bb chapter eight: perception

Chapter Eight:Perception

Chapter 8: PerceptionIntroduction• Attention now shifts from the different steps

involved in purchase decision making to the processes that occur primarily within the individual.

These are discussed in:• Chapter 8 Perception• Chapter 9 Learning and memory• Chapter 10 Motivation, personality and

emotion• Chapter 11 Attitude and attitude change

Processes that occur primarily within the individual

Chapter 8: Perception

1. The nature of perception2. Different steps involved in information

processing3. Which stimulus’ factors influence this process4. Which individual factors influence this process5. Which situational factors influence this

process6. The way children process information7. Implications of perception for retail, brand and

communication strategies

A simplified model of perception

• Before we go into the details of the concepts in this chapter, look through the next four slides

• Shows the essence of what perception involves

Consumer Perception Phases

The 3 phases

• Sensing : deciding what stimuli to pay attention to (subject to ‘selective perception’)

• Organizing : how to arrange information in our minds (categorization)

• Reacting : responding to stimuli; experiences will then feedback and influence future sensing 8-7

Selective Perception

Selective exposureSelective exposure

Selective attentionSelective attention

Selective distortionSelective distortion

Organization Process

Like sorting mail!(information is sorted by categories)

The Nature of PerceptionThe Nature of Perception

��Information processing Information processing is a series of activities by which stimuli are perceived, transformed into information, and stored.

��Perception Perception consists of the first three steps or stages of information processing: exposureexposure, attentionattention, and interpretation.interpretation.

The nature of perception

• Exposure• Attention• Interpretation• Memory

– Short-term– Long-term

Information processing for consumerdecision making

ExposureExposure occurs when a stimulus comes within range of a person’s sensory receptor nerves (vision).

AttentionAttention occurs when the stimulus is “seen” (the receptor nerves pass the sensations on to the brain for processing).

Information Processing for Consumer Decision MakingInformation Processing for Consumer Decision Making

InterpretationInterpretation is the assignment of meaning to the received sensations.

MemoryMemory is the short-term use of the meaning for immediate decision making or the longer-term retention of the meaning.

These processes occur virtually simultaneously and are clearly interactive.

Perceptual Perceptual defensesdefenses - individuals are not passive recipients of marketing messages.

Both perceptionperception and memorymemory are extremely selective.8-15

ExposureExposure

ExposureExposure occurs when a stimulus is placed within a person’s relevant environment and comes within range of their sensory receptor nerves.

ExposureExposure provides the opportunity for attention but in no way guarantees it.

Exposure

• Occurs when a stimulus comes within range of our sensory receptor nerves

• Deliberate exposure to stimuli– Consumers seek information that will help

achieve certain goals� immediate� long-range

• Random exposure to stimuli

ExposureExposure

1.1. Selective ExposureSelective Exposure

• The highly selective nature of consumer exposureexposure is a major concern for marketers, since failure to gain exposureexposure results in lost communication and sales opportunities.

2.2. Voluntary ExposureVoluntary Exposure

• Although consumers often avoid commercials and other marketing stimuli, sometimes they actively seek them out for various reasons including purchase goals, entertainment, and information.

Types of Exposure

ExposureExposure

�� Ad avoidanceAd avoidance includes ways consumers selectively avoid exposure to advertising messages and can include:

•• ZippingZipping--occurs when one fast-forwards through a commercial on a prerecorded program

•• ZappingZapping--involves switching channels when a commercial appears

•• MutingMuting--is turning the sound off curing commercial breaks.

Selective Exposure

ExposureExposure

�� Product placementProduct placement involves incorporating brands into movies, television programs, and other entertainment venues in exchange for payment or promotional or other consideration.

• Firms expend tremendous effort into placing their products within entertainment due to the exposure exposure provided that consumers don’t try to avoid.

•• Product placementProduct placement also shows the consumer how and when to use the product and enhances its image.

Selective Exposure (cont.)

ExposureExposure

�� InfomercialsInfomercials are program-length commercials to which consumers voluntarily expose themselves.

