beyond maslow’s hierarchy of needs
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7/21/2019 Beyond Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs come to mind when you think about what
people struggle for in terms of motivation development? First developed in
1954, Maslow’s hallmark theory has endured for years. However, performers
may be motivated to achieve by more than just those five goals. A novel
theory of motivation developed in 1992 integrates a variety of modern theories of moti-
vation and delineates 24 goals for which we humans strive.
Beginning With Maslow
Abraham Maslow can be characterized as a humanistic actualization psychologist. His
theory of personality is concerned with needs of normal and creative people (Maddi,
1977; Maslow, 1970), and has yielded a hierarchical list of needs with physiological
needs at its base and psychological needs at the top. Needs at the bottom of the list must
be fulfilled before motivation can be derived from the needs at the top of the hierarchy.
In other words, once the physiological needs are met, the psychological needs serve as
motivators of action. From highest to lowest, the needs are sequenced as follows:
• Self-actualization
• Self-esteem
• Belongingness needs• Safety needs
• Physiological needs
Maslow defined these needs as goal states that motivate and drive people to increase and
reduce tension (Maddi, 1977; Maslow, 1970).
Physiological needs refer to needs such as food, water, and sleep. Safety needs refer to
the need for shelter and protection from danger. Belongingness needs refer to the need
to be part of a group and also to the need to love and be loved. Esteem needs concern the
need to feel good about oneself, one’s abilities and characteristics. At the top of Maslow’s
hierarchy of motivators is self-actualization.
Self-actualization is the process of fulfilling one’s potential. This requires increasing tension by going beyond a homeostatic state of being (internal equilibrium) by doing something cre-
ative (or having “peak experiences”) that reorganize one and create another higher-level
homeostatic state. Peak experiences are exciting, overwhelming experiences that allow one
to fulfill all of one’s potential (Maddi, 1977). As a person self-actualizes, he or she becomes
more complex, differentiated, and effective (Maddi, 1977). Self-actualized individuals are
unique yet “universal.” This means that they are different than the majority of people in
some significant way but that they can relate to and identify with the majority of people.
That is, they are independent, but they also identify with others (Frame, 1996).
Performance Improvement • Volume 43 • Number 10 27
Beyond Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
WhatDoPeople StriveFor?by Kimberly A. Gordon Rouse
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Challenges to Maslow’s Needs
Many performance technology theorists and practitioners are
adherents of Maslow’s hierarchy, but there are also those
who raise challenges (Bellott & Tutor, 1990; Frame, 1996;
Maddi, 1977; Sackett, 1998). Some have questioned the
practicality and reality of the hierarchy, the process by
which people proceed through the hierarchy, and its rele-
vance and applicability to modern society.
Practicality and Reality of the Hierarchy
Maslow admits that only a few people reach self-actualization.
If this is true, self-actualization is likely not the highest level
motivator for the majority of the people. Frame (1996) states
that it is hard to imagine the existence of a large number of
self-actualized people, because while Maslow claims that the
value system of a self-actualized person is unique and dif-
ferent from the majority, he also suggests that these individ-
uals are somehow “more completely socialized.” But how
can a person be more socialized if his or her value system is
different from the majority in society? Even some supportersof Maslow’s hierarchy point out that it is possible for people
to develop self-esteem without a need or desire for self-actu-
alization (Sackett, 1998). For instance, a teacher who does
not make an exorbitant salary may have peak experiences in
the classroom on a daily basis. Without a high salary, the
teacher may have trouble fulfilling physiological and safety
needs. But belongingness and self-esteem needs can be met
daily, and the teacher may be satisfied without ever reaching
self-actualization.
How People Proceed Through the Hierarchy
Sackett (1998) asserts that some people seem to be self-actu-
alized without first meeting the lower needs of Maslow’s
hierarchy. This brings us to another challenge: the process by
which a person proceeds through the hierarchy.
The prevalent belief is that one can proceed to the next level
of the hierarchy only after fulfilling the lower-level need
(Maddi, 1977; Maslow, 1970). The process or mechanism by
which one proceeds to the next need is not delineated clearly
by Maslow (Frame, 1996). In fact, the leap from self-esteem to
self-actualization involves operating from a feeling need to a
cognitive need (Frame, 1996). That is, self-esteem brings
about feelings of fulfillment, but self-actualization focuses on
cognition and thoughts. In addition, Sackett (1998) claims
that self-actualization may be a process itself, not necessarily
an end state. Perhaps the process of becoming self-actualized
and having peak experiences causes one to advance from
need to need. If this is true, is self-actualization the terminal
need in the hierarchy or a mechanism for traversing through
the hierarchy? Maslow’s final works did not clearly state his
beliefs on this issue.
