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Challenge the future
DelftUniversity ofTechnology
Picture Source: www.nasa.gov
Solar Electricity
Arno Smets and Miro Zeman
Delft University of Technology
About myself
1974 born in Netherlands
1992-1997 Physics at TU Eindhoven
1998-2002 PhD TU Eindhoven
2002-2004 Post-doctoral Reseacher Helianthos Project
2005-2010 Researcher at AIST, Japan
2010-now Assistant professor at TU Delft
Photovoltaic Materials and Devices
Arno Smets
People
Photovoltaic Materials and Devices
Scientific Staff
4 Post docs 4 TechniciansSecretary
18 PhD students
Guests
~30 MSc students (15 final MSc project, 15 traineeship)
Challenge the future
DelftUniversity ofTechnology
Picture Source: www.nasa.gov
Outline
Introduction
Photovoltaics
PV Systems
PV technology
Summary
1INTRODUCTION
Humanity’s ten top problems
Source: Lecture Prof. R.E. Smalley (Rice University) at 27th
Illinois Junior Science & Humanities Symposium, 2005
for next 50 years
1. ENERGY2. WATER3. FOOD4. ENVIRONMENT 5. POVERTY6. TERRORISM & WAR7. DISEASE8. EDUCATION9. DEMOCRACY10. POPULATION
Humanity’s ten top problems
Source: Lecture Prof. R.E. Smalley (Rice University) at 27th
Illinois Junior Science & Humanities Symposium, 2005
for next 50 years
1. ENERGY2. WATER3. FOOD4. ENVIRONMENT 5. POVERTY6. TERRORISM & WAR7. DISEASE8. EDUCATION9. DEMOCRACY10. POPULATION
The Energy ProblemGrowing world
population
Increasing living standard:
Energy Shortage
Energy consumption per capita
Results in pressureon economy:
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Ann
. ave
rg. o
il pr
ice
(in 2
008
US
D)
Time
Jeopardizing our habitats:
Somalia
PakistanMexico
Russia
Climate change
“The weather makers”, Tim Flannery
The Energy Problem
Energy transition
Source: Lecture Prof. Moniz (MIT) at TUD 2010
50 years
is a characteristic time scale for change in energy mix
oilcoalgasnuclear powerhydroelectricitybiomass (traditional)biomass (advanced)
solar power (photovoltaics
(PV) & solar thermal generation (CSP)
solar thermal (heat only)other renewablesgeothermal
wind energy
year2000 2020 2040
200
600
1000
1400
2100
EJ/a
PV & CSPPV & CSP
Energy transition scenario
Source: German Advisory Council on Global Change, 2003, www.wbgu.de
About 100 years of practical use
Symbol of modernity and progress
Secondary form of energy
2 billion people without electricity
Electricity
Source: Google Images
Nuclear Gravitational
Hydro-tidal
Wind
Thermal
Chemical
Mechanical Electrical
Coal, oil, gas, biomass, hydrogen
Heat engines
Electric generators
Fuel Cells
η=90%
η<60% η=90%
Source: L. Freris, D. Infield, Renewable Energy in Power Systems, Wiley 2008
Electricity generation
Nuclear Gravitational
Hydro-tidal
Wind
Thermal
Chemical
Mechanical Electrical
SolarCoal, oil, gas, biomass, hydrogen
Heat engines
Electric generators
Photovoltaics
Fuel Cells
Solar thermal
η=90%
η<60% η=90%
Electricity generation
Source: L. Freris, D. Infield, Renewable Energy in Power Systems, Wiley 2008
oilcoalgasnuclear powerhydroelectricitybiomass (traditional)biomass (advanced)
solar power (photovoltaics (PV) & solar thermal generation (CSP)
solar thermal (heat only)other renewablesgeothermal
wind energy
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
15%
16%
19%
40%
10%
1/3
ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION
residential
industry
transmission losses
40%
47%
13%
conversion losses
2/3
oil
coal
gas
nuclear
hydro
Electricity generation 2007
fossiloilcoalgasnuclear powerhydroelectricitybiomass (traditional)biomass (advanced)
solar power (photovoltaics
(PV) & solar thermal generation (CSP)
solar thermal (heat only)other renewablesgeothermal
wind energy
65%
Electricity generation 2007
87%
World
oil
coal
gas
hydro 19%
nuclear 16%
oil
2%
coal
26%
gas 59%
wind 3%nuclear 4%biomass 6%
Netherlands20 202 TWh 103 TWh
Sorce: Eurostat
2009 edition , BP Statistical Review Full Report (http://www.bp.com/images)
25 Nuclear power plants
(0.5 GW)
Electricity:
20-25 kWh/d/p
Total Energy:
(gas,oil,etc.)
