chapter 3 lexicon. 1. what is word? a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by...

Chapter 3 Chapter 3 LexiconLexicon

1. 1. What is word?What is word?

A unit of expression that has A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written expressed in spoken or written form.form.

A vague definition. Three senses A vague definition. Three senses are involved in defining “word”, are involved in defining “word”, none of which is satisfactory to none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the situations.cope with all the situations.

A set of forms:A set of forms: walk, walks, walk, walks, walking, walkedwalking, walked

How many words are there?How many words are there? I usually have dinner at 6 but I usually have dinner at 6 but

yesterday I had it at seven.yesterday I had it at seven. How many times did the word How many times did the word

““havehave” occur?” occur?

A lexical item or a A lexical item or a lexemelexeme A A lexical itemlexical item is an entry in a is an entry in a

dictionary. A dictionary. A lexemelexeme WRITEWRITE includes all of its grammatical includes all of its grammatical forms:forms:

write, writes, writing, wrote, write, writes, writing, wrote, writtenwritten

A A grammatical unitgrammatical unit: :

sentencesentence

clauseclause

phrasephrase

wordword

morphememorpheme Problem: Problem: blackboardblackboard

1.2 1.2 Identification of Identification of wordswords Stability:Stability: stable linguistic units. stable linguistic units. chairmanchairman, but not *, but not *manchairmanchair

Relative uninterruptibility:Relative uninterruptibility: though we though we recognize three components in the recognize three components in the word word disappointmentdisappointment, we cannot , we cannot pause and add another component in pause and add another component in between, as in between, as in **disinterestappointmentdisinterestappointment..

But we can add another word between But we can add another word between words: words: Paul, (John) and MaryPaul, (John) and Mary ... ...

A minimum free form:A minimum free form: the the smallest unit that can constitute smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself, ega complete utterance by itself, eg

--Is Jane coming tonight?--Is Jane coming tonight? --Possibly.--Possibly. Hi.Hi. Wonderful.Wonderful.

1.3 1.3 Classification of Classification of wordswords Variable vs. Invariable Words:Variable vs. Invariable Words: Variable words:Variable words: write, writes, write, writes,

writing, wrote, written; cat, cats.writing, wrote, written; cat, cats. Invariable words:Invariable words: since, when, since, when,

seldom, through,seldom, through, etc. etc.

Grammatical vs. Lexical Words: Grammatical vs. Lexical Words: Grammatical/Function words:Grammatical/Function words:

conjunctions, prepositions, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.articles, pronouns.

Lexical/Content words:Lexical/Content words: nouns, nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.verbs, adjectives, adverbs.

Closed-class vs. Open-class Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:Words:

Closed-class words:Closed-class words: New New members cannot normally be members cannot normally be added, eg pronouns, added, eg pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.articles, auxiliaries.

Open-class words:Open-class words: New members New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.adjectives, and adverbs.

Word class:Word class: known as Parts of known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.Speech in traditional grammar.

Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc.interjection, article, etc.

Some new terms in word class:Some new terms in word class: Particle:Particle: infinitive infinitive toto, negative , negative notnot, ,

subordinate units in phrasal verbs subordinate units in phrasal verbs “get “get by”by”, “look , “look backback”, etc.”, etc.

Auxiliary:Auxiliary: do, havedo, have Modal verbs:Modal verbs: can, will, may, mustcan, will, may, must, ,

etc.etc.

Pro-forms:Pro-forms: substitutes for other substitutes for other terms.terms.

Pronoun:Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyonehe, she, I, they, everyone Pro-adjective:Pro-adjective: Your car is red. Your car is red. SoSo is is

his.his. Pro-verb:Pro-verb: He speaks English better He speaks English better

than he than he diddid.. Pro-adverb:Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I He hopes to win and I

hope hope soso too. too. Pro-locative:Pro-locative: He went He went therethere..

Determiner:Determiner: all the articles, all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and that appear before the noun and its modifiers.its modifiers.

