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CHAPTER I11
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
R E V I E W 7 OF RELATED LITERATURE
Research takes the advantage of the knowledge, which has
accumulated in the past as a result of constant human endeavour. It can
never be undertaken in isolation of the work that has already been done on
the problems which are directly or indirectly related to a study proposed by a
researcher.
Since effective investigation is based upon past knowledge, a careful
survey of the previous studies related to the investigation is needed. It
eliminates the duplication of what has been done and provides useful
hypotheses and helpful suggestions for significant investigation.
This research initiated by the researcher is the first of its kind not
only in Kerala but irl India as such. This study has been done earlier only in
Western Countries especially in subjects like Science and Mathematics. So
such a method of re:jearch in History is a novel idea that is highly essential
to give the required boost for the teaching of History. This has to be deeply
studied and analysed.
The investigator conducted a close study of researches done in the
area of 'Inquiry Approach'. The review of the related studies is presented as
follows :
According to Menvin (1970) and Gross (1972), a number of research
reviews concerning methods of inquiry in social studies have been
completed, since Inquiry became an influential Social Studies Tool. The
general consensus has been that research evidence, for the most part, is
fragmentary and inconclusive.
In summarizing the research reviewed for a twenty year periods
Wiley (1977) writes:
A large proportion of the effectiveness of the research conducted in
social studies falls under the heading of research on instructional methods
labelled 'critical thinking', 'inquiry' and the like. Most of this research
shows no significant differences between critical thinlung methods and so
called traditional methods.
Indiana experiments in inquiry conducted by Massialas (1966)
indicated that, at the secondary level, inquiry methods showed greater
efficacy over traditional methods.
Schlenker (1970) found that students of inquiry oriented teaching
showed a greater fluency in inquiry and critical thinking but showed no
difference in content mastery and information retention.
Hunkins (1972) completed a selective review of research on inquiry
in Social Studies, which resulted in the following conclusions:
(i) The research on inquiry at the elementary level seems to contain
methodological flaws inherent in non-longitudinal and one-time studies.
(ii) Generally, there is no solid research, which supports the overall
superiority of inquiry. Superiority of inquiry is considered in terms of
the teacher's colnmitment to the fostering of critical thinking skills.
Smith (1974) reported a study which blended inquiry with individual
tutorial sessions focussing on the analysis of data. Eleventh grade students
provided the sample. The Inquiry Approach proved to be effective in
individualized instniction.
The review completed by Marsh (1975) indicated that the inquiry
method is superior in terms of recall, transfer and retention of data and in
developing specific skills in questioning and concept building. The results
are tentative since many of the studies contain methodological flaws.
Troyka ( I 97 5) reported the effects of role-playing in problem-posing
situations. The examination of data from different points of view effectively
blended the stress on thinking skills that the inquiry method offers with the
interest in audience and social situation that rhetorical approaches to writing
offer.
Hinrichson and Schaumburg (1975) reported no difference between
inquiry and lecture in terms of academic performance.
Analysis of research conducted by Shavelson (1976) has resulted in
the compilation of common methodological problems which practitioners
should bear in mind when considering the research. They are:
(i) Some research offers vague descriptions of the type of inquiry teaching
involved.
(ii) Lack of suitable evaluation tools has hampered relevant research results.
(iii) There has been a recurring problem in establishing initial comparability
between groups. Most studies have made use of combination of
intelligence quotient, chronological age and sex. Only a few studies have
considered affective domain comparability.
(iv) Comparability of tasks and materials used with experimental and control
groups have not been explicitly considered by researchers.
(v) Comparability of instructors is often overlooked.
(vi) Studies were oftr:n not longitudinal and sample sizes were often not
substantial.
(vii) Many studies are not based on explicit theoretical foundations.
(viii) Many studies fail to explain results in the context of general theoretical
principles.
Martorella (1978) in another summary of research on cognition
reaches the conciusien that there is no significant difference between the
critical thinking method and traditional method in teaching Social Studies.
Olmo (1978) found that the inquiry techniques are successful in
providing examples, clarifying themes, sustaining interest, encouraging
synthesis and application of concepts. It also encourages the forming of
generalizations.
Hillocks (1979) who is most strongly identified with the inquiry
approach as a method of writing instruction, worked with ninth and eleventh
graders in this study of descriptive writing. Descriptions of activities
working with sets of observation data clearly flesh out the "treatments"
which yielded the improvements observed in his experimental group.
Whitehead (1979) reported that the students' problem solving ability
tended to improve when teachers taught the required skills and explicitly
explained what was expected of them. These students' problem solving
skills were clearly superior to those students whose teacher acted mainly as a
discussion controller rather than an instructor.
