chapter 8 the ways of knowing. introduction to ways of knowing ways of knowing different than the...

Chapter 8 The Ways of Chapter 8 The Ways of KnowingKnowing

Introduction to Ways of Introduction to Ways of KnowingKnowing

• Ways of knowing Ways of knowing different than the different than the Areas of Areas of KnowledgeKnowledge

• Areas of knowledge are relatively distinct units Areas of knowledge are relatively distinct units

• The ways of knowing are much more The ways of knowing are much more interconnected with one interconnected with one

• It is virtually impossible to separate the four It is virtually impossible to separate the four ways when we say we know somethingways when we say we know something

• They do not work independently of one They do not work independently of one anotheranother

How would we “know” about How would we “know” about the situation in the picture?the situation in the picture?

• A. PerceptionA. Perception

• B. B. ReasoningReasoning

• C. LanguageC. Language

• D. EmotionD. EmotionE. All of the aboveE. All of the above Which way of knowing creates your

knowledge of this situation?

Imperative to remember Imperative to remember

• All of the ways of knowing are All of the ways of knowing are inseparably intertwined with one inseparably intertwined with one another and they work together another and they work together to create every person’s to create every person’s understanding of and knowledge understanding of and knowledge about realityabout reality

Ways of knowing are also Ways of knowing are also important factors in each of important factors in each of

the areas of knowledgethe areas of knowledge • Rudbeck’s emotion Rudbeck’s emotion

affected his affected his perception.perception.

• His perception His perception affected his reasonaffected his reason

• His reason affected his His reason affected his languagelanguage

• All of these affected All of these affected the knowledge claims the knowledge claims he made in historyhe made in history

This must be the ski track to the lost city of Atlantis

This ways of knowing chapter This ways of knowing chapter will examinewill examine

• How the Ways of Knowing affect one How the Ways of Knowing affect one another another

• How they are important for How they are important for knowledge claims in the Areas of knowledge claims in the Areas of KnowledgeKnowledge

• How the ways of knowing affect the How the ways of knowing affect the knowledge we claim to haveknowledge we claim to have

Lesson 1 Reason and Ways of Lesson 1 Reason and Ways of KnowingKnowing

Reason is often discussed in Reason is often discussed in essaysessays

• Many times topic questions will ask for a Many times topic questions will ask for a discussion of reason and how it works in discussion of reason and how it works in combination with other ways of knowing or combination with other ways of knowing or other areas of knowledgeother areas of knowledge

• Even when the prescribed topic question Even when the prescribed topic question does not ask specifically for a discussion of does not ask specifically for a discussion of reason, the subject of reason and reason, the subject of reason and reasoning often applies anyway, and reasoning often applies anyway, and should be discussedshould be discussed

Positive aspects of reason Positive aspects of reason

• ObjectivityObjectivity

• RationalityRationality

• Deductive and Deductive and ConclusiveConclusive

• PragmaticPragmatic

• Clarifies Clarifies relationshipsrelationships

Why do we know we should not get out of the car to shoo this pesky wild baboon away?

Negative Aspects of ReasonNegative Aspects of Reason

• Deduction can be Deduction can be problematicproblematic

• Subjective nature of Subjective nature of reasoningreasoning

• Reasoning can prove Reasoning can prove unrealityunreality

• Reason has limited Reason has limited accessaccess

• Snobbish-ElitistSnobbish-Elitist

Reasoning can prove unreality.Remember the logical nonsense about the zombies?

How reason affects the other How reason affects the other ways of knowingways of knowing

You might not want them in your bed at night, but is there really any reason to fear spiders?