As many as three determiners As many as three determiners may be used in each case and may be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there there is a fixed order when there is more than one.is more than one.

Pre Central Post Modifier Noun

all her many good ideas

her many good ideas

all her good ideas

good ideas

many good ideas

all good ideas

what a good idea

the one good idea

a few ideas

both my father’s parents

Predeterminers:Predeterminers: all, both; half, one-all, both; half, one-third, three-quarters …; double, twice, third, three-quarters …; double, twice, three times …; such, whatthree times …; such, what (exclamative)(exclamative)

Central determiners:Central determiners: the; this, these, the; this, these, that, those;that, those; PossP; PossP; we, us; you; which, we, us; you; which, whatwhat (relative), (relative), whatwhat (interrogative); (interrogative); a, another, some, any, no, either, a, another, some, any, no, either, neither; each, enough, much, more, neither; each, enough, much, more, most, less; a few,most, less; a few, a littlea little

Postdeterminers:Postdeterminers: every; many, several, every; many, several, few, little; one, two, three …; (a) dozenfew, little; one, two, three …; (a) dozen

*their all trouble*their all trouble *five the all boys*five the all boys *all this boy*all this boy *all both girls*all both girls

2. 2. MorphologyMorphology

Morphology:Morphology: the study of word- the study of word-formation, or the internal formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from by which words are formed from smaller components -- smaller components -- morphemes.morphemes.

2.1 2.1 MorphemesMorphemes

The smallest unit of language in The smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided that cannot be further divided into smaller units without into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.or grammatical.

2.2 2.2 Types of morphemesTypes of morphemes

Free vs. Bound morphemes:Free vs. Bound morphemes: Free morphemes:Free morphemes: those that may those that may

constitute words by themselves, constitute words by themselves, eg eg boy, girl, table, nation.boy, girl, table, nation.

Bound morphemes:Bound morphemes: those that those that cannot occur alone, eg cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, -s, -ed, dis-, un-.dis-, un-.

Root:Root: the base form of a word that the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, eg total loss of identity, eg friendfriend as in as in unfriendlinessunfriendliness. .

Roots may be Roots may be free:free: those that can stand by those that can stand by

themselves, eg themselves, eg black+boardblack+board; ; nation+-alnation+-al; or; or

bound:bound: those that cannot stand by those that cannot stand by themselves, eg -themselves, eg -ceiveceive in in receive, receive, perceive, conceiveperceive, conceive..

Affix:Affix: the type of formative that the type of formative that can be used only when added to can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally another morpheme. Normally divided into divided into

prefixprefix ( (dis-, undis-, un-) and -) and suffixsuffix (- (-en, -ifyen, -ify).).

Base:Base: a morpheme to which an a morpheme to which an affix is added, egaffix is added, eg

friendfriend root>baseroot>base friendlyfriendly root/root/

base+suffix>basebase+suffix>base unfriendlyunfriendly

prefix+base>baseprefix+base>base unfriendlinessunfriendliness

base+suffix>base?base+suffix>base?

Stem:Stem: a morpheme or a morpheme or combination of morphemes to combination of morphemes to which an which an inflectionalinflectional affix may be affix may be added, eg added, eg friend+-s; write+-ing, friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-espossibility+-es..

Inflection:Inflection: grammatical endings, grammatical endings, eg plural, tense, comparative, etc.eg plural, tense, comparative, etc.

Derivation:Derivation: combination of a base combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, and an affix to form a new word, eg eg friend+-ly > friendlyfriend+-ly > friendly..

2.3 2.3 Word-formationWord-formation

In flec tio n a lM o rp h o lo g y

D er iv a tio n a l/L ex ica l

M o rp h o lo g y

Morphology

2.3.1 Inflection2.3.1 Inflection

Nominal forms:Nominal forms: boys, boy’sboys, boy’s Verb forms:Verb forms: wants, wanted, wants, wanted,

wantingwanting Adjective/adverb forms:Adjective/adverb forms: smaller, smaller,

smallestsmallest

2.3.2 Compounding2.3.2 Compounding

Two or more free roots combine to Two or more free roots combine to make a new word.make a new word.