Fancett and Hawke (1982) reported that the teachers tend not to be
social inquirers thernse..ves. When innovative practices are implemented in
social studies classrooms, it is not a reflection of usual patterns of classroom
strategies. Thus, there seems to be a discrepancy between attitude and
research findings about inquiry and the attention given to it in the classroom.
Tyrell (1982) reviewed 88 comparisons between traditional lecture
and discussion methods and noted that 51 % favoured the lecture method and
49% favoured the discussion method. Subsequently, there was very little
difference in achievement scores between either method. Tyrell also
emphasized the following results, which may assist the teacher in making
hidher choice of strategies:
(i) When appropriately used, the lecture and inquiry discussion methods
were relatively equal in providing knowledge acquisition opportunities.
(ii) In one study, the lecture-recitation method was found to be superior in
ternis of subsequent test scores to inquiry and public issue discussion
method. The effectiveness of the approach, however, depended upon
student ability and performance.
(iii) Different strategies may be more appropriate for different abilities.
Hillocks and Johannessen (1983) described an approach to pre-
writing activities, which emphasized task analysis and inquiry activities in a
very useful theory and research into practice (NCTE).
Barry Beyer (1985) has developed a five-stage skill teaching
framework which proved to be a helpful guide for teachers and students. It is
found to be very effective in developing skills in the students.
Johnson (1991) reported that the application of the Inquiry Approach
in middle school Science activities resulted in the following out comes:
(i) It developed science concepts.
( i i ) U s c f ~ l in practic ng process skills.
(iii) Developing quantitative thinking.
(iv) Helped to integrate science subjects.
(v) Helped in experiencing success.
Cobb (1991) reported the effectiveness of the Inquiry Approach in
learning Mathematics. An Inquiry Approach to learning Mathematics was
proposed and supported with the results of a yearlong research project that
exposed second graders to mathematical learning experiences using this
approach. The Inquiry Approach proved more effective in learning
Mathematics than the traditional method.
Germann (1991) found that the directed Inquiry Approach is
effective in learning science process skills and scientific problem - solving.
Concept mapping, advance organizers diagrams, the theme approach, and
focussing were used to help students to develop science process skills.
Kleinfeld (1991) reported that the reflective Inquiry Approach to
teacher preparation was based on analysis of teaching 'cases' and was
particularly relevant for teachers in Alaska's rural multi cultural schools.
The Inquiry Approach helped students learn to ask ethical as well as
pedagogical questions and to reflect upon larger issues embedded in the
details of school life.
Warren (1991) reported an innovative instructional intervention
model that represented a promising approach to the language education of
minority students. The Cheche Komen (search for knowledge) model used a
collaborative inquiry approach to science in which students posed their own
questions, planned and implemented research, collected and analyzed data,
built and revised theories, drew conclusions and made decisions. The goal
for the students was to develop scientific ways of thinking, talking and
acting. The model was tested with Creole speaking Haitian students in two
urban eastern S C ~ O O ~ : ~ , a public elementary school and a public high school.
The model proved effective in developing scientific ways of thinking,
talking and acting.
Haukoos (1991) reported a study on a 2 week that provided an
opportunity to obtai:n new content and methods for teaching Science and
Maths. The objectives of the study were to convince teachers that (i) science
was to be taught-using an inquiry approach with hands-on manipulative in a
problem solving sitcation and (ii) integration of culture with science was
necessary. Results indicated that there were statistically significant increases
in participants' understanding of how science and American Indian culture
could be integrated and in the value of hands-on student centered strategies.
National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second
Language Learning (1992) reported a study on the effects of a collaboration
Inquiry Approach to science on language minority students (middle and high
school) learning. The approach emphasized involving the students, most of
whom have had very little schooling, in "doing science" in ways that
scientists practice. The findings indicated that at the beginning of the school
year the students' reasoning was non-analytic and bound to personal
experience. By contrast, at the end of the school year they reasoned in terms
of a larger explanatory system; used hypotheses to organize and give
directions to their reasoning and demonstrated an awareness of the function
of experimentation in producing evidence to evaluate hypotheses.
Driscoll's study (1992) described two phases of the planning of a
professional development center for teaching and teacher education,
utilizing a reflective and collaborative Inquiry Approach. Two themes
guided the study: (i) the dissonance between teacher education and teaching
and (ii) preparation of teachers to respond to the changing population of
children and families. The major result of phase one was the development of
a pre-service and in-s'xvice program entitled "classrooms as families",
which addresses the social and support needs of children, teachers and
families. Phase two findings suggested that university and school district
faculties provide models of practice for pre-service teachers; teacher
education should increase the study of family systems, communication,
conflict resolution, and time and stress management.
