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“Clean“ wind power generation
Electric/mechatronic aspects and trends
Luca Peretti - ABB Corporate Research, 2012-04-04
Presentations
The wind energy sector – a bird’s eye view
What is ”clean” wind energy?
Mechatronic aspects of wind turbines
Control aspects of wind turbines
Reflections
Soft conclusion
Overview
© ABB Group
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 2
Presentations
© ABB Group
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 3
Some about myself….
Born in Udine, Italy, in 1980
M.Sc. In Electronic Engineering, University of Udine (Italy), 2005
Ph.D. in Mechatronics and Industrial Systems, University of Padova in
Vicenza (Italy), 2009
Post-doc, University of Padova in Vicenza (Italy), 2009-2010
Scientist, ABB Corporate Research, Västerås (Sweden), 2010-today
Member of the technical steering committee in the SWPTC
Member of reference group for Vindforsk projects
Member of the IET
© ABB Group
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 4
ABB – a multinational corporation Power and automation technologies
~133,600 employees in about 100 countries
2011 revenue: $ 38 billion
Formed in 1988, merger of Swiss and Swedish engineering companies
Predecessors founded in 1883 (ASEA) and 1891 (Brown Boveri)
Publicly owned company with head office in Switzerland
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 5
© ABB Group
$9.9 billion
$7.6 billion
$8.0 billion
$7.6 billion
Based on 2011 revenues
$4.9 billion
Power Products Power Systems Discrete
Automation and Motion
Process Automation
Low Voltage Products
ultrahigh, high and
medium voltage
products (switchgear,
capacitors, …);
distribution
automation;
transformers
electricals,
automation and
control for power
generation
transmission
systems and
substations
network
management
control systems
and application-
specific
automation
solutions for
process
industries
• machines
• motors
• drives
• robotics
contactors
instrumentation
panels
softstarters
ABB offers Divisional structure and portfolio
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 6
© ABB Group
Innovation: key to ABB’s competitiveness Consistent R&D investment
More than $1 billion invested annually in R&D*
Approx. 6,000 scientists and engineers
Collaboration with approx. 70 universities
MIT (US), Tsinghua (China), KTH Royal Institute of Technology (Sweden), Indian
Institute of Science (Bangalore), ETH (Switzerland), Karlsruhe (Germany), …
* Comprises non-order related R&D and order-related development
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 7
© ABB Group
ABB Corporate R&D – globally distributed
Power Technologies Automation Technologies
SECRC - Västerås (Oslo)
CHCRC - Baden-Dättwil
DECRC - Ladenburg
PLCRC - Krakow
USCRC - Raleigh
INCRC - Bangalore
CNCRC - Beijing and Shanghai
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 8
© ABB Group
Approx. 260 Employees
240 Scientists and engineers
135 Ph.D.
Power Technologies labs
High Voltage
High Power
Motor/machines test benches
Power electronics test benches
Insulation systems and materials
Automation Technologies labs
Mechatronics
Communications
Technology Support labs
Chemistry
Mechanics
c
ABB Corporate Research, Västerås Resources: brains and muscles
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 9
© ABB Group
Wind energy sector
A bird’s eye view on the market and (ABB’s) technologies
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 10
© ABB Group
Wind energy sector Growing… ?
China number 1, and growing
Very politically-driven market (financial crisis has a big impact)
Germany’s very ambitious plans are interesting… (but already behind schedule) (http://www.thenational.ae/thenationalconversation/industry-insights/energy/german-wind-energy-plans-in-the-doldrums)
From: http://www.wwindea.org/home/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=345&Itemid=43
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 11
© ABB Group
Offshore wind Mainly a European challenge so far
From [1]
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 12
© ABB Group
Offshore wind in Europe
Lot of plans, few installations done
Offshore is still a small percentage
Technological reasons behind it?