Noun compounds:Noun compounds: daybreak, daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmillplayboy, haircut, windmill

Verb compounds:Verb compounds: brainstorm, brainstorm, lipread, babysitlipread, babysit

Adjective compounds:Adjective compounds: gray-haired,gray-haired, insect-eating, dutyfreeinsect-eating, dutyfree

Preposition compounds:Preposition compounds: into, into, throughoutthroughout

Endocentric & exocentricEndocentric & exocentric

Endocentric:Endocentric: one element serves as the one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eghead, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg

self-controlself-control: a kind of control: a kind of control armchairarmchair: a kind of chair: a kind of chair Exocentric:Exocentric: there is no head, so not a there is no head, so not a

relationship of “a kind of something”, relationship of “a kind of something”, egeg

scarecrowscarecrow: not a kind of crow: not a kind of crow breakneckbreakneck: not a kind of neck: not a kind of neck

Written forms of Written forms of compoundscompounds Solid: Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguardblackboard, teapot, bodyguard Hyphenated: Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-wedding-ring, wave-

lengthlength Open: Open: coffee table, washing machinecoffee table, washing machine Free variation: Free variation: businessman, business-man, businessman, business-man,

business manbusiness man winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottlewinebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle no one, no-one, nooneno one, no-one, noone

2.3.3 Derivation2.3.3 Derivation

Class-changing:Class-changing: N>V: N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discardlengthen, hospitalize, discard N>A: N>A: friendly, delightful, friendly, delightful,

speechlessspeechless V>N: V>N: worker, employee, inhabitantworker, employee, inhabitant V>A: V>A: acceptable, adorableacceptable, adorable A>N: A>N: rapidness, rapidityrapidness, rapidity A>V: A>V: deafen, sweetendeafen, sweeten Adj>Adv: Adj>Adv: exactly, quicklyexactly, quickly

Class-preserving:Class-preserving: N>N: N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife, nonsmoker, ex-wife,

bookletbooklet V>V: V>V: disobey, unfastendisobey, unfasten A>A: A>A: grayish, irrelevantgrayish, irrelevant

3. 3. Lexical changeLexical change

Formation of new wordsFormation of new words Phonological changePhonological change Morphosyntactic changeMorphosyntactic change Semantic changeSemantic change Orthographic changeOrthographic change

3.1 3.1 Word-formation Word-formation through lexical changethrough lexical change

3.1.1 Invention/Coinage3.1.1 Invention/Coinage

Kodak, Coke, nylon, Xerox, Kodak, Coke, nylon, Xerox, Bandit, LycraBandit, Lycra

3.1.2 Blending3.1.2 Blending transfer+resistor>transistortransfer+resistor>transistor smoke+fog>smogsmoke+fog>smog motorist+hotel>motelmotorist+hotel>motel breakfast+lunch>brunchbreakfast+lunch>brunch modulator+demodulator>modemmodulator+demodulator>modem dance+exercise>dancercisedance+exercise>dancercise advertisement+editorial>advertorialadvertisement+editorial>advertorial education+entertainment>edutainmeducation+entertainment>edutainm

entent information+commercial>infomerciinformation+commercial>infomerci

alal

3.1.3 Abbreviations3.1.3 Abbreviations ClippingClipping Back-clippings:Back-clippings: ad(vertisement), ad(vertisement),

chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), piano(forte), lab(oratory), piano(forte), reg(ulation)sreg(ulation)s

Fore-clippings:Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quake(earth)quake..

Fore-and-aft clippings:Fore-and-aft clippings: ((in)flu(enzain)flu(enza), ), (de)tec(tive).(de)tec(tive).