125 kWh/d/p
Energy transition scenario
Electricity as energy carrier
Living on renewables?
David JC MacKay“Sustainable Energy:Without the hot air”
Population density:
Netherlands: 16400000 41500 395 2530
Living on renewables?
Population density:
Netherlands: 16400000 41500 395 2530
0.016 W/m2
0.028 W/m2
0.067 W/m2
0.068 W/m2
0.22 W/m2
0.32 W/m2
0.57 W/m2
0.70 W/m2
1.2 W/m2
1.9 W/m2
2.0 W/m2
125 kWh/day/p
Requiredenergy per m2
Living on renewables?
Population density:
Netherlands: 16400000 41500 395 2530
0.016 W/m2
0.028 W/m2
0.067 W/m2
0.068 W/m2
0.22 W/m2
0.32 W/m2
0.57 W/m2
0.70 W/m2
1.2 W/m2
1.9 W/m2
2.0 W/m2
125 kWh/day/p
Requiredenergy per m2
0.11 %0.19 %0.45 %0.45 %
1.5 %2.1 %3.8 %4.6 %8.0 %12.7 %13.3 %
125kWh/day/pSurface area
required with 15 W/m2
technology
Living on renewables?
Netherlands: 16400000 41500 395 2530
0.016 W/m2
0.028 W/m2
0.067 W/m2
0.068 W/m2
0.22 W/m2
0.32 W/m2
0.57 W/m2
0.70 W/m2
1.2 W/m2
1.9 W/m2
2.0 W/m2
125 kWh/day/p
Requiredenergy per m2
Living on renewables?
0.11 %0.19 %0.45 %0.45 %
1.5 %2.1 %3.8 %4.6 %8.0 %12.7 %13.3 %
125kWh/day/pSurface area
required with 15 W/m2
technology
http://visibleearth.nasa.gov
Global demand 2010: 16 TWGlobal demand 2050: 32 TWSolar energy: 120 000 TW
Solar cell with 10% efficiency:1250 1250 km2
Solar Resources
2PHOTOVOLTAICS
Sun Solar radiation
Solar module
Electricity
Photovoltaics
(PV)
Source: A. Poruba
Solar cell
Solar cell
sunlight
electricityheat
Efficiency=Maximum electrical power out
Light power in
Photovoltaic industry
MW
Source: Photon International, March 2012
Global solar cell production
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
mono c-Sipoly c-Siribbon c-SiTF-SiCdTeCISrest
560 750 1257 181534% 68% 45%
69%2536
40%
4279
27381
85%
791056%
12464118%
37185
36%Thin-film
solarcells
Scaling production volume
Historical development of cumulative PV power:
EPIA
2009: Global Market Outlook For Photovoltaics
Until 2013
Photovoltaics
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 20100
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
29.6
39.5
3
22.9
0
15.6
6
9.49
6.98
5.40
3.96
2.84
2.26
1.79
Cum
ulat
ive
Inst
alle
d P
V C
apac
ity (G
W)
Year
China APEC Rest of World North America Japan European Union
1.46
Nederland 2003:46 MW (1.6 %)
Nederland 2010:97 MW (0.24 %)
Trend in installed power technologies
The European Wind Energy Association: Wind in power: 2011 European Statistics, 2012
EU power capacity mixSummary
The European Wind Energy Association: Wind in power: 2011 European Statistics, 2012
in MW in MW
Total ~580 GW Total ~896 GW
2010 Installed Cumulative Installed Capacity Share
(MW, %)
Photovoltaics
Nederland 2010 ~60 MW (0.15%)
PV module supply and demandsWorld wide supply -
demand
Source: EPIA
PV module supply and demandsWorld wide supply -
demand
Source: EPIA
PV module supply and demandsWorld wide supply -
demand
Source: EPIA
PV module supply and demandsWorld wide supply -
demand
Source: EPIA
PV module supply and demandsWorld wide supply -
demand
Source: EPIA
PV module supply and demandsWorld wide supply -
demand
Source: EPIA
PV module supply and demandsWorld wide supply -
demand
Source: EPIA
PV module supply and demandsWorld wide supply -
demand
Source: EPIA
PV module supply and demandsWorld wide supply -
demand
Source: EPIA
PV module supply and demandsWorld wide supply -
demand
Source: EPIA
PV module supply and demandsWorld wide supply -
demand
Source: EPIA
PV module supply and demandsWorld wide supply -
demand
Source: EPIA
PV module supply and demandsWorld wide supply -
demand
Moving from local markets to fast changing global markets
Source: EPIA
Photovoltaics
industry
Market 2011
Power [GW]
PV powerLatest news
The Guardian: May 30, 2012
Wednesday, May 30, 2012 May 30 –
Guardian: Solar power generation world record set in GermanyGerman solar power plants produced a world record 22 gigawatts
of electricity –
equal to 20 nuclear power stations at full capacity –
through the midday hours of Friday and Saturday, the head of a renewable energy think tank has said.
