asking research questions
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Asking Research Questions
Deductive, Inductive, and non-theory driven research
Some TerminologyPage 18 of Course Packet
• Independent Variable (IV)-variable that the research intentionally manipulates in order to observe its effect on the DV.
• Dependent Variable (DV)- measure of behavior used by the researcher t0 assess the effects (if any) of the IV.
• (example: Effects of Caffeine on Fine Motor Skills)
• Internal Validity- the degree to which differences in performance (the dependent variable) can be attributed unambiguously to an effect of the independent variable. (aka confounds or “threats to internal validity”)
• External Validity- the extent to which the results of a particular research study can be generalized to different populations, settings, and conditions.
• Deduction (to deduce) - to derive as a conclusion from something known or assumed (to go from a general statement or theory to specific predictions/observations)
• Induction- to assert or establish on the basis of observation of particular (specific) facts (to go from specific observations to more general theory or statement)
• Theory-an explanation, usually in general terms.
• Hypothesis/hypotheses- a specific, testable statement, often a prediction about what you expect to happen in your study.
• A theory explains events in general terms, while a hypothesis makes a specific statement about a specified set of circumstances.
Example: Theory/hypothesis• “Theory”: Caffeine will negatively affect a
person’s ability to perform fine motor skills.
• “Hypothesis”: People will produce more errors on a mirror drawing task as the number of cups of coffee they drink increases.
• You use deduction when you derive a specific hypothesis from a more general theory.
• You use induction when you take a set of specific findings and produce a more general explanation (a “theory”).
Theory Driven Research: Deductive & Inductive Research
ProgramsPage 19 of Course Packet
Theories serve two purposes in research:
• They guide scientific research by suggesting research hypotheses. (Deductive Research)
• They organize empirical knowledge. (Inductive Research)
These two purposes lead to two different types of research (deductive and inductive), both driven by theories.
• In Deductive research, the research uses already established theories to deduce a specific and testable hypothesis of the form
“I expect this will happen if……” (Deductive hypothesis)
• In Inductive research, the research gathers many specific findings (usually though performing multiple studies) and then uses these specific findings to create a more general explanation (a theory).
• The hypothesis is of the form: “I wonder what will happen if….” (Inductive
hypothesis)
The Cyclical Nature of Theory Driven Research
Page 20 of Course Packet
Step1: Finding an interesting topic
• Intro Psych text• Talk to others doing research in area of
interest• Take a course, attend seminars or
lectures• Do a literature search and read/explore
what is known about the topic.
Graham Wallas (1858-1932)1926 The Art of Thought
Four stages of the scientific process:1) Preparation2) Incubation3) Illumination4) VerificationStages 1-3 would all be part of the Step 1 in
the process of theory-driven research.
Step 2: Developing a Testable Hypothesis (review)
Hypotheses can be of two sorts: Deductive and Inductive
• Deductive Hypotheses are the way in which theories guide research (Form: “I expect this will happen if…”)
• while Inductive Hypotheses are the way in which theories organize empirical knowledge (Form: “I wonder what will happen if…”)
• A hypothesis cannot contain vague concepts such as “mentally disturbed” or “intelligence”. (need operational definitions)
• A hypothesis cannot be circular.
• A hypothesis is untestable if it appeals to ideas or forces that are not recognized by science (unobservable forces)
Step 3: Selecting a design and evaluating ethics
• Different designs map onto the different goals of a piece of research. (description, prediction, etc.). Pick a design that fits your goal.
• Identify a target population and a sampling technique.
• Perform a formal evaluation for ethical issues via review boards (IRB or IACUC). Must be done before ANY data are gathered, even “pilot” data!
Step 4: Implement study in a way that achieves unambiguous results
• Avoid “threats to internal validity”.
• Control some variables and yet strive for high “external validity”.
Step 5:Collect and Summarize Data
Use descriptive statistics to summarize and understand data.
• Measures of Central Tendency: mean, median, mode.
• Measures of variability: range, variance, standard deviation.
Step 6: Draw conclusions using Inferential Statistics
Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST)• Parametric statistics such as Student’s t-test or
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
• Non-parametric statistics such as Chi-square or Mann-Whitney U test
Step 7: Reject, Modify, Support
Based on your findings, you can choose one of three options:
• Reject your hypothesis showing a lack of support for your original theory or idea.
• Modify your original theory or idea based on your findings.
• Support your original theory or idea based on your findings.
ExampleStep 1: topic- “Stress causes illness” (general
statement)Step 2: Specific hypothesis- (thru operational
definition)- “I expect I will see an increase in visits to UHS during exam week.” (Deductive hypothesis)
Step 3-6: ethics approval, design choice, summarize/analyze results. Find increase in viral illnesses during exam week.
Step 7: Modify- Stress increases Viral illness
Non-theoretical Research (Radical Behaviorism)
• When you run into something interesting, drop everything and study it.
• Some ways of doing research are easier than others
• Apparatuses sometimes breakdownTheories are not necessary and can get in the way
of good research. Seek only to describe the functional relationships between/amongst variables
Non-theory driven researchB.F. Skinner, Radical Behaviorism
Goals of Scientific ResearchPages 40-49
1) Description: events and their relationships are defined classified, cataloged.
• Examples: DSM-IV TR 2000(diagnostic statistical manual of mental disorders, IV ed. TR 2000)
• Pace of Life Study (Levine 1990)
Pace of Life (Levine 1990) results
2) Prediction (correlation): occurs when measures vary together (co-vary) in a consistent way.
• Examples: GRE scores/undergraduate GPA as predictors of success in a graduate school environment.
• Ambady & Rosenthal (1993)
3) Explanation: (causal inference) requires three conditions:
• co-variation of events-when one changes, the other changes in a consistent way.
• time-order relationship- one event always precedes the other. Antecedent-consequent.
• elimination of plausible alternative causes- eliminate all “threats to internal validity”
“True Experimental Design”
4) Application: research designed to solve a problem, applied research
Quasi-experimental and Applied Behavior Analysis
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