From [1]
From [1]
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 13
© ABB Group
ABB contribution to renewable energy Component supplier for wind power
Offering to wind turbine
manufacturers:
Generators and motors
LV and MV converters
LV and MV switchgears
Transformers
Control and protections
Low voltage products
Full life cycle management
to all products delivered
Sales to wind farm owners,
operators or developers:
Sub-stations
Transformers
Grid connections
AC and HVDC underground
and sea
Cables
System studies
Full life cycle management
to all products delivered
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 14
© ABB Group
Squirrel-cage induction machine (0-100% speed) Doubly-fed induction machine (±30% speed)
Permanent magnet DD machine (0-100% speed) Permanent magnet machine (0-100% speed)
Generators for different drive train concepts A complete coverage
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 15
© ABB Group
From [6]
Induction generators
Fixed-speed generators
Doubly-fed generators
Full-speed generators
Generator directly coupled to the grid
From single- to two-speed, air- and water-cooling, cast iron and welded housings
Typical rated speed 1000 – 1500 rpm, 4 – 6 poles
Normally powers from 1 MW to 2 MW
Direct on-line stator and a wound rotor connected to the grid using a frequency
converter, torque and speed ranges limited by the converter power rating
Typical rated speed 1000 – 1500 rpm, 4 – 6 poles
Normally powers from 1,5 MW to 5 MW
Welded modular construction
Fully controlled with variable speed, reactive power supply
High power quality and efficiency for the end user
Typical rated speed 1000 – 1500 rpm, 4 - 6 poles
Normally powers from 2 MW to 5 MW
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 16
© ABB Group
From [7]
Synchronous (PM) generators
Integration of turbine and generator.
Simple and robust low speed rotor design with no separate excitation or cooling system
High efficiency, simple and robust, lowest maintenance demand, maximum reliability
Typical rated speed 14 – 30 rpm, multi-pole
Normally powers from 1,5 MW to 3 MW
Slow speed system, single-stage gearbox.
Same simple and robust low speed rotor design with no separate excitation or cooling system
High power with small space requirement
High efficiency, simple and robust, low maintenance demand
Typical rated speed 120 – 450 rpm, multi-pole
Normally powers from 1 MW to 7 MW
Mechanically similar to the doubly-fed type with smaller space requirements
Highest power density with well-proven, high speed gear solution
High efficiency, no slip rings, low maintenance demand
Typical rated speed 1000 – 2000 rpm, 4 to 8 poles
Normally powers from 2 MW to 5 MW
Low-speed generators
Medium-speed generators
High-speed generators
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 17
© ABB Group
From [7]
Low-voltage (<1 kV) drives: ABB ACS800 family
ACS800-77LC - 0,6 to 3,3 MW
Robust grid code compliance
Nacelle or tower installation
Redundant configuration
available at higher ratings
ACS800-87LC - 1, 5 to 6 MW
Robust grid code compliance
Compact size, back-to-back configuration
Optimized for tower base installation
ACS800-67LC - 1,7 to 3,8 MW
Small and light weight
Lowest harmonics and highest
efficiency at rated point
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 18
© ABB Group
From [6]
Medium voltage (~3 kV) drives: ABB PCS6000 family
2011-08-23: first order from Global Tech I project (400 MW offshore wind farm, 110km
north-west of Cuxhaven, Germany)
80 wind turbines (Multibrid) of 5 MW each - provided by AREVA
$ 30 millions from AREVA Wind to provide 5MW-MV drives
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 19
© ABB Group
From [6,8]
What is “clean” wind
energy?
...or the “behind the scene” aspect
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 20
© ABB Group
“Clean” energy Is it this...?
From: http://www.greenpeace.org/eu-unit/Global/eu-
unit/image/2011%20pix/December%202011/turbine%20on%20the%20beach.jpg
From: http://www.cbc.ca/news/pointofview/WindTurbine.jpg
From: http://www.bettergeneration.co.uk/images/stories/blog/wind-eolic-turbine-in-hands.jpg
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 21
© ABB Group
“Clean” energy ...or this?
From: http://www.cbc.ca/gfx/images/news/photos/2011/07/07/li-rare-earth-mine-620rtxu1.jpg
From: http://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/2010/11/08/opinion/08rfd-image1/08rfd-
image1-custom2.jpg
From: http://andysrant.typepad.com/.a/6a01538f1adeb1970b0154361c515e970c-500wi
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 22
© ABB Group
Mechatronics aspects ...or wind turbines from the view of a power electronics engineer
(no grid aspects included)
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 23
© ABB Group
Wind turbines structures How did we get here
Picture from [2]
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 24
© ABB Group
Growing and growing… Foreseen problems?