How reason effects emotionHow reason effects emotion

• It “controls” It “controls” emotionemotion

• Puts emotion into Puts emotion into a realistic a realistic perspectiveperspective

• Helps differentiate Helps differentiate between between knowledge and knowledge and beliefbelief American propaganda poster from WWII

Reason and LanguageReason and Language

• Language is a tool of reasonLanguage is a tool of reason

• At the same time reason is bound by At the same time reason is bound by languagelanguage

• Language is an imperfect medium for Language is an imperfect medium for relaying everything we can relaying everything we can experience and thinkexperience and think

Reason and perceptionReason and perception

• Reason makes Reason makes sense of what is sense of what is perceivedperceived

• Reason can Reason can change our change our perception of perception of realityreality What do we know about a scream

coming from someone on this ride?

Concluding thoughtsConcluding thoughts

• Reason does not work independently of the other Reason does not work independently of the other ways of knowingways of knowing

• It is dependent upon them and they are It is dependent upon them and they are dependent upon reason when we acquire dependent upon reason when we acquire knowledgeknowledge

• Reason has both its strengths and its weaknesses Reason has both its strengths and its weaknesses when considering the type of knowledge that can when considering the type of knowledge that can be gained from itbe gained from it

• Reason presents us with both paradoxes and with Reason presents us with both paradoxes and with answersanswers

“Since it is reason which shapes and regulates all other things, it ought not itself to be left in disorder”

—Discourses Chap. Xvii—Epictetus

Lesson 2 Reason and Areas Lesson 2 Reason and Areas of Knowledgeof Knowledge

Reason and ethicsReason and ethics

• Reason about right Reason about right and wrongand wrong

• Reason about moral Reason about moral relativity and relativity and respecting other respecting other culturescultures

• Socratic Method to Socratic Method to decide if something decide if something is a correct ethical is a correct ethical statementstatement

Will reason tip the ethical scale?

Reason and historyReason and history

• Helps make Helps make deductive deductive conclusions about conclusions about events when pieces events when pieces of the “puzzle” are of the “puzzle” are missingmissing

• Helps uncover Helps uncover hidden biashidden bias

• Helps evaluate Helps evaluate sourcessources

Reason and scienceReason and science

• Reasoning is Reasoning is the foundation the foundation for scientific for scientific methodmethod

• Reason behind Reason behind idea of idea of falsificationfalsification

Reason and mathReason and math

• It is based on It is based on deductiondeduction

• Reason within a Reason within a set of agreed set of agreed upon axiomsupon axioms

Reason and human scienceReason and human science

• Reason in the human scientific Reason in the human scientific methodmethod

• Reason aids in understanding Reason aids in understanding one’s own subjective one’s own subjective interpretations and biasesinterpretations and biases

• Reason can help us be aware of Reason can help us be aware of illegitimate statistical claimsillegitimate statistical claims

Reason and artReason and art

• Reason is used Reason is used to interpret to interpret meaningmeaning

• Reason in Reason in creating artcreating art

El Greco. St. Martin and the Beggar. 1597-1599. Oil on canvas. National Gallery of Art, Washington,

DC, USA.

Lesson 3 Emotion and Ways Lesson 3 Emotion and Ways of Knowingof Knowing

Emotion as a Way of Emotion as a Way of KnowingKnowing• Emotion is often contrasted with reason as Emotion is often contrasted with reason as

if they were two separate entitiesif they were two separate entities

• Reason is viewed by many as a way to Reason is viewed by many as a way to true knowledge, such as mathematical or true knowledge, such as mathematical or scientific knowledgescientific knowledge

• Emotion is often viewed simply as a Emotion is often viewed simply as a troublesome factor of our lives which has a troublesome factor of our lives which has a tendency to cloud and skew real tendency to cloud and skew real knowledgeknowledge

However…However…

• It is impossible to separate the It is impossible to separate the thought process we call thought process we call reasoningreasoning from the part of our personalities we from the part of our personalities we call call emotionemotion

• Furthermore it is important to keep Furthermore it is important to keep in mind the in mind the strength of strength of foundationalfoundational knowledgeknowledge

• Emotional knowledge is foundational Emotional knowledge is foundational knowledgeknowledge