� Voluntary exposure also occurs online. Examples:

• A consumer who clicks on a banner ad or pop up (clickthrough) is voluntarily being exposed to the target site and its marketing message.

Voluntary Exposure

ExposureExposure

• Consumers also voluntarily expose themselves to marketing messages by deliberately visiting a firm’s home page and other marketer sites..

•• PermissionPermission--based marketingbased marketing occurs when a consumer “opts in” to receive email-based promotions.

• The voluntary and self-selected nature of such online offerings can enhance effectiveness.

Voluntary Exposure (cont.)

Attention

Consumers are given the opportunity to attend to the marketer’s message.

AttentionAttention

AttentionAttention occurs when the stimulus activates one or more sensory receptor nerves, and the resulting sensations go to the brain for processing.

AttentionAttention requires consumers to allocate limited mental resources toward information processing.

Attention

• Occurs when stimulus activates one or more sensory receptor nerves and the resulting sensations go to the brain for processing

• Determined by:

– Stimulus– Individual– Situation

AttentionAttention

Attention Attention is determined by three factors:

1.1. Stimulus FactorsStimulus Factors

• Are physical characteristics of the stimulus itself

2.2. Individual FactorsIndividual Factors

• Are characteristics which distinguish one individual from another

3.3. Situational FactorsSituational Factors

• Include stimuli in the environment other than the focal stimulus and temporary characteristics of the individual that are induced by the environment

AttentionAttention

�� SizeSize

�� IntensityIntensity

�� Attractive VisualsAttractive Visuals

�� Color and MovementColor and Movement

�� PositionPosition

�� IsolationIsolation

�� FormatFormat

�� Contrast and ExpectationsContrast and Expectations

�� InterestingnessInterestingness

�� Information QuantityInformation Quantity

Stimulus Factors

Attention paid to prime-time TV ads

Stimulus’ factors• Size and intensity

– Insertion frequency

• Colour and movement

• Position• Isolation

• Format• Contrast

– Adaptation level theory

• Compressed messages

• Information quantity—information overload

AttentionAttention

SizeSize

Larger stimuli are more likely to be noticed than smaller ones.

Stimulus FactorsStimulus Factors

Source: 1Cahners Advertising Research Report 110.1B (Boston: Cahners Publishing, undated).

Size also affects attention to advertising.

The impact of advertisement size

AttentionAttention

IntensityIntensity

The intensity (e.g., loudness, brightness, length) of a stimuluscan increase attention.

�In online contexts, one aspect of intensity is iintrusiveness, or the degree to which one is forced to see or interact with a banner ad or pop up in order to see the desired content.

�Repetition is related to intensity. It is the number of times an individual is exposed to a given stimulus, such as an ad or brand logo, over time.

�Consumers may shift the focus of their attention from one part of the ad to another across repetitions, resulting in attention reallocation.

AttentionAttention

Attractive VisualsAttractive Visuals

Individuals are attracted to pleasant stimuli and repelled by unpleasant stimuli.

An ad’s visual or pictorial component can have a strong influence, known as a picture superiority effect.

Any factor that draws attention to itself and away from the brand has to be used with caution.

Does Pepsi Gets Lost in this Ad?Does Pepsi Gets Lost in this Ad?

AttentionAttention

Color and MovementColor and Movement

Color and movement attract attention.

A brightly colored package or display is more likely to received attention.

Color and movement are also important in ads.

Stimulus FactorsStimulus FactorsColor and Size Impact on Color and Size Impact on AttentionAttention11

Source: 1”How Important is Color to an Ad?” Starch Tested Copy. February 1989, p.1. Roper Starch Worldwide, Inc.

AttentionAttention

PositionPosition

Position is the placement of an object in physical space or time.

In retail stores, items that are easy to find or stand out are more likely to attract attention, such as end-caps and kiosks.

High impact zones in print ads in the U.S. tend to be toward the top left portion of the ad.

EndEnd--caps provide a way to capture caps provide a way to capture the shopperthe shopper’’s attentions attention

AttentionAttention

IsolationIsolation

Isolation is separating a stimulus object from other objects.