Picture from [2]
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 25
© ABB Group
Inside a wind turbine The real mechatronic application
Picture from [2]
The turbine rotor rotates at low speed – approx. 5 rpm nominal
Depending on the drive train concept, the generator rotates either at low (15 rpm), medium-(300-
400 rpm) or high (1000-1800 rpm) speed
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 26
© ABB Group
A true mechatronic vision is needed
Design of
larger
generators
Maximum
efficiency
control
Mechanical
vibration
damping
Foundations
for offshore
Electrics Electronics Mechanics Civil Material
science
Vibration
damping
algorithms
Grid-fault
compensation
control
Flexible
blades design
Light-weight
materials
New
generator
concepts
Reliable
electrical
contacts
Results in each field stimulate
and benefit all other fields
Interdisciplinary exchange
and circulation of ideas is
essential
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 27
© ABB Group
Let’s start: cost breakdown of a wind turbine
Picture from [2]
Generator and power converter do not account for much of the cost… (so far)
The gearbox is indeed quite a big part of it
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 28
© ABB Group
The gearbox One of the most unknown things ever (for electrical guys)
From: http://www.designnews.com/document.asp?doc_id=230485
Mature product trying to enter a new market
One or more stages between the turbine rotor and the electric generator (epicyclical or
parallel axis type)
Mechanical multi-body simulations are performed by suppliers (but not available)
Source of noise (and failures)
Today, closer interaction with turbine manufacturers
From: http://eetweb.com/wind/gearbox-failure-fig1.jpg
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 29
© ABB Group
Noise from the gearbox
From: S. Li, D. Jiang, M. Zhao, "Experimental investigation and analysis for gearbox fault", Proc. of the World
Non-Grid-Connected Wind Power and Energy Conference (WNWEC), Nanjing, China, Nov. 5th-7th, 2010.
There might be some vibrations (mesh frequency and maybe others)
What happens during normal operation? And during a fault?
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 30
© ABB Group
The mechanical drive train
𝑑𝜔𝑟𝑜𝑡
𝑑𝑡=
1
𝐽𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝜏𝑟𝑜𝑡 − 𝜙𝐾𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑡 −
𝑑𝜙
𝑑𝑡𝐵𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝑑𝜔𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑑𝑡=
1
𝐽𝑔𝑒𝑛 −𝜏𝑔𝑒𝑛 +
1
𝑁 𝜙𝐾𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑡 +
𝑑𝜙
𝑑𝑡𝐵𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝑑𝜙
𝑑𝑡= 𝜔𝑟𝑜𝑡 −
1
𝑁𝜔𝑔𝑒𝑛
A classic mechanical engineering work
Quite different structures for different concepts (direct-drive, gearbox-based)
Surprisingly (or not?), few information available for high-frequency behaviour (above 100 Hz)
There might be some resonances... what happens when they are hit?
From: J. Sopanen, V. Ruuskanen, J. Nerg, J.
Pyrhönen, "Dynamic torque analysis of a wind
turbine drive train including a direct-driven
permanent magnet generator", IEEE Trans. Ind.
El., vol. 58, no. 9, Sept. 2011.
From: J. D. Grunnet, M. Soltani, T. Knudsen, M.
Kragelund, T. Bak, “Aeolus toolbox for dynamic wind
farm model, simulation and control”, Proceedings of
the European Wind Energy Conference and
Exhibition (EWEC) 2010, 20th-23rd April 2010,
Warsaw, Poland.
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 31
© ABB Group
The (twisting) tower…
Fore-aft oscillations:
𝜏𝑟𝑜𝑡 =1
2
𝑣𝑟𝑜𝑡3
𝜔𝑟𝑜𝑡
𝜌𝐴𝑟𝑜𝑡𝐶𝑝 𝜆,𝛽
From: T. Thiringer, J.-Å. Dahlberg, "Periodic pulsations from a three-bladed wind turbine", IEEE Trans. En. Conv., vol. 16, no. 2,
Jun. 2001
Side-to-side and fore-aft oscillations: impact on power generation
Side-to-side oscillations:
The sideways oscillation of the tower causes an
oscillating angular deflection of the nacelle and
thereby superimposes an apparent oscillation in the
rotating magnetic flux. This leads to a corresponding
power fluctuation.