Emotion Emotion • Holds to the realm of the subjectiveHolds to the realm of the subjective • Creates sound foundational knowledge, Creates sound foundational knowledge,

but has shortcomings when used as a but has shortcomings when used as a basis for objective claimsbasis for objective claims

• Has its strengths and weaknesses as a Has its strengths and weaknesses as a way of knowing somethingway of knowing something

• Should not be disregarded as useless for Should not be disregarded as useless for the creation of knowledge, but at the the creation of knowledge, but at the same time it should not be used as a basis same time it should not be used as a basis for all knowledge claimsfor all knowledge claims

Positive aspects of emotionPositive aspects of emotion

• Emotion is a Emotion is a subjective subjective experienceexperience

• Emotion can be a Emotion can be a basis for knowledge basis for knowledge and understanding and understanding among a group or among a group or communitycommunity

Even team logos can wake emotion in fans.

Positive aspects of emotion Positive aspects of emotion (contd.)(contd.)

• Emotion is easily Emotion is easily communicatedcommunicated

• Emotion is Emotion is knowledge beyond knowledge beyond wordswords

Why do we understand mime acting?

Negative aspects of emotion Negative aspects of emotion

• Emotion is Emotion is subjectivesubjective

• Emotion can be Emotion can be irrational and irrational and brashbrash

It goes a lot quicker to cut in line

How emotion affects the How emotion affects the other Ways of Knowingother Ways of Knowing

How emotion affects reasonHow emotion affects reason

• It can cloud It can cloud reason and take reason and take away the away the objectivityobjectivity

• Emotion can aid Emotion can aid reason through reason through understanding understanding emotional statesemotional states

How emotion effects How emotion effects perceptionperception

• Emotion can Emotion can skew skew perceptionperception

• Emotion can Emotion can aid in aid in perceptionperception An old house or an abode for vengeful ghosts?

How emotion affects How emotion affects languagelanguage

• Affects the type of Affects the type of language we use language we use and message we and message we communicatecommunicate

• Emotion affects the Emotion affects the reception of the reception of the messagemessage

It is not so much what you say, but how you say it.

Lesson 4 Emotion and Areas Lesson 4 Emotion and Areas of Knowledgeof Knowledge

Is emotion too complex to fully understand?

Emotion and ethicsEmotion and ethics

• Emotion can be a Emotion can be a decisive factor decisive factor for ethical for ethical knowledgeknowledge

• Emotion as a Emotion as a catalyst to catalyst to knowledge about knowledge about right and wrongright and wrong

Emotion and historyEmotion and history

• Emotion can Emotion can easily lead us to easily lead us to believe one story believe one story or version over or version over anotheranother

• Emotion can Emotion can affect which affect which history is history is recordedrecorded

The Navy ship Shaw explodes during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor

Emotion and ScienceEmotion and Science

• Emotion can even Emotion can even cause scientists cause scientists to blatantly lie or to blatantly lie or forge resultsforge results

• Emotion as a Emotion as a driving force driving force behind all behind all scientific scientific discoveriesdiscoveries

Hwang Woo-Suk resigned in late 2005 after he admitted to fabricating Stem-cell research.

Emotion and MathEmotion and Math

• Deductive Deductive reasoning in reasoning in mathematics and mathematics and emotionemotion

• Mathematical Mathematical knowledge knowledge affected by affected by emotion on an emotion on an individual levelindividual level

Does math make you feel this way?

Emotion and Human Emotion and Human ScienceScience

• Emotion and Emotion and interpretation interpretation in Human in Human ScienceScience

• Emotion and Emotion and statisticsstatistics Super Fresh is shown to make breath 125%

better.Will you dare to go a day without it?

Emotion and artEmotion and art

• Emotion is Emotion is often the cause often the cause of inspirationof inspiration

• Emotion is part Emotion is part of experiencing of experiencing and knowing and knowing artart

Laocoön and his two sons, 1st century A.D. Marble,Vatican Museums, Rome.