The Comprehensive Instructional Management System (CIMS) -
Science Program (1992) e~nph;~sizcd a hands-on Inquiry Approach to
learning and includec an assessment component that comprised of written
tests and performance- based tests, designed to assess student mastery of the
content and process. The first section of the report provided background and
implementation information for the program and described the program
evaluation methodology. The second section summarized the CIMS
approach to Science education and described the program's activities related
to staff development and cumculum revision. The third section reported the
evaluation of the program. Based on the findings, the following
recommendations we:re made (i) program, district and school staff should
continue to collabclrate in revising the CIMS - science curriculum
incorporating suggestions by classroom teachers and science cluster
teachers; (ii) consideration should be given to exploring alternative for
"authentic" assessm(:nt strategies that asses problem solving skills; and
(iii) class room teachers should observe science cluster teachers
demonstrating lessoris using a discovery-based approach to prepare them to
assume primary responsibility for science instruction.
A case study methodology was employed by Thazp (1992) to gain
insight into student's beliefs, thinking and behaviour. Results are reported
according to theme:s that emerged concerning the student's beliefs about
understanding Mathematics, learning priorities, learning strategies, and
mathematical power. Findings indicated that rule-based learners in the
problem-solving inquiry-oriented (PSIO) environment: (i) chose to ignore
opportunities to think. about relationship and concepts in-depth; (11) used
inappropriate cues based on emotion and external factors to decide when
understanding is achizved; and (iii) remained uninvolved in their learning
and became more pas!;ive towards the end of the study.
Myers (1993) examined whether the inquiry based problem solving
model supports sustained exploration of a multimedia database. The result
showed that the discrepant event Inquiry Approach provided motivation for
sustained learning activities; however, it did appear to be at least one factor
that led to a meaningful learning experience.
Wolf (1993) compared two instructional approaches to the same
Geography lesson. The result concluded that the Inquiry Approach provided
more opportunities for students to apply intellectual skills than expository
instruction.
Scruggs (1 993) reported that twenty-six junior high school students
with learning disabilities shldied two science units via an activity-based,
inquiry-oriented appioach and a textbook approach. Students performed
higher on immediate and delayed unit tests when they had learned by the
Inquiry Approach,and reported a preference for this approach.
Pondany (1991) in his study asserted that the teachers should educate
students to use historical research methods, even in the elementary and
intermediate grades. It argued that although History should be taught as a
'Story well-told', it should also be discovered, just as historians discover it
in the course of their research. The findings of the study proved the
effectiveness of learning History through investigation.
Hughes's study (1994) highlights the impact of the Inquiry Approach
on both teaching and learning in a technology rich grade -1 classroom
participating in the co-operative alliance for gifted education. Data was
collected in the first 2 years of a larger study from a teacher, eight students
and their parents, who were interviewed about changes resulting from
inquiry learning through using classroom computers. Analysis uncovered the
learning domains of thought processes, collaboration (social interaction),
and attitude (confidence and interest). Change in these areas was evident to
teachers, students and :?arents. Technology itself appeared to be a factor in
the development of student thinking and in the development of teacher
attitudes.
Thacker (1994) described a study that compared the performance of
introductory Physics students on two examination problems. One problem
was qualitative and siinilar to those used in an Inquiry Approach. The
second problem was a typical quantitative problem. Those students enrolled
in the inquiry based intioductory course performed significantly better than
those in the traditional course.
Maor (1994) reported a study focused on students development of
inquiry skills in a computerized learning environment, seven year 11 classes
(n =120) interacted with a computerized date base, 'Birds of Antarctica', and
curriculum materials while the teacher used an Inquiry Approach to
learning. Students perceived their classes as more investigative and open-
ended and improved their inquiry skills. Inquiry Approach is found to be
effective in developins the inquiry skills.
The purposes of Gregg's study (1995) were to: (i) identify interaction
patterns that emerged during Mathematics instruction in elementary school
classrooms that established an 'inquiry' Mathematics tradition (ii) describe
any gender-related differences in these patterns, and (iii) attempt to account
for the presence or absence of such differences. Preliminary analysis
suggested that aspects of an Inquiry Approach to Mathematics instruction
had a positive impact in providing gender-equitable learning opportunities
for boys and girls.