Examples of isolation include:

• In store use of a stand-alone kiosk

• In an advertisement, the use of “white space”

• In a radio commercial, surrounding a key part with a brief moment of silence.

AttentionAttention

FormatFormat

Format refers to the manner in which the message is presented.

Simple, straightforward presentations receive more attention than complex presentations.

What can decrease attention?

• Elements in the message that increase processing effort

• Ads that lack a clear visual point of reference or have inappropriate movement

• Audio messages that are difficult to understand

AttentionAttention

Contrast and ExpectationsContrast and Expectations

Consumers pay more attention to stimuli that contrast with their background.

Expectations drive perceptions of contrast. Ads that differ from expectations for a product category often motivate more attention.

Adaptation level theoryAdaptation level theory suggests that if a stimulus doesn’t change over time we habituate to it and begin to notice it less.

This billboard ad provides contrast This billboard ad provides contrast for enhanced attention.for enhanced attention.

AttentionAttention

InterestingnessInterestingness

What one is interested in is generally an individual characteristic.

However, certain characteristics of the message, store, and in-store display can generate consumer interest.

In advertising, factors that increase curiosity, interest and attention include:

• Ongoing plot

• The possibility of a surprise ending

• Uncertainty as to the point of the message until the end

AttentionAttention

Information QuantityInformation Quantity

Information quantity represents the number of cues in the stimulus field. Cues can relate to the features of the brand itself, typical user of the brand, typical usage situations, etc.

Information helps consumers make decisions. But too much information can have negative consequences.

Information overloadInformation overload occurs when consumers are confronted with so much information that they cannot or will not attend to all of it, resulting in suboptimal decisions.

Attention (cont.)

• Individual factors– Interest

– Need• Situational factors

– Involvement• Non-focused attention

– Hemispheric lateralisation– Subliminal stimuli

AttentionAttention

MotivationMotivation

Motivation is a drive state created by consumer interest and needs.

Product involvement indicates motivation or interest in a specific product category. Product involvement can be temporary or enduring.

Smart bannersSmart banners are banner ads that are activated based on terms used in search engines. These search terms are used to gauge involvement.

Individual FactorsIndividual Factors

AttentionAttention

AbilityAbility

Ability refers to the capacity of individuals to attend to and process information.

Ability is related to knowledge and familiarity with the product, brand, or promotion.

Brand familiarityBrand familiarity is an ability factor related to attention. Those with high brand familiaritybrand familiarity may require less attention to the brand’s ads due to their high existing knowledge.

Individual FactorsIndividual Factors

AttentionAttention

�� ClutterClutter

�� Program InvolvementProgram Involvement

Situational Factors

AttentionAttention

ClutterClutter

Clutter represents the density of stimuli in the environment.

Research suggests cluttering of the in-store environment with too many point-of-purchase displays decreases the attention consumers pay to a given display.

Consumers pay less attention to a television commercial in a large grouping of commercials than they do to one in a smaller set.

Situational FactorsSituational Factors

AttentionAttention

Program InvolvementProgram Involvement

Program involvement refers to interest in the program or editorial content surrounding the ads.

Program involvement has a positive influence on attention (see graphs on the next two slides).

Situational FactorsSituational Factors

Involvement and magazine advertising effectiveness

Involvement in a television program and advertising effectiveness

AttentionAttention

�� Hemispheric lateralizationHemispheric lateralization

�� Subliminal StimuliSubliminal Stimuli

Nonfocused Attention

AttentionAttention

Hemispheric Lateralization Hemispheric Lateralization refers to activities that take place on each side of the brain.

Nonfocused AttentionNonfocused Attention

The left side of the The left side of the brain controls brain controls activities related to activities related to rational thought.rational thought.

The right side of The right side of the brain deals the brain deals with images and with images and impressions.impressions.

AttentionAttention

Subliminal StimuliSubliminal Stimuli

A message presented so fast, softly or masked by other messages that one is not aware of seeing or hearing it is call asubliminal stimulussubliminal stimulus.

A subliminal ad “hides” key persuasive information within the ad by making it so weak that it is difficult or impossible for someone to physically detect.