Lesson 5 Perception and Ways Lesson 5 Perception and Ways of Knowing of Knowing

Introductory comments about Introductory comments about perceptionperception

• How much cognitive psychology is really How much cognitive psychology is really necessary in TOK?necessary in TOK?

• Perception is TOK only needs to focus on Perception is TOK only needs to focus on the important knowledge issues raised by the important knowledge issues raised by perception and how perception affects perception and how perception affects knowledgeknowledge

• There is no great need to get into depth There is no great need to get into depth about perception as it is understood and about perception as it is understood and taught in cognitive psychologytaught in cognitive psychology

• Perception does not need to be treated Perception does not need to be treated like a course in and of itselflike a course in and of itself

There are other aspects of There are other aspects of perception important for TOKperception important for TOK

• The role of biasThe role of bias

• The way perception interacts with The way perception interacts with the other Ways of Knowingthe other Ways of Knowing and Areas and Areas of Knowledgeof Knowledge

Psychology and PerceptionPsychology and Perception

• Everything that we know has come to us Everything that we know has come to us through our sensesthrough our senses

• The only way to gain knowledge about our The only way to gain knowledge about our world is by perceiving the world through world is by perceiving the world through our sensesour senses

• However,However, we perceive the world from our we perceive the world from our own human, and quite limited, perspectiveown human, and quite limited, perspective

• Subsequetly, We can only know about an Subsequetly, We can only know about an exceedingly small portion of all of the exceedingly small portion of all of the things which are actually taking place things which are actually taking place within the universe.within the universe.

Biological thresholdBiological threshold

• A biological thresholds A biological thresholds is a biological is a biological predisposition which predisposition which limits our perceptive limits our perceptive abilities to what they abilities to what they are.are.

• Consequently, our Consequently, our biological thresholds biological thresholds limit our knowledge of limit our knowledge of the worldthe world

”I have an especially good nose.”

Biological thresholds and the Biological thresholds and the implications for knowledge implications for knowledge

• We can not possibly know the world fully by We can not possibly know the world fully by perceiving it; yet paradoxically, our perception is our perceiving it; yet paradoxically, our perception is our only way to know our worldonly way to know our world

• Perhaps our perceptions are merely imperfect Perhaps our perceptions are merely imperfect approximations of reality which we have incorrectly approximations of reality which we have incorrectly fooled ourselves into believing are actually realityfooled ourselves into believing are actually reality

• Since we are aware that we have limited perceptive Since we are aware that we have limited perceptive abilities we expand these abilities through technologyabilities we expand these abilities through technology

• We are constantly searching and trying to understand We are constantly searching and trying to understand the world as it functions beyond our five sensesthe world as it functions beyond our five senses

Biological thresholds and the Biological thresholds and the implications for knowledge implications for knowledge

(contd.)(contd.)• Since we are not able to perceive Since we are not able to perceive

everything we know about, we must everything we know about, we must get our knowledge about these get our knowledge about these things from other sourcesthings from other sources

• Our limited perception also leads to Our limited perception also leads to knowledge claims based on faith and knowledge claims based on faith and belief.belief.

IllusionsIllusions

• Illusions are a good Illusions are a good way to illustrate that way to illustrate that reality can be reality can be different from how different from how we actually perceive we actually perceive itit

• Perception can fool Perception can fool us into thinking us into thinking things are different things are different than they really arethan they really are

Is seeing really believing?

Rules in the perception gameRules in the perception game

• We can only know what we We can only know what we can perceivecan perceive

• Anything that affects our Anything that affects our perception can affect our perception can affect our knowledge of realityknowledge of reality

• If we perceive something If we perceive something one way we have no way of one way we have no way of knowing if our perception is knowing if our perception is reflective of reality or notreflective of reality or not

• Is it possible that we are all Is it possible that we are all just brains in a vat hooked just brains in a vat hooked into some sort of perception into some sort of perception machine?machine?

How would we know?

Bias and PerceptionBias and Perception

• To avoid perceiving To avoid perceiving situations all too situations all too subjectivelysubjectively we we must must understand understand how bias affects how bias affects our perceptionour perception

• We must be aware We must be aware of our biases of our biases

Efficiency or treacherous death traps?