This met nearly 50% of the nation’s midday electricity needs.
The record-breaking amount of solar power shows one of the world’s leading industrial nations was able to meet a third of its electricity needs on a work day, Friday, and nearly half on Saturday when factories and offices were closed.
Electricity network of today
28 power stations in Netherlands
Future electricity network
3PV SYSTEMS
PV system
Two main types:
=~
Stand-alone system Grid-connected system
DC loadsPV
generator
Charge controller
Storagedc/ac
invertor
Grid
PV generator
=~
dc/ac invertor
AC loads
AC loads
PV system
Power electronics
The highly varying environmental conditions and nonlinear nature of the photovoltaic (PV) generator make the utilization of PV energy a challenging task:
Power electronics converters:
Reliable operating interface between renewable energy resources and the electrical power grid.
PV system
Markets/applications:
Grid-connected(building-)integrated
(1 kWp
–
1 MWp)
Rural
stand-aloneand local grid(10 Wp
–
10 kWp)
Power plants(1 MWp
-
1 GWp)
Source: W Sinke, Solar Academy
PV systems
Terminology and definitions
(Average) ac system efficiency
(STC) dc module efficiencyTypically 0.75 –
0.85
hours ac peak power per year
hours per yearTypically 0.09 –
0.11 in NL/DE
Power
(of cells, modules and systems) in Watt-peak (Wp
)
Performance ratio
=
Electricity yield
in kWh/kWp
(usually per year)
Capacity factor
=
Typically 750 –
900 kWh/kWp
for c-Si modules in NL
Grid-connected PV system
Overview biggest PV installations:
Power Location Description Commissioned Picture
100 MWp Ukraine,
Perovo
Perovo I-V PV power plant
Constructed by: Activ Solar
2011
97 MWp Canada,
Sarnia
Sarnia PV power plant 2009-2010
84 MWp Italy,
Montalto di Castro
Montalto di Castro PV
power plant
Constructed by: SunPower, SunRay
Renewable
2009-2010
82 MWp Germany,
Senftenberg
Solarpark Senftenberg II,III
Constructed by: Saferay
2011 http://www.pvresources.com/PVPowerPlants/Top50.aspx
Solar
Thermal
Power plants
Photovoltaics
Wind
Hydro
Biomass
Geothermal
Source: DESERTEC foundation
DESERTEC project
=~ AC
Components: 3×150 Wp
modules
M. Zeman, Delft
Grid-connected PV system
Grid-connected home PV system:
Solar irradiation on Earth
2 3 4 5 62 3 4 5 6
The Netherlands:
2.7 sun hours/day/year
Solar irradiation: solar irradiance integrated over a period of time
05
101520253035404550556065
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Gen
erat
ed e
nerg
y [k
Wh]
Month
Year 2010386.0 kWh
Grid-connected PV system
M. Zeman, Delft
Grid-connected home PV system: 3×150 Wp
modules
Cost in 2012:
Costs grid-connected PV System
M. Workum, PVMD, TU Delft
PV system is nowadays good investment!
Costs
€1030 Saves
per year: €115(500 kWh*€0,23/kWh)
EY=877 kWh/kWp
That’s
€2875 in 25 yearsA payback
period
of 9 years!
Costs grid-connected PV System
M. Workum, PVMD, TU Delft
PV system is nowadays good investment!
