chapter 1 (psych 41)

Kathleen Stassen Berger

Prepared by Madeleine Lacefield

Tattoon, M.A.

1

Part I

Introduction

Chapter One

Defining Development

Five Characteristics of

Development

Developmental Study as a Science

Cautions from Science

2

Beginnings

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Introduction

What will happen to the baby just born, or to

the schoolchild trying to make a friend, or

to the emerging adult wondering how to

pay for college, or to the elder

contemplating retirement?

Why should you care?

4

Defining Development

The science of human development

seeks to understand how and why

people—all kinds of people,

everywhere—change or remain the

same over time.

There are 3 crucial elements.

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1. Science

• developmental study is a science….

– theories

– data

– analysis

– critical thinking

– sound methodology

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2. Diversity

• studying all kinds of people

– young and old

– rich and poor

– every ethnicity, background

– sexual orientation

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3. Connections Between Change and Time

• Changing or remaining the same over

time

– transformations

– consistencies of human life

• beginning to end

– understanding each segment of life

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Dynamic Systems Theory

• stresses the fluctuations and transitions

– the dynamic synthesis of multiple levels of

analysis

• the interaction between people and within

each person

– parent and child

– prenatal and postnatal life

– between ages 2 and 102

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Bioecological Systems

• Urie Bronfenbrenner

– a leader in understanding ecological systems approach

• he believed that developmentalists need to examine all systems surrounding the development of each person– microsysems

– exosystems

– macrosystems

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The Ecological Model• microsysems

– a person’s immediate surroundings

• exosystems– local institutions, such as

schools and churches

• macrosystems– larger social setting,

including cultural values, economic polices, and political processes

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Five Characteristics of Development

―…developmentalists are acutely aware

of the reciprocal connections between

one moment in life and another…

leading to five principles that are

useful for understanding any age of

human life…‖

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1. Multidirectional

• changes in direction; development is

dynamic, not static

– each fraction of a second

– years are analyzed, revealing

unexpected twist and turns

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Gains and Losses

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The Butterfly Effect

– the power of a small change

• all change may have a large effect

• every change affects a dynamic system

– a tiny event could have an enormous

impact, not that is always does

• opposite can occur… large changes can

affect people in contradictory ways (i.e.,

lottery jackpots)

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2. Multicontextual

―…humans develop in dozens of contexts

that profoundly affect their development…‖

– physical surroundings

– family patterns

• Social context

– historical

– socioeconomic

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The Historical Context

– corhort

• people born within a few years of one

another

– these people are affected by the same

» values

» events

» technologies

» culture

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The Socioeconomic Context

– socioeconomic status (SES)

• ―social class‖

– more than money

– occupation

– education

– place of residence

• includes advantages and disadvantages

• Question: does low SES cause damage in

infancy or in late adulthood?

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3. Multicultural

―…culture affects each human at every

moment… culture is so pervasive,

people rarely notice their culture while

they are immersed in it…‖

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Deciding What to Do Each Moment– culture

• the patterns of behavior that are passed from one generation to the next

• groups have their own culture– values

– customs

– clothes

– dwellings

– cuisine

– assumptions

• people are influenced by more than one culture

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Ethnicity, Race, and Income– ethnic groups

– share certain attributes» ancestral heritage

» national origin

» religion

» culture

» language

• ethnic categories arise from history, sociology, and psychology, not from biology

22

Ethnicity, Race, and Income– race

– used to categorize groups of people

» based on appearance

» 95% of the genetic differences between one person and another occur within, not between, supposed racial groups

• race is misleading as a biological category

– race = social construction

– an idea created by society

– perceived racial differences lead to discrimination

– affect cognition

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Ethnicity, Race, and Income

– social construction

• SES (socioeconomic status)

– a form of income or wealth

– overlaps with ethnicity and race

– national history and SES affect culture,

development

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Issues and Applications

―My Name Wasn’t Mary‖

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4. Multidisciplinary

―…a broad array of disciplines and cross-cutting topics… each person develops simultaneously in body, mind, and spirit…‖

Development is divided into three domains; – biosocial

– cognitive

– psychosocial

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The Three Domains

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Mirror Neurons

– reflected brain cells

– observed actions

• mirror the intentions, sensations, and

emotions of those around

– implications of Mirror-Neuron Research

• possible cultural transmission or social

organization

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5. Plasticity• denotes two complementary aspects of

development– human traits can be molded

• yet maintaining durability of identity

• culture and upbringing affect both aspects of plasticity

• Genes and other biological influences

– provides hope and realism• hope = changes is possible

• realism = each developing person must build on what has come before

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Developmental Study as a Science

• based on objective evidence

• laden with subjective perceptions

• making developmental science

challenging

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Steps of the Science Method

• to avoid distortions of unexamined opinions and to control the biases of personal experience

1. ask a question

2. developing a hypothesis

3. test the hypothesis

4. draw conclusions

5. Make the finding available

– Replication

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Ways to Test Hypotheses

• Four methods:

1. Observation

2. The Experiment

3. The Survey

4. The Case Study

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Observation

• record behavior systematically and

objectively

– occur in a naturalistic setting

– tries to be unobtrusive

– can occur in a laboratory or in

searches of archival data

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The Experiment

• used to establish cause

– a particular treatment to expose to a specific

condition

• notes whether their behavior changes

– independent variable = imposed treatment or

special condition

– dependent variable = specific behavior being

studied

» experimental group: is given a particular treatment

» control group: does not get the treatment

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The Experiment

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The Survey

• Information is collected from a large

number of people by:

– interview

– questionnaire

– some other means

• wording and the questions can

influence answers

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The Case Study

• intensive study of one individual or

situation

– asking about past history

– current thinking

– future plans

• can provide unanticipated insight

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Studying Change over Time

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Studying Change over Time

• Cross-Sectional Research

– designed to compare groups of people

who differ in age but share other

important characteristics

(i.e., education, SES, ethnicity)

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Studying Change over Time• Longitudinal Research

– design in which the same individuals

are followed over time and their

development is repeatedly assessed

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Studying Change over Time

• Cross-Sequential Research

– designed to first study several groups

of different ages and then follow those

groups over the years

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Caution from Science

• developmental scientists also

discover changes that are not

beneficial

– television, divorce, shift work,

automobiles.

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Caution from Science

• Correlation and Causation

– can be confusing

• a correlation indicates the degree of

relationship between two variables.

– a correlation is positive if both variables tend to

increase or decrease together

– a correlation is negative if one variables tends to

increase when the other decreases

– a correlation is zero if no connection is evident

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Caution from Science

• Quantity and Quality

– a second caution concerns how much scientists should rely on data produced

• quantitative research: provides data that can be expressed with numbers

• qualitative research contains descriptions of conditions, and participants’ ideas

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Caution from Science

• Ethics in Research

– Caution for all scientists is to ensure

that research meets ethical standards

• ―code of ethics‖

– A set of moral principles that members of a

profession or group are expected to follow

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Caution from Science

• Protection of Research Participants

– Researcher must ensure that

participation is voluntary, confidential,

and harmless

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Caution from Science

• What should we Study?

– Consider the most important ethical

concern:

• ―Are scientists studying issues that are

crucial to human development?‖