Biological biasesBiological biases

• A biological bias is one which is A biological bias is one which is caused by biological factorscaused by biological factors

• They limit what can be experienced They limit what can be experienced and subsequently knownand subsequently known

• They cause people to “make sense” They cause people to “make sense” of situations differently than they of situations differently than they otherwise wouldotherwise would

Social biases Social biases

• Social biases all work on Social biases all work on the “making sense” level the “making sense” level of perceptionof perception

• They can be likened to a They can be likened to a filter through which filter through which people view the worldpeople view the world

• As soon as mental As soon as mental processing takes place, processing takes place, the social biases come the social biases come into effectinto effect

• Social biases are ever-Social biases are ever-present in our perception present in our perception of realityof reality

There is more to percieving this car than only seeing it

Social biases (contd.)Social biases (contd.)

• Social biases are biases which we Social biases are biases which we have learned through our lives in a have learned through our lives in a social environmentsocial environment

• They make it impossible to perceive They make it impossible to perceive objects in the environment neutrallyobjects in the environment neutrally

• We cannot escape our subjective We cannot escape our subjective understanding of reality to see things understanding of reality to see things differently than we can see themdifferently than we can see them

Ways of Knowing and Ways of Knowing and PerceptionPerception

• Perception affects Perception affects all ways of knowingall ways of knowing

• Biased perception Biased perception affects reason, affects reason, language, and language, and emotionemotion

• Perception of Perception of emotion in emotion in languagelanguage

It is even possible to perceive this neutrally?

Lesson 6 Perception and Areas Lesson 6 Perception and Areas of knowledgeof knowledge

The Adoration of the Kings. Jan M. Gossaert. 1500-1515 National Gallery, London.

The human processing The human processing machinemachine• Always keep in mind the important role Always keep in mind the important role

bias plays in our perception of the worldbias plays in our perception of the world• Even the most basic of our perceptions Even the most basic of our perceptions

(and then subsequent reasoning and (and then subsequent reasoning and reaction) are influenced by our biased reaction) are influenced by our biased outlook on the worldoutlook on the world

• Knowledge claims demand processed Knowledge claims demand processed thought which starts with an observation thought which starts with an observation of some sort and ends with a responseof some sort and ends with a response

• Thes processes will be affected by biasThes processes will be affected by bias

Perception and ethicsPerception and ethics

• Right or Wrong: Right or Wrong: “what’s right and “what’s right and wrong all depends wrong all depends on how you see a on how you see a thing.”thing.”

• Bias and perception Bias and perception combined create an combined create an ethical knowledge ethical knowledge of realityof reality

Will everyone perceive alcohol the same way?

Perception and historyPerception and history

• Perceiving claims as lies or Perceiving claims as lies or truthstruths

• Perceiving connections, seeing Perceiving connections, seeing patterns and possible solutionspatterns and possible solutions

Perception and sciencePerception and science

• Science is Science is perceptionperception

• Expanding Expanding perception via perception via technologytechnology

• Perceptual bias Perceptual bias can affect can affect interpretationinterpretation What is this but an extension of our

vision into smaller realms?

Perception and mathPerception and math

• Little or no Little or no effecteffect

• Perception part Perception part of of mathematical mathematical discoveriesdiscoveries

Someone must have perceived the relationship.