Above
€
6000 inverters
become
relatively
cheap
Average Dutch family
(3500 kWh @ €6800)
Cheapest
system (500 kWh @ €1030)
No installation or second inverter included. One year old data, prices are now even lower (see previous sheet)
Learning curve: PV modules, systems
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104
1
10
100
PV Module
A
vera
ge g
loba
l sal
es p
rice
(US
D/W
p)
Cumulative Installations (GW)
Source: Navigant Consulting
Learning curve: PV modules, systems
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104
1
10
100
PV Module
A
vera
ge g
loba
l sal
es p
rice
(US
D/W
p)
Cumulative Installations (GW)
Source: Navigant Consulting
PV System
Learning curve: PV modules, systems
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104
1
10
100
Non-modular costs
PV Module
A
vera
ge g
loba
l sal
es p
rice
(US
D/W
p)
Cumulative Installations (GW)
Source: Navigant Consulting
PV System
Learning curve: PV modules, systems
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104
1
10
100
Non-modular costs
PV Module
A
vera
ge g
loba
l sal
es p
rice
(US
D/W
p)
Cumulative Installations (GW)
Source: Navigant Consulting
PV System
29% Installation18% Inverter17% Maintenance16% Racking10% Wiring10% BOS, others
Non-Modular
Learning curve: PV modules, systems
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104
1
10
100
Non-modular costs
PV Module
A
vera
ge g
loba
l sal
es p
rice
(US
D/W
p)
Cumulative Installations (GW)
Source: Navigant Consulting
PV System
29% Installation18% Inverter17% Maintenance16% Racking10% Wiring10% BOS, others
Non-Modular
TF Silicon PV
4PV Technologies
Melt processing
First Generation
Sanyo, Silicon Hetero-Junction cell
Pure material: high efficiencies
Expensive processing:cost-price energy higher
PV technology: 1st
vs
2nd
generation
Plasma processing
Second Generation (thin film)
Lower quality material:lower efficiencies
Low costs processing:cost-price energy lower
NUON Helianthos
Silicon: record lab efficiency 20-27% Thin film: record lab efficiency 13-20%
PV technologies
c-Si wafer based
III-V semiconductor based
CIGS
CdTe
TF Si
1. Wafer based Si
2. Thin films
3. Cheap + efficient
Hillhouse and Beard, Curr. Opin. Colloid. In. 14, 245 (2009).
MC manufacturing costsSP average selling price
SI installed cost for a residential systemSIII installed cost for a utility scale system
PV technologies
Thin-film silicon solar cells
c-Si (180-250 μm)
p++ p++
Al Al
electron
hole
n+SiOSiO22
p-type c-Si
Al
Si-based solar cells
Solar cell
Semiconductor
hole
Si atomelectron
covalent bond
Metal front electrode
Metal back electrode
Incident light
Solar cell
Semiconductor
Incident light
hole
Si atomelectron
Metal front electrode
Metal back electrode
covalent bond
Solar cell
Semiconductor
hole
Si atomelectron
Metal front electrode
Metal back electrode
covalent bond
Solar cell
Semiconductor
hole
Si atomelectron
Metal front electrode
Metal back electrode
covalent bond
Solar cell
Semiconductor
hole
Si atomelectron
Metal front electrode
Metal back electrode
holecovalent bond
Solar cell
Semiconductor
hole
Si atomelectron
Metal front electrode
hole
Metal back electrode
covalent bond
Solar cell
Semiconductor
hole
Si atomelectron
Metal front electrode
Metal back electrode
P atom
covalent bond
Solar cell
Semiconductor
hole
Si atomelectron
Metal front electrode
Metal back electrodeB atom
P atom
covalent bond
Solar cell
Semiconductor
hole
Si atomelectron
Metal front electrode
Metal back electrodeB atom
P atom
covalent bond
hole
Solar cell
Semiconductor
hole
Si atomelectron
Metal front electrode
B atom
P atom
covalent bond
holeMetal back electrode
Solar cell
Semiconductor
Si atomelectron
Metal front electrode
B atom
P atom
covalent bond
holeMetal back electrode
Solar cell
Semiconductor
Incident light
Metal front electrode
Metal back electrode
Si atomelectron
B atom
P atom
covalent bond
hole
Solar cell
Semiconductor
Metal front electrode
Metal back electrode
Si atomelectron
B atom
P atom
covalent bond
hole
Solar cell
Semiconductor
Metal front electrode
Metal back electrode
Si atomelectron
B atom
P atom