Change of the equivalent wind speed over the rotor: change of torque
contribution from the wind source.
Torque produced on the shaft:
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 32
© ABB Group
The nature adds some wind effects
Wind shear and tower shadow effects
From: D. S. L. Dolan, P. W. Lehn, “Simulation Model of wind turbine 3p torque oscillations due to wind shear and tower
shadow”, IEEE Trans. En. Conv., vol. 21, no. 3, Sept. 2006
Variation of the wind field with the height Disturbance related to tower presence
http://www.geograph.
org.uk/photo/754033
Pitch systems
That’s what individual pitch control is used for!
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 33
© ABB Group
Designing the best generator…the PMSG case
𝑁𝑝 =2𝑝
𝐻𝐶𝐹 𝑄, 2𝑝
𝜏𝑐𝑜𝑔 𝜗𝑚 = 𝑇𝑘
+∞
𝑘=1
sin 𝑘𝑁𝑝𝑄𝜗𝑚 + 𝜑𝑘𝑁𝑝
From: N. Bianchi, S. Bolognani, “Design Techniques for Reducing the Cogging Torque in Surface-Mounted PM Motors”, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl.,
vol. 38, no. 5, Sept./Oct. 2002, pp. 1259-1265.
Let’s not consider issues like size or weight or mounting procedures
Cogging torque (for synchronous generators) could be an issue
Q: number of slots
p: pole pairs
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 34
© ABB Group
Designing the best generator…the PM case
From: J. Sopanen, V. Ruuskanen, J. Nerg, J. Pyrhönen, "Dynamic torque analysis of a wind turbine drive train including a
direct-driven permanent magnet generator", IEEE Trans. Ind. El., vol. 58, no. 9, Sept. 2011.
Best design for cogging torque reduction,
but not elimination
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 35
© ABB Group
The grid…why should it be perfect?
± 2% voltage unbalance
± 8,7% stator current unbalance
±7,8% stator active power unbalance
± 10,1% torque unbalance
± 0,5% DC-bus voltage unbalance
From: L. Xu, Y. Wang, "Dynamic modeling and control of DFIG-based wind turbines under unbalanced network
conditions", IEEE Trans. Pow. Syst., vol. 22, no. 1, Feb. 2007
Weak grids could introduce voltage asymmetries
Issue for doubly-fed generators (a superimposed 2nd-harmonic torque is generated)
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 36
© ABB Group
Put it all together An engineering miracle that it actually works
…but how do the components affect the turbine reliability?
ReliaWind Project: http://www.reliawind.eu/
EU funding within the frame of the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme
for RTD (FP7)
450 wind-farm months’ worth of data
350 onshore wind turbines operating for varying lengths of time
35,000 downtime events
”old type” turbines (probably no direct-drive concepts)
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 37
© ABB Group
Reliability & maintenance aspects
ReliaWind project – turbine failure rate
From: http://www.reliawind.eu/files/file-inline/110502_Reliawind_Deliverable_D.1.3ReliabilityProfilesResults.pdf
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 38
© ABB Group
Reliability & maintenance aspects Reliawind project - downtime
From: http://www.reliawind.eu/files/file-inline/110502_Reliawind_Deliverable_D.1.3ReliabilityProfilesResults.pdf
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 39
© ABB Group
Reliability & maintenance aspects Previous studies
From: http://www.reliawind.eu/files/file-inline/110502_Reliawind_Deliverable_D.1.3ReliabilityProfilesResults.pdf
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 40
© ABB Group
Interpreting the reliability figures...
Converters’ reliability should be improved
Pitch control is also very sensitive
Gearbox impact: to be further analysed (lot of effort from manufacturers
reported)
We should also don’t forget the scheduled maintenance (i.e. change of the oil
in the gearbox)
Do we gain something by changing the drive train concept?
High-speed, medium-speed or low-speed generators?
