantité
century: siècle
famous: célèbre
to focus (on): focaliser
housing: logement
public health: santé publique
V. Early legislation Housing / living conditions in Victorian* cities have generated
a huge* amount* of literature in the past couple of centuries*.
The works of Charles Dickens are probably the most famous*
ones.
In England, the first pieces of legislation dealing with cities
focused* on housing* and public health*.
Step 1:- Entrance should be minimum 5 feet- Yard’s width should be at least 15
feet
Steps 2 and 3:- Yard width: at least 15 feet for 8
houses, at least 25 feet for 18 houses- Yard minimum area: 150 square feet
Step 4:- standards were raised further and included minimum widths for back
lanes
14
New community: a new settlement,a new village or town
industrialist : industriel (nom)
to attempt at: tenter de
to provide: fournir, pourvoir
VI. Utopian experiments
Several industrialists* attempted at* creating successful new
communities* from the late 1800s. Robert Owen was the first
person to implement such a project.
The village he built in New Lanark provided* quality housing for
his workers.
15
to follow: suivre
to feature : (ici) être doté de
wide: large
row: rangée
terrace: rangée de maison(terraced housing)
semi-detached house: maison mitoyenne
whereas: tandis que
neighbourhing: avoisinant
to reach: atteindre
A number of other projects followed*:
Saltaire,
built by Sir Titus Salt
(1851-1876)
Port Sunlight, built by the Lever family.
The plan is influenced by continental projects: it features* wide* boulevards lined with* chestnut trees*.
Houses are built as cottages, in short rows* (terraces*) or as semi-detached*.
Density did not exceed 20 dwellings per hectare whereas* in neighbouring* areas, it could reach* 50 dpa.
16
legacy : héritage
town planner: urbaniste
shorthand writer: sténographe
primarily: principalement
devised: inventé, imaginé
wider: plus large
governance: gouvernance
to take … into account:prendre … en compte
Garden Cities : The legacy* of Ebenezer Howard
Howard is often referred to as a town planner*. In fact, he was a
shorthand writer*.
His book, To-Morrow: a peaceful path to real reform, was originally
Published in 1898. It was then published a second time as Garden
Cities of To-Morrow in 1902.
Today, Garden-cities are primarily* associated with a certain type
of planning, architecture and design.
At the time when they were devised* however, they reflected a
wider* project that also took governance* into account*.
17
to sum up : résumer
magnet: aimant
slum: taudis
fog: brouillard
drought: sécheresse
drainage: assèchement
Howard’s project is summed up* in his famous “three magnets*”
diagram.
18
legacy : héritage
town planner: urbaniste
shorthand writer: sténographe
primarily: principalement
devised: inventé, imaginé
wider: plus large
governance: gouvernance
to take … into account:prendre … en compte
The land used to build the first Garden Cities was purchased* at
agricultural price – in other words, at a very low price.
The whole* city was owned* by the municipality: one of the main
aspects of Garden Cities is that they aimed at* avoiding* the
problems associated with private property.
Residents would pay rents* to the municipality rather than to
private landlords*. The money raised through rents was reinvested
to improve infrastructure and community facilities*.
19
self sufficient: auto-suffisante
balance: équilibre
indefinitely: indéfiniment
According to Howard, the population of Garden Cities should
not exceed 30.000 inhabitants. His project is based on
polycentricity.
His cities are self-sufficient* (they provide a balance* of homes
and jobs) and are connected by public transport. In theory,
Howard’s Social City could grow indefinitely*.
20
skill: compétence
ward: quartier
Howard had no architecture skills*: the plans for his Garden Cities
were drawn by Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker who were both
architects. The diagram below, published in Howard’s book, is
only a “suggested plan” for a ward*.
21
layout: disposition
decrease: réduire
usual: habituel
council housing estate:ensemble de logements sociaux
Raymond Unwin published Nothing gained by overcrowding in
1909.This book proved that it is possible to improve the layout* of
houses without having to decrease* densities. Unwin’s plan (right)
only used 17% of the land for roads instead of* the usual* 40% in
traditional plans (left).
His other main contribution to planning practice was the creation
of the “close”. This model has been widely used since, particularly
in the 1930s when vast council housing estates* were built.
top related