The Heirarchy’s Application in Modern Life
A third challenge presents itself when one considers the
hierarchy’s application in modern society (Bellott & Tutor,
1990; Frame, 1996). For instance, one way self-esteem
comes about is through recognition from maximizing one’s
potential (self-actualization) (Bellot & Tutor, 1990). This
would imply that self-actualization is required to have self-
esteem, which would make self-esteem follow self-actual-
ization in the hierarchy. Therefore, self-esteem can be
argued to be on at least equal footing with self-actualization
as a motivator in today’s society. This may be important to
today’s employees in some professions (Bellot & Tutor,
1990) . Additionally, in today’s society, many people realize
only the first two needs: physiological needs and safety
needs; some people never reach belongingness or self-
esteem, not to mention self-actualization (Frame, 1996).
Through media messages, this society emphasizes fulfill-
ment through meeting lower-level needs. It may be that
people who emphasize these lower-level needs over higher
level needs can be just as motivated to perform as those
reaching for self-actualization. This would lead to the con-clusion that a person can accomplish much and be satisfied
in life by only focusing on lower-level needs.
Although Maslow’s hierarchy has stood the test of time,
research and theorizing have continued. A new theory has
emerged that purports that people are motivated by a number
of goals that are not in a permanent and universal hierarchy.
This theory came about as a method of integrating current
motivational theories. This is the motivational systems
theory (MST) (Ford, 1992, 1995), and its taxonomy of goals
serves as an alternative to Maslow’s needs.
An Alternative Theory
MST (Ford, 1992, 1995) is a theory of motivation that
espouses 24 human goals. It is based on psychological and
biological science. Ford’s theory is based on systems theory
that has been put forth by others as a good theory within cer-
tain business settings (Tesone, 2000). This theory focuses on
motivation and defines motivation as goals, emotions, and
personal agency beliefs. (Personal agency beliefs are beliefs
about one’s abilities as well as beliefs about support for one’s
abilities and goals within the environment). Ford’s theory
was created separately and without any knowledge of
Lichtenberg’s MST (1983), which is based on psychoanalysis
and espouses only five goals (Ford, personal communication, July 20, 2004).
MST integrates other theories of motivation and elaborates on
them. MST includes goals in its motivational equation in
accordance with goal-orientation theory, one aspect of which
is the belief that humans are motivated by goals. However,
goal orientation theory only espouses a small number of goals
that motivate people in the educational arena (Ames, 1992).
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According to MST, there are 24 categories of needs or goals
for which individuals may strive (see Figure 1). These needs
are not hierarchical. In fact, according to MST, it is possible to
fulfill more than one need (that is, achieve more than one
goal) at the same time. Moreover, according to MST, more
motivating experiences help an individual achieve more
than one goal at the same time.