Perception and human sciencePerception and human science

• Perception a part of human sciencePerception a part of human science

• Perceptual bias in human sciencePerceptual bias in human science – Bias alters the meaning of phenomena as Bias alters the meaning of phenomena as

they are being perceivedthey are being perceived– Bias can also can also predispose a person Bias can also can also predispose a person

to observing certain types of things which to observing certain types of things which are considered to be important within the are considered to be important within the mental construct one hasmental construct one has

Perception and artPerception and art

• Perception and Perception and creationcreation

• Art is made to be Art is made to be perceivedperceived

• Biased perception Biased perception forms creationforms creation

• Biased perception Biased perception predetermines predetermines tastetaste

Assyrian King Ashurbanipal in the Lion Hunt. British Museum. London

Lesson 7 Language and Ways Lesson 7 Language and Ways of Knowingof Knowing

“The limits of my language are the limits of my world.” Ludwig Wittgenstein

Language and reasonLanguage and reason

• Language is the means by Language is the means by which reasoning takes placewhich reasoning takes place

• Language can prove the Language can prove the unreasonableunreasonable

The Liars Paradox The Liars Paradox

• This sentence is false (A)This sentence is false (A) – First, if (A) is true, then (A) is falseFirst, if (A) is true, then (A) is false – On the other hand, let’s assume (A) On the other hand, let’s assume (A)

is false. But because the is false. But because the Liar Liar SentenceSentence is saying precisely that it is is saying precisely that it is false, then in all actuality (A) is truefalse, then in all actuality (A) is true

– So (A) is true, but it says it is false. So (A) is true, but it says it is false. So it cannot be true if it says it is So it cannot be true if it says it is false. (A) can only be true if and only false. (A) can only be true if and only if it is false. But (A) can not be both if it is false. But (A) can not be both true and false, but (A) is both true true and false, but (A) is both true and falseand false

“This sentence is false.” Hmm Perhaps he is also perplexed by the Liars Paradox.

Language and emotionLanguage and emotion

• Language can elicit emotionLanguage can elicit emotion

• Emotionally charged wordsEmotionally charged words

• Language conveys emotionLanguage conveys emotion

Language and perceptionLanguage and perception

• Language, Language, emotion, reason, emotion, reason, and perceptionand perception

• Language Language focuses focuses attentionattention

• Language can Language can alter perception alter perception of the pastof the past

Language can change perception of the past.

Lesson 8 Language and Areas Lesson 8 Language and Areas of Knowledge of Knowledge

Language and ethicsLanguage and ethics

• Ethical Ethical knowledge knowledge through reason through reason and languageand language

• Ethical Ethical knowledge knowledge through emotion through emotion and languageand language

Can language help tip the scales of ethical knowledge?

Language and historyLanguage and history

• Historical knowledge is largely Historical knowledge is largely language based knowledgelanguage based knowledge – All language will reflect cultural and All language will reflect cultural and

personal biaspersonal bias– The historian must be aware of this The historian must be aware of this

when making and reading knowledge when making and reading knowledge claimsclaims

Language and scienceLanguage and science

• Scientific languageScientific language

• Perhaps language causes one to Perhaps language causes one to view the world in scientific termsview the world in scientific terms – Since all of our thoughts are in words and Since all of our thoughts are in words and

our thoughts make up our reality, the our thoughts make up our reality, the question arises if people using different question arises if people using different words have a different reality than people words have a different reality than people who did not have those words in their who did not have those words in their mindsminds

Language and mathLanguage and math

• The language of mathematicsThe language of mathematics – There is a mathematical language much There is a mathematical language much

like there is a scientific languagelike there is a scientific language

Language and human scienceLanguage and human science

• Language a Language a subject of studysubject of study

• Language’s Language’s interpretive abilityinterpretive ability – Language has the Language has the

unique ability to make unique ability to make the same information the same information mean completely mean completely different thingsdifferent things

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Language and artLanguage and art

• Language is art in some aspectsLanguage is art in some aspects– Language allows for artistic interpretation to Language allows for artistic interpretation to

happen, and even if it could be proven that no happen, and even if it could be proven that no objectiveobjective knowledge could come from knowledge could come from interpretation of art, interpretations do lead to interpretation of art, interpretations do lead to strongstrong subjective subjective, or foundational knowledge, or foundational knowledge

• Everything is not completely open to Everything is not completely open to interpretationinterpretation – language also has the ability to relay messages language also has the ability to relay messages

or ideas unambiguouslyor ideas unambiguously