covalent bond
hole
Solar cell
Semiconductor
Metal front electrode
Metal back electrode
Si atomelectron
B atom
P atom
covalent bond
hole
Solar cell
Semiconductor
Metal front electrode
Metal back electrode
Si atomelectron
B atom
P atom
covalent bond
hole
Solar cell
Semiconductor
Metal front electrode
Metal back electrode
Si atomelectron
B atom
P atom
covalent bond
hole
Solar cell
Semiconductor
Metal front electrode
Metal back electrode
Solar cell
Semiconductor
Metal back electrode
Incident light
electron
hole
Metal front electrode ARC
Solar cell
gap energy1.1 eV
generation
recombination
light
X
X
X
Main losses
Solar cell
Semiconductor
Metal back electrode
Incident light
electron
hole
Metal front electrode ARC
Additional losses
c-Si solar cell structure
Transmission
(finite α)
Reflectionn1 ≠
n2
Light TrappingSpectral Matching
Defect Engineering
Design principle of solar cells
Choice of MaterialMulti-junctions
Texture interfacesReflectors
Plasmonic Approaches
Bulk defectsInterface defects
Meta-stable defects
c-Si (180-250 μm)
p++ p++
Al Al
n+SiO2
p-type c-Si
Al
Thin-film Si (0.2 -
5 μm)
Si-based solar cells
Thin-film silicon solar cells
Thin-film Si (0.2 -
5 μm)
c-Si (180-250 μm)
p++ p++
Al Al
n+SiO2
p-type c-Si
Al
Si-based solar cells
Glass plate
TCO
p-type
Intrinsic a-Si:H
n-typeMetal electrode
a-Si (0.2-0.3 μm)
Thin-film silicon solar cells
Problem 2: mismatch single junction with solar spectrum
The a-Si:H
p-i-n
junction
Absorptiona-Si:H Does not cover entire spectrum!
The a-Si:H
p-i-n
junctionProblem 2: mismatch single junction with solar spectrum
The a-Si:H/μc-Si:H
tandem
Absorptiona-Si:H
Absorptionc-Si:H
Problem 2: mismatch with solar spectrum
Record ηst
(confirmed) 10.1% (a-Si) Oerlikon10.1% (μc-Si) Kaneka
Micromorph
(double)12.5% (a-Si/μc-Si) Oerlikon12.4% (a-Si/a-SiGe) USSC*
Triple-junction13.0% (Si/SiGe/SiGe) USSC*13.4% (a-Si/nc-Si/nc-Si) USSC13.4% (a-Si/a-Ge/nc-Si) USSC
Multi-junction approach
Glass plate
TCOp-type
Intrinsic a-Si:H
n-typeMetal electrode
a-Si/uc-Si (2.0-4.0 μm)c-Si (180-250 μm)
p++ p++
Al Al
n+SiO2
p-type c-Si
Al
Si-based solar cells
Thin-film silicon solar cells
n-typep-type
Intrinsic uc-Si:H
Learning curve: PV modules, systems
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104
1
10
100
PV Module
A
vera
ge g
loba
l sal
es p
rice
(US
D/W
p)
Cumulative Installations (GW)
Source: Navigant Consulting
Learning curve: PV modules, systems
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104
1
10
100
PV Module
A
vera
ge g
loba
l sal
es p
rice
(US
D/W
p)
Cumulative Installations (GW)
Source: Navigant ConsultingCdTe
(First Solar)
Thin Film PV:
Learning curve: PV modules, systems
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104
1
10
100
PV Module
A
vera
ge g
loba
l sal
es p
rice
(US
D/W
p)
Cumulative Installations (GW)
Source: Navigant ConsultingCdTe
(First Solar)Micromorph(Oerlikon)
Thin Film PV:
½
century of manufacturing history, ~90% of 2007 market
progressing by innovation and volume
reduction of manufacturing costs is major challenge
module efficiencies:
-
12 ~ 20% (now)-
18 ~ >22% (longer term)
PV technologies
Source: W Sinke
Wafer based crystalline silicon
low-cost potential and new application possibilities
positive impact of micro-
and nanocrystalline
silicon
efficiency enhancement is major challenge
stable module efficiencies:
–
6 ~ 11% (now)–
11
~ 16%
(longer term)
PV technologies
Source: W Sinke
Thin-film silicon
low-cost potential (partly already demonstrated)
positive impact of development of take-back and recycling systems
efficiency enhancement is major challenge
module efficiencies:
–
7 ~ 11% (now)–
10 ~ 15% (longer term)
PV technologies
Source: W Sinke
Cadmium Telluride
high performance & possibilities for multi-junction devices
reduction of manufacturing costs is major challenge; work on low-cost varieties
module efficiencies:
– 9 ~ 12% (now)–15 ~ 18% (longer term)
PV technologies
Source: W Sinke
Copper-indium/gallium-selenide/sulphide (CIGS)
Efficiency development
M. Green, Progress in PV: Res. Appl. 17, 347 (2009)
Averaged cost-price elements versus abundance in ore (2004-2009)