Subliminal advertising has been the focus of intense study and public concern.

Nonfocused AttentionNonfocused Attention

The Vicary Subliminal“Persuasion” Study

Is this subliminal stuff true?

InterpretationInterpretation

InterpretationInterpretation is the assignment of meaning to sensations.

InterpretationInterpretation relates to how we comprehend and make sense of incoming information.

It is influenced by characteristics of the stimulus, the individual, and the situation.

Factors Affecting Comprehension(comprehension= interpretation)

8-54Source: Babin and Harris(Note: you don’t need to know all- just understand a few factors)

Physical Characteristics of the Message

Numbers

Simplicity/Complexity

Simple phrases such as “fat free” often communicate more clearly than detailed information.

Congruent or Incongruent Message Sequences?

Message Source Factors

LikeabilityLikeability

ExpertiseExpertise

TrustworthinessTrustworthiness

AttractivenessAttractiveness

Three aspects of interpretationThree aspects of interpretation:

1. It is generally a relative process rather than absolute, referred to as perceptual relativityperceptual relativity.

2. It tends to be subjective and open to a host of psychological biases.

3. It can be a cognitive “thinking” process or an affective “emotional” process.

•• Cognitive interpretationCognitive interpretation is a process whereby stimuli are placed into existing categories of meaning.

•• Affective interpretationAffective interpretation is the emotional or feeling response triggered by a stimulus such as an ad.

Interpretation

• Cognitive interpretation– Process of adding meaning – From existing knowledge

�semantic meaning�psychological meaning

• Affective interpretation– Processing and adding meaning by

feeling

Affective interpretation used in an advertisement

Determinants of interpretation

Interpretation (cont.)

• Individual characteristics

– Learning– Expectations

• Situational characteristics– E.g. hunger, moods, temperature etc.– Proximity

• Stimulus’ characteristics– Semiotics

• Misinterpretation of marketing messages

�� TraitsTraits

�� Learning and KnowledgeLearning and Knowledge

�� ExpectationsExpectations

Individual Characteristics

Individual CharacteristicsIndividual Characteristics

TraitsTraitsPhysiological and psychological traits

drive our needs and desires. These traits influence how a stimulus is interpreted.

PhysiologicallyPhysiologicallyConsumers differ in their sensitivity to

stimuli, e.g., taste.

PsychologicallyPsychologicallyConsumers have natural cognitive,

emotional, and behavioral predispositions, e.g., affect intensity.

Learning and KnowledgeLearning and Knowledge

The meanings attached to such “natural” things as time, space, relationships, and colors are learned and vary widely across cultures.

Consumers also learn about marketer-created stimuli like brands and promotions through their experiences with them.

Color is used in the WrigleyColor is used in the Wrigley’’s ad to s ad to mean mean ““icy and cool.icy and cool.””

ExpectationsExpectations

Interpretations tend to be consistent with expectations, an effect referred to as the expectation bias.

Consumers often evaluate the performance of a well-known brand as higher than that of an identical product with an unknown brand name.

Brands create expectations and Brands create expectations and can thus bias perceptions.can thus bias perceptions.

� The situation provides a context within which the focal stimulus is interpreted.

� The Contextual cuesContextual cues present in the situation play a role in consumer interpretation independent of the actual stimulus.

Situational Characteristics

�� TraitsTraits

�� OrganizationOrganization

�� ChangesChanges

Stimulus Characteristics

TraitsTraits

Specific traits of the stimulus such as size, shape and color affect interpretation.

Consumers appear to prefer stimuli that they perceive as easy to process.

Incongruity is an unexpected stimulus and increases attention.

Stimulus CharacteristicsStimulus Characteristics

This billboard ad features a This billboard ad features a simple message.simple message.

OrganizationOrganization

Stimulus organizationStimulus organization refers to the physical arrangement of the stimulus objects.

The mannequin’s position (right) makes it “appear” to be looking at the Calvin Klein ad. This likely draws shoppers to the ad and store as well.