Mancino's historical case study (1995) examined reasons for the
domination of the traditional curriculum in South Carolina education since
the turn of the century, although theorists and other scholars have advocated
using integrated approaches to meet the changing needs of the society. It is
found that the changing economy needs 'symbolic analysts', whose
educational needs are best met by a inquiry-based approach. It is concluded
that an integrated, inquiry-based curriculum design is essential to meet the
new economic needs c~f the U.S.
A simple model of scientific inquiry was developed by Haury (1995)
using non-technical language. One group of elementary school teachers was
introduced to the moclel during a two-week summer session institute where
t h e model was used in conjunction with activity-based approaches to
teaching. The model was introduced as the central heuristic device for
designing and developing science lessons and units of study. Survey results
provided evidence that; (i) the model is well understood by most teachers
and facilitates an understanding of the nature of scientific inquiry; (ii) the
model facilitates an activity-based; inquiry -oriented approach to science
teaching; and (iii) the teachers report that students react favourably to
instruction- based on the model.
The objective of the descriptive case study conducted by Cobem
(1995) was to come to a better understanding of the cognitive structure of 16
ninth graders from a semi rural high school. A modified naturalistic Inquiry
Approach using a semi structure interview technique was employed. Results
showed that students' ideas were often both rich and rational. Yet within the
richness of students' comments little pertained to science, and only one
student's conceptua1i:zation of nature reasonably matched the naturalistic
mechanistic view of nature common to science education.
Cawley's study (1995) for high ability in language arts students of
grades 2-3, used an inquiry-based approach to investigate literature in an
inter-disciplinary curriculum. The guiding theme of the unit was the
recognition of change as a concept that affects pupils and their relationships
as well as the world around them. The result showed that the students
considered the rolc: of memory in their lives, through writing about
memories and through research on the role of technology in preserving
memories.
Green wood (1995) reported the Science Education Program and
Leadership (SEPAL: project, a model science program for elementary
teachers and students, designed to improve the teaching of science at the K-8
level. The program was founded on experimental learning for teachers and it
promoted an inquiry-oriented approach, which proved to be an effective
method for science teaching.
Haukoos (1995) reported that the teachers of American Indian
Elementary school students attended a two week, emphasizing integration of
science instruction with culturally relevant materials and activities and used
a hands-on inquiry approach. A one-year follow-up found that initial
changes in teachers' behaviour and practices had largely been lost. It proved
the difficulties in transferring teachers' conceptual change to classroom
practice.
King (1 995) presented an Inquiry-based Approach to promote critical
thinking in psychology. The model emphasized, helping the students to ask
thoughtful question:;. The research result supported the use of questioning
techniques to enhance critical thinking.
Demastes (1995) reported the details of two studies; (i) study A
described the conceptual change teaching module to teach a unit on
evolution to non major Biology students; and (ii) study B used high school
students, and the instruction was based on the Inquiry Approach to science.
The Inquiry Approach proved to be effective in imparting science education.
The study conducted by Skoda (1996) reveals that most Americans
do not view their experience with History in the classroom favourably, yet
they continue to llke history. Boring classrooms are the product of
ineffective teaching methods. The Biographical Approach to History proved
effective in reinvigorating the contemporary classroom.
Peck's study (1996) examined first grade teacher's use of inquiry
pedagogy to maximii:e literacy learning and teaching in her classroom. The
setting for the study .Mas a classroom in the Cleveland, Ohio school district.
In this classroom literacy events build upon students' prior knowledge and
experience gleaned from their lives outside the classroom and from what
they do within the classroom community. Data was collected through
interviews during the first ten weeks of the school year. Findings suggest
that reciprocity, with the teacher as the learner and the learners as teachers,
and both as inquirers, is the essence of inquiry pedagogy.
Thomas (1996) found that the shared inquiry between teachers and
students is inherently motivating and supporting students' intrinsic
motivation. When students themselves participate as educational theorists,
learning experiences become more engaging for both students and teachers.
Bray (1996) described Bhutan's experience with the New Approach
to Primary Education (NAPE), which showed what could be accomplished
in a small developing state when conditions were favourable. Curricula were
more closely aligned to the nature of Bhutanese society, and NAPE was
replacing passive, rote learning with a more active Inquiry-based Approach.
The study conducted by Klassen (1997) is essentially an
investigation of what a critical theory position enhanced by attention to a
post modem and broader perspective would mean for social studies
education in general and for Alberta in particular. It is found that if programs
adopt a critical multi-cultural and broader perspective, a student's sense
agency and a concern for 'otherness' can be effectively fostered.