AcronymAcronym AIDS, Aids: Acquired Immune AIDS, Aids: Acquired Immune

Deficiency SyndromeDeficiency Syndrome ASAP: as soon as possibleASAP: as soon as possible CD-ROM: compact disc read-only CD-ROM: compact disc read-only

memorymemory dink(y): double income, no kidsdink(y): double income, no kids WASP: white Anglo-Saxon WASP: white Anglo-Saxon

protestantprotestant

InitialismInitialism AI: artificial intelligenceAI: artificial intelligence a.s.a.p.: as soon as possiblea.s.a.p.: as soon as possible ECU: European Currency UnitECU: European Currency Unit HIV: human immunodeficiency HIV: human immunodeficiency

virusvirus PC: personal computerPC: personal computer PS: postscriptPS: postscript RSVP: répondez s’il vous plait RSVP: répondez s’il vous plait

(‘please reply’ in French)(‘please reply’ in French)

3.1.4 Back-formation3.1.4 Back-formation

burgle, commentate, edit, peddle, burgle, commentate, edit, peddle, scavenge, sculpt, swindlescavenge, sculpt, swindle

air-condition, babysit, brainstorm, air-condition, babysit, brainstorm, brainwash, browbeat, dry-clean, house-brainwash, browbeat, dry-clean, house-hunt, housekeep, sightsee, tape-recordhunt, housekeep, sightsee, tape-record

articulate, assassinate, coeducate, articulate, assassinate, coeducate, demarcate, emote, intuit, demarcate, emote, intuit, legislate,legislate,marinate, orate, vaccinate, marinate, orate, vaccinate, valuatevaluate

diagnose < diagnosis diagnose < diagnosis enthuse < enthusiasm enthuse < enthusiasm laze < lazylaze < lazy liaise < liaison liaise < liaison reminisce < reminiscence reminisce < reminiscence statistic < statistics statistic < statistics televise < televisiontelevise < television

3.1.5 Analogical creation3.1.5 Analogical creation

From irregular to regular:From irregular to regular: work: wrought > workedwork: wrought > worked beseech: besought > beseechedbeseech: besought > beseeched slay: slew > slayed?slay: slew > slayed? go: went > goed???go: went > goed???

3.1.6 Borrowing3.1.6 Borrowing

French:French: administration, parliament, administration, parliament, public, revenue, tax; court, crime, public, revenue, tax; court, crime, defendant, judge, jury, justice, pardon, defendant, judge, jury, justice, pardon, sue; army, enemy, guard, officer, sue; army, enemy, guard, officer, peace, soldier, war; clergy, faith, peace, soldier, war; clergy, faith, prayer, religion, sermon, service; coat, prayer, religion, sermon, service; coat, costume, dress, fashion, frock, jewel, costume, dress, fashion, frock, jewel, lace; boil, dinner, feast, fry, roast, lace; boil, dinner, feast, fry, roast, supper, toast; bargain, butcher, supper, toast; bargain, butcher, customer, grocer, money, price, value; customer, grocer, money, price, value; art, college, music, poet, prose, story, art, college, music, poet, prose, story, studystudy

Latin:Latin: admit, client, conviction, admit, client, conviction, custody, discuss, equal, index, custody, discuss, equal, index, infinite, intellect, library, infinite, intellect, library, medicine, minor, opaque, medicine, minor, opaque, prosecute, pulpit, prosecute, pulpit, scribe, scribe, scripture, simile, testimonyscripture, simile, testimony

Greek:Greek: acme, bathos, catastrophe, acme, bathos, catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasy, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasy, kudos, kudos, misanthrope, pathos, misanthrope, pathos, pylon, thermpylon, therm

Spanish and Portuguese:Spanish and Portuguese: anchovy, anchovy, armada, banana, barbecue, armada, banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cannibal, canoe, cafeteria, cannibal, canoe, canyon, cargo, cask, chilli (canyon, cargo, cask, chilli (oror chili), chocolate, cigar, cocaine, chili), chocolate, cigar, cocaine, cockroach, cocoa, desperado, cockroach, cocoa, desperado, embargo, guitar, mosquito, negro, embargo, guitar, mosquito, negro, port (wine), potato, ranch, port (wine), potato, ranch, renegade, sherry, siesta, tango, renegade, sherry, siesta, tango, tank, tobacco, tomato, vanillatank, tobacco, tomato, vanilla