Cost price elements vs
abundancy
a-Si:H
thin film technology
Composition of the Earth’s crust
Composition of the Earth’s crust1st generation c-Si:
Si,O,Al,N,B,P
Composition of the Earth’s crust2nd
generation CdTe: Cd,Te,S,Al,Zn,O
Ratio Te/Si: 10-9
1 m2
cell 2μm CdTe
(50% =Te)1 m2
hole having depth
of (110-6/ 110-9 )~
103
m = 1 km
Composition of the Earth’s crustIII-V: Ga,As,Al,In,P,Ge,
Composition of the Earth’s crust2nd
generation CIGS: Cu,In,Se,Ga,Al,Zn,O,Cd,S
Composition of the Earth’s crust2nd
generation Dye-sensitized: Ti,O,Sn,Pt,C,O,H,N,S,Ru,I(and many more)
Composition of the Earth’s crust2nd
generation a-Si:H: H,Si,O,Zn,Al,B,P
TF turn-key
companies
0.35 €/Wp
Module efficiency: 10.8% guaranteed Record cell: 12.5 %
Yield > 97%Output: 120 MWp
Micromorphtechnology
Thin-film Si PV technology
Glass plates:
Industry hall, Thurnau, Germany
Application
Dutch route: Temporary superstrate solar cell concept
Development of unique low-cost roll-to-roll technology for fabrication of thin-film Si solar modules (started in 1996)
Helianthos
project
Flexible substrate:
Thin-film Si PV technology
Flexible substrate:
Flexible, lightweight, monolithically series connected a-Si modules
Thin-film Si PV technology
Presented by E. Hamers at the European PV solar energy conference Hamburg 6 sept. 2011.
Thin-film Si PV technology
7SUMMARY
PV technology
Summary
Direct conversion of light to electricity (PV) is an elegant process suitable for versatile, robust, low-cost technology; the global potential is practically unlimited
A wide range of technology options is commercially available, emerging or found in the lab
The first major economic milestone on the road to very large-scale use has been reached: grid parity with retail electricity prices
PV status in 2012
Summary
Production: -
dominant c-Si PV technology, 90% market-
large production capacity in China -
difficult time for thin-film PV technologies (TF Si, CIGS, CdTe)
Installation: -
highest contribution to newly installed power capacity in EU
Price:-
<1 €/Wp
; c-Si modules: 0.8-0.9 €/Wp
expectation 0.5 €/Wp
in 2015-
grid parity reached in Germany and Netherlands
Research trends-
increasing module efficiency (c-Si modules >20%)
PV technology
Challenges for TW scale implementation
turn-key system price < 1 €/Wp
(generation costs < 3-10 c€/kWh)- low-cost modules at very high efficiency (> 30%)
- add efficiency boosters (spectrum shapers), full spectrum utilization (advanced concepts)- or: very low-cost modules (<< 0.5 €/Wp) at moderate efficiency (>10%)
- polymer solar cells, nanostructured
(quantum dot) hybrid materials- Low BOS costs
use of non-toxic, abundantly available materials(preferably use Si, C, Al, O, N, …)
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indium replacement-
non-metallic conductors (Ag C?)-
all-silicon thin-film tandems
stability (20 to 40 years)
and
realibility-
intrinsic & extrinsic degradation of organics-based solar cells
Challenge the future
DelftUniversity ofTechnology
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Promising low-cost solar cell technology
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Industrial production experience (Flat panel display industry)
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Relatively low stabilized efficiencies (η ≈ 6-7%)
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Double-junction micromorph solar cell (η>10%)
ideal combination of materials (a-Si:H/μc-Si:H) for converting AM1.5 solar spectrum
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2008 production of modules 400 MWproduction capacity ~ 1000 MW
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Thin-film Si PV technology
Present status:
increase in TF Si module production
complete production lines available
Thin-film Si PV technology
Current developments:
short term: optimize micromorph tandem cell
long term: optimize triple cell, breakthrough concepts for high efficiency (η>20%)
Future developments:Oerlikon
Applied Materials
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