Other contemporary theories of motivation have contributed
to MST as well. Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1990)—beliefs
one holds about his or her ability to complete a certain task—
also undergirds MST. Personal agency beliefs (Ford, 1992,
1995) are similar to self-efficacy beliefs; however, personal
agency beliefs include beliefs about environmental support
in addition to beliefs about ability. Expectancy-value theory
Performance Improvement • Volume 43 • Number 10 29
DESIRED WITHIN-PERSON CONSEQUENCES
Affective Goals
Entertainment Experiencing excitement or heightened arousal; avoiding boredom or stressful inactivity
Tranquili ty Feeling relaxed and at ease; avoiding stressful over-arousal
Happiness Experiencing feelings of joy, satisfaction, or well-being; avoiding feelings of emotional distress or dissatisfaction
Bodily sensations Experiencing pleasure associated with physical sensations, physical movement, or bodily contact; avoiding unpleasant or
uncomfortable bodily sensations
Physical well-being Feeling healthy, energetic, or physically robust; avoiding feelings of lethargy, weakness, or ill health
Cognitive Goals
Exploration Satisfying one’s curiosity about personally meaningful events; avoiding a sense of being uninformed or not knowing what’s going on
Understanding Gaining knowledge or making sense out of something; avoiding misconceptions, erroneous beliefs, or feelings of confusion
Intellectual creativity Engaging in activities involving original thinking or novel or interesting ideas; avoiding mindless or familiar ways of thinking
Positive self-evaluation Maintaining a sense of self-confidence, pride, or self-worth; avoiding feelings of failure, guilt, or incompetence
Subjective Organization Goals
Unity Experiencing a profound or spiritual sense of connectedness, harmony, or oneness with people, nature or a greater power; avoiding
feelings of psychological disunity or disorganization
Transcendence Experiencing optimal or extraordinary states of functioning; avoiding feeling trapped within boundaries of ordinary experience
DESIRED PERSON-ENVIRONMENT CONSEQUENCES
Self-Assertive Social Relationship Goals
Individuality Feeling unique, special, or different; avoiding conformity with others
Self-determination Experiencing a sense of freedom to act or make choices; avoiding the feeling of being pressured, constrained, or coerced
Superiority Comparing favorably to others in terms of winning status, or success; avoiding unfavorable comparisons with others
Resource acquisition Obtaining approval, support, assistance, advice, or validation from others; avoiding social disapproval or rejection
Integrative Social Relationship Goals
Belongingness Building or maintaining attachments, friendships, intimacy, or a sense of community; avoiding feelings of social isolation
or separateness
Social responsibility Keeping interpersonal commitments, meetings social role obligations, and conforming to social and moral rules; avoiding social
transgressions and unethical or illegal conduct
Equity Promoting fairness, justice, reciproci ty, or equality; avoiding unfair or unjust actions
Resource provision Giving approval, support, assistance, advice, or validation to others; avoiding selfish or uncaring behavior
Task Goals
Mastery Meeting a challenging standard of achievement or improvement; avoiding incompetence, mediocrity, or decrements in performance
Task creativity Engaging in activities involving artistic expression or creativity; avoiding tasks that do not provide opportunities for creative action
Management Maintaining order, organization, or productivity in daily life tasks; avoiding sloppiness, inefficiency, or disorganization
Material gain Increasing the amount of money or tangible goods one has; avoiding the loss of money or material possessions
Safety Being unharmed,physical ly secure, and free from risk; avoiding threatening, depr iving,or harmful circumstances
Figure 1. The Ford and Nichols Taxonomy of Human Goals (Source:Adapted from Ford, 1992).
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(Wigfield, 1994)—which states that people are more moti-
vated by goals that they both value and expect to accom-
plish—is another important building block for MST. MST
examines the importance or value that one places on goals.
MST also examines emotions, which few other motivational
theories consider (Ford, 1992). MST states that emotions pro-
vide energy for pursuing goals and help one to evaluate
whether a goal is obtainable.
The 24 goals of MST were discovered over years of research
and clinical work with a variety of students, clients, and pro-
fessionals (Ford & Nichols, 1987, 1991, 1992). Each of these
goals is a category of goals that represents a set of outcomes
that are similar in meaning. They have evidenced internal
consistency reliability as well as face, content, and construct
validity ( Ford & Nichols, 1992; Gordon Rouse, 2001).
These 24 human goals are divided into two overarching cat-
egories with three subcategories each. The overarching cate-
gories are “desired within-person consequences” and
“desired person-environment consequences.” Desired
within-person consequences are goals that involve a singleperformer and are usually positioned within that person and
his or her own subjective experience. Desired person-envi-
ronment consequences are goals that minimally involve a
single performer and something or someone within that
person’s environment. These are goals that relate to experi-
ences involving a person and something outside that person.
For example, resource acquisition may be the goal of a
person obtaining support from his or her environment.
The three subcategories of goals related to “desired within-
person consequences” are affective, cognitive, and subjective
organization goals. Affective goals are those that relate to
feelings and emotion states. Cognitive goals concern thoughtprocesses, and subjective organization goals are complex and
involve both affect and cognition. There are five affective
goals: entertainment, tranquility, happiness, bodily sensa-
tions, and physical well-being. Happiness equates to feelings
of satisfaction, while tranquility involves avoiding stress.
Entertainment equates with experiencing excitement; bodily
sensation is experiencing pleasing physical movement and
contact; and physical well-being is defined as feeling healthy
and robust.