Italian:Italian: aria, artichoke, bandit, aria, artichoke, bandit, broccoli, cameo, carnival, casino, broccoli, cameo, carnival, casino, concerto, duet, finale, ghetto, concerto, duet, finale, ghetto, graffiti (graffiti (singularsingular graffito), incognito, graffito), incognito, inferno, influenza, larva, libretto, inferno, influenza, larva, libretto, macaroni, maestro, mafia, malaria, macaroni, maestro, mafia, malaria, paparazzi (paparazzi (singular singular paparazzo), paparazzo), piano, pizza, ravioli, regatta, replica, piano, pizza, ravioli, regatta, replica, scampi, solo, soprano, scampi, solo, soprano, spaghetti, spaghetti, studio, umbrella, vendetta, studio, umbrella, vendetta, vermicelli, volcanovermicelli, volcano

Dutch:Dutch: apartheid, booze, boss, apartheid, booze, boss, brandy, buoy, coleslaw, brandy, buoy, coleslaw, commando, cookie, cranberry, commando, cookie, cranberry, cruise, deck, decoy, dock, dollar, cruise, deck, decoy, dock, dollar, dope, easel, excise, freight, dope, easel, excise, freight, furlough, gin, kit, knapsack, furlough, gin, kit, knapsack, landscape, luck, onslaught, landscape, luck, onslaught, pickle, reef, sketch, skipper, pickle, reef, sketch, skipper, slim, smuggle, snap, snip, trek, slim, smuggle, snap, snip, trek, waffle, waffle, wagon, yachtwagon, yacht

Hebrew:Hebrew: amen, babel, cabbala ( amen, babel, cabbala (oror cabala, kabbala, kabala), camel, cabala, kabbala, kabala), camel, cherub, jubilee, cherub, jubilee, manna, messiah, manna, messiah, sabbath, satan, seraph, shibbolethsabbath, satan, seraph, shibboleth

Arabic:Arabic: admiral, albatross, admiral, albatross, alchemy, alcohol, alcove, algebra, alchemy, alcohol, alcove, algebra, alkali, almanac, amber, assassin, alkali, almanac, amber, assassin, candy, cipher (candy, cipher (oror cypher), harem, cypher), harem, hazard, lemon, hazard, lemon, magazine, nadir, magazine, nadir, safari, sherbet, sofa, syrup, zenith, safari, sherbet, sofa, syrup, zenith, zerozero

Indian:Indian: bungalow, cashmere, bungalow, cashmere, chutney, cot, curry, dinghy, ginger, chutney, cot, curry, dinghy, ginger, guru, juggernaut, jungle, jute, loot, guru, juggernaut, jungle, jute, loot, mango, pariah, polo, punch, pundit, mango, pariah, polo, punch, pundit, pyjamas (pyjamas (oror pajamas), shampoo, pajamas), shampoo, swastika, thug, toddy, veranda (swastika, thug, toddy, veranda (or or verandah), yogaverandah), yoga

Chinese:Chinese: chop suey, chow, chow chop suey, chow, chow mein, ginseng, gung-ho, ketchup mein, ginseng, gung-ho, ketchup ((oror catchup catchup or or catsup), kung fu, catsup), kung fu, tea, tofu (tea, tofu (via Japanesevia Japanese), typhoon), typhoon

3.1.7 Types of loan words3.1.7 Types of loan words Loanwords:Loanwords: au pair, encore, coup d’etat, kungfu, au pair, encore, coup d’etat, kungfu,

sputniksputnik LoanblendLoanblend coconut: coco (Spanish) + nut coconut: coco (Spanish) + nut

(English)(English) Chinatown: China (Chinese) + town Chinatown: China (Chinese) + town