With or without gearbox?
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 41
© ABB Group
Drive train concepts The different approaches
Traditional concept: high-speed generator with gearbox
Direct-drive concept: low-speed generator, no gearbox
Medium-speed concept: medium-speed generator, reduced-stage gearbox
low raw material and investment costs
high full-load efficiency of the drive train
higher failure rate for high-speed components
(e.g. high-speed shaft and generator bearing)
no fast rotating parts, maybe higher reliability
higher partial load efficiency
more raw materials
Tries to combine the two above ?
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 42
© ABB Group
Magnets’ price variability Up and downs – direct impact on generators’ price
Picture from: http://aussiemagnets.com.au/pages/Rare-Earth-Magnet-Price-Increases.html Picture from: http://www.metal-pages.com/metalprices/neodymium/
Rare-earth materials’ price is going up and down
China dominates the market
Future?
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 43
© ABB Group
Control aspects Mainly converter ones, not pitch control ones
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 44
© ABB Group
The general picture Pitch control and generator control
Picture from [2]
Pitch control and torque control;
Pitch control: PLC level (turbine
manufacturer);
Torque control: frequency converter
(supplier)
Power references are accepted as
well for the torque control;
Speed-power-torque relationships
based on turbine and generator
characteristics;
There is one drawback from the
electric drive point of view. Where?
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 45
© ABB Group
The two cases: DFIG and PMSG
DFIG: converter connected to the rotor
windings, slip rings
Stator connected to the grid
Smaller converter size (roughly 30% of
the rated power)
PMSG: grid/generator interaction
only through the converter
Bigger size of the converter (rated
power)
Picture from [2]
Picture from [2]
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 46
© ABB Group
A conventional speed-power curve
Picture from [2]
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 47
© ABB Group
The importance of the limitations The PMSG case
Picture from [3]
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 48
© ABB Group
The importance of the limitations The DFIG case
Picture from [4]
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 49
© ABB Group
Grid-codes compliance
• Static and dynamic requirements to be fulfilled by a wind power installation
• Static requirements: voltage and power control, power quality (THD, flicker)
• Dynamic requirements: dynamic behavior under grid disturbance (fault ride-
through, FRT)
Picture from [3]
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 50
© ABB Group
Fault ride-through capabilities
Picture from [3]
Turbine connected during temporary faults. Requirements:
voltage dip length
behaviour with a balanced (symmetrical) dip
behaviour with an unbalanced (unsymmetrical) dip.
Depending on the country, the wind turbine:
has to stay connected to the power system for a certain time
may not take power from the power system
must produce capacitive reactive current as much as required.
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 51
© ABB Group
Reflections (Technical) tendencies and expectations on the turbine side
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 52
© ABB Group
Challenge 1 – The scaling of generators
Coping with: increased weight? Increased disturbances and vibrations? PM availability?
It is not only a raw material problem; it is also a production capacity issue.
Concept comparisons (3MW reference)
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 53
© ABB Group
Drive train
concept
Low Speed Full
Converter (LSFC) -Direct drive
Medium Speed Full
Converter (MSFC)
High Speed Full
Converter (HSFC)
Typical size70 tons 20 tons 8 tons
Relative
Production capacity
need
Per unit
4,5
(450%)
1,5
(150%)
1
(100%)
Efficiency
at nominal load
95,1% 98,2% 97,7%
Relative
Magnet weight 10 2,5 1
Drive train
concept
Low Speed Full
Converter (LSFC) -Direct drive
Medium Speed Full
Converter (MSFC)
High Speed Full
Converter (HSFC)
Typical size70 tons 20 tons 8 tons
Relative
Production capacity
need
Per unit
4,5
(450%)
1,5
(150%)
1
(100%)
Efficiency
at nominal load
95,1% 98,2% 97,7%
Relative
Magnet weight 10 2,5 1
Challenge 2: the offshore
From: J. Sheng, S. Chen, "Fatigue Load Simulation for Foundation Design of Offshore Wind Turbines Due to Combined
Wind and Wave Loading“, Proc. of the Non-Grid-Connected Wind Power and energy Conference (WNWEC), Nanjing,
China, Nov. 5th-7th,2010.