This store front shows a mannequin This store front shows a mannequin turned toward a Calvin Klein ad.turned toward a Calvin Klein ad.8-71

Organization (cont.)Organization (cont.)

ProximityProximity means that stimuli positioned close together are perceived as belonging to the same category.

��Ambush marketingAmbush marketing draws on proximity by making it appear that a company is associated with an event when it’s not.

ClosureClosure involves presenting an incomplete stimulus with the goal of getting consumers to complete it and become more engaged and involved.

FigureFigure--groundground involves presenting the stimulus in such a way that it is perceived as the focal object to be attended to and all other stimuli are perceived as the background.

The Figure and Ground Distinction

Apple i-pod ads

ChangesChanges

Interpreting change requires both the ability to detect change and then assigning meaning to that change.

��Sensory DiscriminationSensory Discrimination is the physiological ability of an individual to distinguish between similar stimuli.

��Just Noticeable Difference (j.n.d.)Just Noticeable Difference (j.n.d.) is the minimum amount that one brand can differ from another (or from its previous version) with the difference still being noticed.

JND(Just Noticeable Difference)

• Represents how much stronger one stimulus has to be relative to another so that someone can notice that the two are not the same.

• Weber’s Law – the ability to detect differences between two levels of a stimulus is affected by the original intensity of the stimulus.

JND formula

K = ∆ I

K: JND

∆ I : change in intensity of stimuli

I : original intensity of stimuli

JND: Marketing Implications

PricingPricing QuantityQuantity

QualityQuality Add-on PurchasesAdd-on

Purchases

JND and Pricing

• Depends on whether you are increasing or reducing price

• JND for reducing price should be large (‘above the jnd’- noticeable)

• JND for increasing price should be imperceptible (‘below the jnd’)

JND and Quantity

• Increasing or decreasing quantity• Increase= above the JND• Decrease= below the JND• Examples

– Extra value package (more quantity)

– But if you have to reduce size (like burger patty or chocolate bars, make sure it is imperceptible – below the jnd)

JND and Quality

• Changes in quality• Improvements: above the jnd• Reduction : below the jnd• Examples???

� When it comes to marketing, “what you see is not what you get.” That’s because interpretation often requires consumers to make inferences.

� An inferenceinference goes beyond what is directly stated or presented.

� Consumers use available data and their own ideas to draw conclusions about information that is not provided.

Consumer Inferences

�� Quality SignalsQuality Signals

�� Interpreting ImagesInterpreting Images

�� Missing Information and Ethical ConcernsMissing Information and Ethical Concerns

Consumer Inferences

Quality signals include:Quality signals include:

• Price-perceived quality

• Advertising intensity

• Warranties

•Country of origin (COO)

•Brand name

Some product quality inferences are consistent across consumers and are termed quality signals.

Quality signals tend to operate more strongly when consumers lack the expertise, when involvement in the decision is low, and when other quality-related information is lacking.

Consumer InferencesConsumer InferencesQuality SignalsQuality Signals

Interpreting ImagesInterpreting Images

Consumer inferences are becoming increasingly important as advertisers increase their use of visual imagery.

A picture is worth a thousand words not just because it may convey reality more efficiently than words but because it may convey meanings that words cannot adequately express.

Consumer InferencesConsumer Inferences

Courtesy Partnership for a Drug-Free America

Missing Information and Ethical ConcernsMissing Information and Ethical Concerns

Consumer InferencesConsumer Inferences

How can consumers be misled?

1. Companies can make direct claims that are false.

2. Other types of deception are more subtle and fall under the broad category of claim-belief discrepancies.

Children’s information processing

Stage Description

1. Sensorimotor intelligence (0-2 yrs)

Primarily motor

2. Pre-operational thought(3-7yrs)

Language and conceptual development

3. Concrete operations(8-11yrs)

Logical thought applied

4. Formal operations (12-15yrs)

Logical thought has been developed and can be applied

Perception and marketing strategy

1. Retail strategy2. Brand name and logo development3. Media strategy4. Advertisement and package design5. Warning labels and package

designs

Perception and marketing strategy (cont.)