(English)(English) LoanshiftLoanshift bridge: meaning as a card game bridge: meaning as a card game

borrowed from Italian borrowed from Italian ponteponte

Loan translation, or calqueLoan translation, or calque free verse < L verse librefree verse < L verse libre black humor < Fr humour noirblack humor < Fr humour noir found object < Fr objet trouvéfound object < Fr objet trouvé

3.2 3.2 Phonological changePhonological change

Loss of sound: Loss of sound: loss of the velar fricative /x/ loss of the velar fricative /x/

which existed in O.E. which existed in O.E. loss of sound in fast speech, eg loss of sound in fast speech, eg

librlibrararyy, , lablabooratoryratory andand > > ’n’n in connected speech, eg in connected speech, eg

rock-’n-rollrock-’n-roll

Addition of sound:Addition of sound: L. L. studiumstudium > O.F. > O.F. estudieestudie, Sp. , Sp.

estudioestudio, Port. , Port. estudoestudo English: English: rascalrascal > > rapscallionrapscallion Metathesis:Metathesis: changing the changing the

sequence of soundsequence of sound O.E. O.E. bridbrid > > birdbird, O.E. , O.E. ox/axox/ax > > askask Assimilation:Assimilation: impossible, immovableimpossible, immovable irregular, irresponsibleirregular, irresponsible illogical, illegalillogical, illegal

3.3 3.3 Morphosyntactic Morphosyntactic changechange Morphological change:Morphological change: third person singular present third person singular present

tense: tense: -(e)th: -(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, findethdo(e)th, goeth, hath, findeth > -(e)s: > -(e)s: does, goes, has, findsdoes, goes, has, finds

the campus of the universitythe campus of the university > > the the university’s campusuniversity’s campus

Syntactic change:Syntactic change: He saw you not. > He didn’t see you.He saw you not. > He didn’t see you. I know not where to hide my head. I know not where to hide my head.

> I don’t know where to hide my > I don’t know where to hide my head.head.

Fusion/blending:Fusion/blending: equally good + just as good > equally good + just as good >

equally as goodequally as good It’s no use getting there before nine It’s no use getting there before nine

+ There’s no use in getting there + There’s no use in getting there before nine > There’s no use before nine > There’s no use getting there before nine.getting there before nine.

3.4 3.4 Semantic changeSemantic change

Broadening:Broadening: holidayholiday: holy day (religion) > day for : holy day (religion) > day for

restrest birdbird: young bird > any kind: young bird > any kind tasktask: tax > work: tax > work Narrowing:Narrowing: meat:meat: food > food > girl:girl: young person > young woman young person > young woman deer:deer: beast > a special kind of beast > a special kind of

animalanimal

Meaning shift:Meaning shift: beadbead: prayer > the prayer bead > : prayer > the prayer bead >

small, ball-shaped piece of glass, small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or woodmetal or wood

Class shift:Class shift: conversion to other conversion to other word classesword classes

engineerengineer: person trained in : person trained in engineering > to act as an engineering > to act as an engineer (N>V)engineer (N>V)

Folk etymology:Folk etymology: the history of a the history of a word is derived from word is derived from nonscientific speculation or false nonscientific speculation or false analogy with another word, often analogy with another word, often based on their syllabic structure based on their syllabic structure -- -- pretending words mean what pretending words mean what they used tothey used to, thus creating new , thus creating new words based on such speculation.words based on such speculation.

historyhistory > > herstoryherstory (not only his (not only his story but also her story)story but also her story)

Fake etymology:Fake etymology: a kind of folk a kind of folk etymologyetymology

ManhattanManhattan: man with hat on: man with hat on MBAMBA: married but available: married but available PhDPhD: perhaps have divorced: perhaps have divorced golfgolf: Gentlemen Only; Ladies : Gentlemen Only; Ladies

ForbiddenForbidden

3.5 3.5 Orthographic changeOrthographic change

Change of spelling:Change of spelling: Iesus > JesusIesus > Jesus sate > satsate > sat Sunne > SunSunne > Sun