• Harsher conditions in offshore
• Wind AND waves effects!
• Water depth, soil stiffness: significant effect on
the fatigue load/bending
• Indirect effects on the drive train (vibrations)
• Control may have a bigger role
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 54
© ABB Group
Challenge 3: maintenance
http://www.rope-access-photos.com/picture/number395.asp
http://www.flightglobal.com/blogs/aircraft-pictures/assets_c/2009/01/Eurocopter-EC135.html http://images.pennnet.com/articles/pe/cap/cap_0705pe-dsc06925.jpg
Do we design with maintenance in mind?
What does the offshore challenge require?
How a different drive train topology affect
maintenance?
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 55
© ABB Group
Challenge 4 – Cold climate
Research to enhance power production in cold regions
Blades do play a big role
New materials, new concepts needed
Condition monitoring (not only for blades...)
Converters, generators could be affected by altitude
From: Ø. Byrkjedal - Kjeller Vindteknikk, “Detailed national mapping of icing”, Seminar on wind energy aerodynamics - icing
and de-icing of WT blades, KTH, Sept. 5, 2011 - Chalmers, Sept. 6, 2011,
https://document.chalmers.se/workspaces/chalmers/energi-och-miljo/vindkraftstekniskt/icing-de-icing/oyvind_byrkjedal
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 56
© ABB Group
Do not limit the fantasy Airborne turbines?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airborne_wind_turbine
Twind Savonius style
Aerogenerator X KiteGen
http://www.windpower.ltd.uk/index.html http://kitegen.com/press/kiwicarusel_hd_logo.jpg April 4th, 2012 | Slide 57
© ABB Group
Soft conclusion To ease the listeners before the discussion
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 58
© ABB Group
From: http://www.chalmers.se/ee/swptc-en
ABB support to academia
The right time for knowledge
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 59
© ABB Group
SWPTC partners
Universities
Chalmers University of Technology
Industries
ABB
DIAB
GE Wind
Göteborgs Energi
Marström Composite
SKF Sweden
Triventus Energiteknik
WindVector
Municipal/Regional/Government
Region Västra Götaland
Swedish Energy Agency
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 60
© ABB Group
SWPTC’s direct-drive wind turbine in Göteborg Main technical data
From: http://www.goteborgenergi.se/Foretag/Projekt_och_etableringar/Fornyelsebar_energi/Vindkraft/I_drift/Goteborg_Wind_Lab
Picture from Göteborg’s harbour
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 61
© ABB Group
Time-lapse video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jHn1n2tdnRc
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 62
© ABB Group
Thank you!
Picture from: http://blog.luciolepress.com/2010/08/05/funny-photo-a-sheep-a-wind-turbine-and-a-rainbow-in-germany.aspx
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 63
© ABB Group
References
1. “Wind in our Sails - The coming of Europe's offshore wind energy industry”, EWEA report, November 2011,
http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/documents/publications/reports/Offshore_report_web_01.pdf
2. ABB Technical application papers no. 13, ”Wind power plants”, ABB document 1SDC007112G0201 - 10/2011 - 4.000.
3. "ABB wind turbine converters - System description and start-up guide, ACS800-77LC wind turbine converters (840 to 3180
kW)", ABB document 3AFE68802237 Rev B EN 2010-10-25.
4. ABB wind turbine converters- System description and start-up guide, ACS800-67LC wind turbine converters, ABB document
3AUA0000059432 Rev A (EN) 2011-01-14
5. "ABB wind turbine converters - Firmware manual - Grid-side control program for ACS800 wind turbine converters", ABB
document 3AUA0000075077 Rev B EN 2011-05-26
6. “Products and services for wind turbines - Electrical drivetrain solutions and products for turbine subsystems”, ABB document
3AUA0000080942 REV A 18.5.2010 #14995
7. “Wind turbine generators - Reliable technology for all turbine applications”, ABB brochure 9AKK104735 EN 04-2009
Piirtek#14426
8. “Medium voltage for wind power PCS 6000 - full-scale converters up to 9 MVA”, ABB document 3BHS275725 E01
April 4th, 2012 | Slide 64
© ABB Group
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