• Perceptions of marketing messages and ethics

– Ethics of the ads � e.g. Heart tick can’t be used by all

‘healthy’ foods

– Advertising aimed at children� children can’t always distinguish

between ads and programs

� more research required

Perception and Marketing StrategyPerception and Marketing Strategy

Retailers often use exposure very effectively.

�Store interiors are designed with frequently purchased items separated so consumers will travel through more of the store, increasing total exposure.

�Shelf position and amount of shelf space influence which items and brands are allocated attention.

��CrossCross--promotionspromotions, where signage in one area of the store promotes complementary products in another can also be effective.

Retail StrategyRetail Strategy

Retail strategy

• Store layout

– Cold and hot zones– Traffic and islands

• Lighting and fit-out• Placement of products on shelves

– Eye levels (for adults and for children!)

– Number of facings to maximise visual impact

Retail StrategyRetail StrategyShelf space and position help to gain attention. In this case, the shelf is protruding out into the shopping aisle!

Brand names can influence anything from food taste to color preference. Given the tendency toward global brands, it is easyto imagine how complex creating an appropriate name can be.

Brand Name and Logo DevelopmentBrand Name and Logo Development

Linguistic Linguistic ConsiderationConsideration

Branding Branding StrategiesStrategies

Logo Design Logo Design and and

TypographicsTypographics

Linguistic ConsiderationsLinguistic Considerations

Sometimes brand names start out having no inherent meaning, but gain associations over time as consumers gain experience with them.

Marketers increasingly tap into linguistic characteristics of words to create brand names with inherent meaning.

• Semantic meaning or morpheme -- (e.g., NutraSweet)

• Phonemes -- Sounds of letters and words can symbolize product attributes (e.g., Charmin’s soft sounds)

Brand name and logo development

• Important for consumer and industrial products

• Creating a brand is a long and expensive process

• Brand names and logos require constant management and rejuvenation

• Take into account where the brand name/logo will be used– Is it easily transferable to a range of media?

Branding StrategiesBranding Strategies

Marketers engage in numerous strategies to leverage strong existing brand names.

• Brand extensionBrand extension

• An existing brand extends to a new category with the same name.

•• CoCo--brandingbranding

• An alliance where two brands are put together on a single product.

A key issue with both branding strategies is perceived fit.

Logo Design and TypographicsLogo Design and Typographics

How a product or service name is presented—its logo—is very important.

Dimensions include:

•Naturalness

•Elaborateness

•Symmetry

Advertisements must perform two critical tasks:

AdvertisementsAdvertisements

� Capturing attention

� Conveying meaning

Simple, straight-forward advertisements can gain attention

AdvertisementsAdvertisements

Strategy examples can include:

� Utilizing stimulus characteristics to attract attention (bright colors or surrealism)

� Tying the message to a topic in which the target market is interested (relevance)

� Using humor, sex appeal, and celebrities in ways that are relevant to the product or message

The explosion of media alternatives makes it difficult and expensive to gain exposure to key target audiences.

It is essential to determine which media the consumers in the target market are most frequently exposed and place ad messages in those media.

Media StrategyMedia Strategy

Media strategy

1. Random approach

– To reach where the target market may be2. Selective approach

– To reach where the target market is– Focused media

3. Advertisements

– Utilise stimulus’ characteristics4. Package design

Advertising evaluation

• Exposure– Physically reach target market

• Attention– Attended to by the consumer

• Interpretation– Properly interpreted

• Memory– Stored, so it is retrieved under the proper

circumstances

Packages must also attract attention and convey information.

�Packaging has functional and perceptual components.

�Bright colors, taller packages, and unusual shapes can be used to attract attention, convey meaning, and influence consumption.

�Packages also contain product information and warnings.

�Ethical and legal considerations require marketers to place warning labels on a wide array of products such as cigarettes, alcoholic beverages, and many over-the-counter drugs.

Package Design and LabelingPackage Design and Labeling

bb chapter eight: perception

exposure types of exposure

random exposure

perception chapter

consumer perception

implications of perception

memory chapter

stimuli consumers

simplified model of

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