Rosebery (1997) in his study explored the ways in which a beginning
elementary elassroo~n teacher gained a foothold in teaching Science. The
analysis included episodes from the teachers first three years of teaching
while participating i n an educational research project that investigated an
Inquiry-based Approach to teacher professional development. The
particulars of the teacher's experiences learning scientific content and
practices are examined as well as the initial stn~ggies to bring students' ideas
into contact with standard scientific knowledge and ways of knowing. The
study reveals that the Inquiry-based Approach is very effective for the
teacher's professional development.
Maxim's study (1997) proved the effectiveness of the Inquiry
Approach on the perfbrmance of young children in Science. The study
supported the approach for young children that allow them to perform
actions on objects and observe the reactions. It described some techniques to
use to encourage an Inquiry Approach.
Adler (1997) analyzed a short teaching episode in a multilingual
secondary Mathematics classroom in South Africa where the teacher used a
participatory Inquiry Approach. It is found that such an approach to teaching
and learning Mathematis created dilemmas of mediation for teachers.
Toma (1 997) examined the models through which different academic
disciplines approach inquiry. Faculty working in different models viewed
their work differently, applied different evaluative standards and accepted
different types of values. Although the discipline was found more
conspicuous than the model, the latter was equally important in
understanding epistemological processes. Scholars in the field of law used
explored models.
Van's study (1997) described inquiry learning as defining a purpose
for inquiry (the problem), postulating tentative answers or solutions testing
various hypotheses, drawing tentative conclusions and applying those
conclusions to new situations. The study asserted that acquisition of these
skills supported clemocratic citizenship. Inquiry Approach is proved
effective for developing all these qualities.
Hughes (1997) examined a project in which an Inquiry Approach to
learning and teaching in an urban First-grade class room resulted in a
student-created database. Thc study illustrated how computer integration in
readingllanguage arts instruction caused students to participate more in-
group inquiry, using their individual abilities to contribute to group projects;
it also helped students to organize information, keep records and present
findings.
Wubbels (1 997) conducted a pre-service program to prepare teachers
for a Curriculum based on the realistic approach. The program appeared
successful in changing student teachers' views of Mathematics education
towards this more inquiry -oriented approach and in promoting effective
teacher behaviour in classrooms. Only a small number of teachers
recognized the prii~ciplc of building on pupils' own constructions.
Shephered (19'98) examined how the implementation of a curriculum
intervention the probe method, impacted critical thinking skills of fourth and
fifth grade students in a private school. The probe method is a problem
based learning method using a group investigative co-operative leaming
approach to solve a real-world problem. The experimental group of fourth
and fifth graders after participating in the nine-week project, showed a
significantly greater increase in critical thinking skills in comparison to the
control group of similar subjects. The probe method proved effective for
improving critical thinking skills and attitudes towards solving problems.
Myers (1998) reported on a 2-year study of changes that occurred in
one instructor's teaching of an introductory undergraduate course on teacher
education across four semesters. The study examined; how emphasizing
technology changed the instructor and the students; how the shift toward a
constructivist, inqu!.~y-oriented approach affected student learning and
attitudes; how change in class location affected the instructor's teaching and
class dynamics, (:lass discussions, student interaction and student
performance. Data came from class observations and videotapes, analysis of
class videotapes, personal reflections by the investigators, interviews with
the instructor, discussions with the investigators, copies of student work and
student surveys. Results indicated that considerable technology was added,
and it was a positive move. Subtle changes in the instructor's teaching
resulted from the sh~ft to a more constructivist, inquiry- based orientation.
Changes in location allowed for more flexibility in teaching and more
interaction with students.
The long term impact of inquiry-based science instruction is explored
in Gibson's (1998) study. It examined the relationship between an inquiry -
based science program on students' attitudes towards science and interest in
science careers several years after participation in the program. The purpose
of the study was to evaluate the long-term effects of the Summer Science
Exploration Program (SSEP) conducted at Massachusetts. Results suggest
that a two-week summer science program using an inquiry-based approach
may have helped middle school students with a high level of interest in
science maintain that level of interest through their years in high school.
Teaching methods were also affected student interest and achievement in
science.
Rakow's study (1998) investigated the development of an
understanding of scientific inquiry by pre-service teachers as a result of their
participation in a five-week elementary science methods class. The study
focused on the effectiveness of a one-hour method course in science on
inquiry. Data collected by way of the final examination suggest that students
in this course develop an understanding of scientific inquiry. They provided
results demonstrati~ig that even a short-term exposure to a science methods
class can result in a change in vocabulary. These changes are compatible
with an Inquiry Approach to elementary science teaching.
socis
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