There are four cognitive goals: exploration, understanding,
intellectual creativity, and positive self-evaluation.
Understanding includes gaining knowledge and intellectualcreativity concerns thinking interesting ideas. Exploration
involves satisfying curiosity, and positive self-evaluations
maintain self-worth.
There are only two subjective organization goals: unity and
transcendence. Unity equates to experiencing harmony or
oneness, while transcendence involves having experiences
that are not bound by ordinary life.
The three subcategories of goals related to “desired person-
environment consequences” are self-assertive social rela-
tionship, integrative social relationship, and task.
Self-assertive social goals bring attention and aid to oneself.
Integrative social goals provide for the maintenance and
enrichment of a group. Task goals relate to specific activities.
There are four self-assertive social relationship goals: indi-
viduality, self-determination, superiority, and resource
acquisition. Individuality means feeling unique, and superi-
ority involves obtaining feelings of reaching a desired status.
Self-determination concerns making one’s own choices, and
resource acquisition involves obtaining support.
There are four integrative social relationship goals: belong-
ingness, social responsibility, equity, and resource provision.
Belongingness equates to maintaining attachments, while
equity promotes equality. Social responsibility concerns ful-
filling obligations, and resource provision involves giving
support to others.
Finally, there are five task goals: mastery, task creativity,
management, material gain, and safety. Mastery seems toimprove an ability, skill, or level of knowledge; safety con-
cerns being physically secure. Task creativity involves
engaging in artistic expression; management aims at main-
taining order; and material gain concerns increasing one’s
amount of money and goods.
Application
What does all this mean for performance technologists? For
one, rather than five types of needs or goals, a bevy of moti-
vators can be seen to motivate performance. Second, this
affords performance technologists more goals by which to
motivate performers. Third, situations can be created that tapinto more than one goal in order to motivate employees more
effectively. Fourth, performers’ individual goals can better be
identified and aligned with the company’s goals. Last, it is
possible to more discreetly identify which goals motivate
individuals to greater levels of performance.
The 24 needs of MST are not hierarchical; more than one
goal may be fulfilled at a time. Therefore, performers may
have several goals that they are pursuing at once. They may
simultaneously be searching for happiness, transcendence,
mastery, management, and safety in their job duties. While
one of these goals may be stronger than others, performers
may still be searching for them all in their jobs.
Maximally motivating situations can be created by accom-
plishing more than one goal at a time (Ford, 1992, 1995).
Work tasks that tap into more than one goal are more moti-
vating. The business literature has suggested that having sup-
port for peak experiences and transcendence leads to a
happier, more productive work force (Keil, 1999; Tesone,
2000). Part of performance technologists’ role is to engineer
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situations that simultaneously fulfill more than one goal. For
example, if a performer is motivated by mastery, manage-
ment, and understanding, he or she might be given the task
of designing a system to organize stock reports by topic. By
completing this task the individual is learning, organizing,
and improving competence. Other tasks that need to be com-
pleted can be assigned to other employees based on their
own particular combination of goals. For instance, an
employee who is motivated by tranquility, self-determina-
tion, and resource provision may be interested in researching
a business problem and creating a manual for other
employees to use to solve the problem. Again, while this task
would only be assigned if it is a company need, knowing
which goals motivate which employees helps task assign-
ment and keeps productivity high.
To create motivating environments for performers it is nec-
essary to ascertain what their goals are. Ford and Nichols
(1992) have created an assessment of personal goals that con-
tains questions related to each of the 24 goals in the MST tax-
onomy. Knowing which goals performers attend to is of
tremendous value when trying to motivate performance.
Conclusion
MST moves beyond Maslow’s five needs and presents more
goals that lead to various avenues for motivating performers to
succeed. MST presents a powerful alternative to Maslow’s hier-
archy of needs for helping performers attain increased levels of
productivity. It also offers a more practical and systemic
approach to understanding the relationship between goals,
emotions, and personal agency beliefs of performers.
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Kimberly A. Gordon Rouse is an Assistant Professor in the College of
Education at California State University,Sacramento. Her main areas of research
are motivation and educational resilience.Her article “Recognizing and Fostering
Resilience” appeared in this journal in 1998. She is thankful to Bill Coscarelli for
his comments on earlier drafts of this manuscript. Kimberly may be reached at
kagrouse@csus.edu.
Performance Improvement • Volume 43 • Number 10 31
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