an economic essay on traditional handicraft industries by...
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39比治山大学現代文化学部紀要,第15号,2008Bul. Hijiyama Univ. No.15, 2008
Japan has been well known as a nation of handicraft. Hand made items used to be conventionally
divided into some such categories as traditional crafts, fine arts, mingei (folk-crafts), household
utensils and so on. Is it possible to make a sharp distinction between those and, if possible, then what
kind of criterion could be conceivable for the purpose? Even today, the definition of craft is not
necessarily definite and easy to identify.
We have some items which could, in many ways, time be classified into different categories.
Ceramics of the highest quality, for example, can at the same time be fine art, practical craft and
mingei as well. So-called traditional crafts include a wide range of objects which can be handmade in
whole or in part, by industrial process or by studio artists as well. They can be functional or non-
functional, and can hold a high or popular art status. The popular understanding of Japanese crafts
outlined here is based on the convention borrowed from Europe in the late 19th century.
Nevertheless, the definition of handicraft is not as clear-cut as one might expect, due to the fact that
art, visual culture and daily necessities developed in a different manner.
Some conventional ways of definition do not necessarily fit fairly enough with Japanese art
culture and as a result the current definition of Japanese crafts is somewhat more complicated than
its European counterpart. The typical one is an institutional separation of “craft" and “fine art".
Japanese art (fine art) and craft have sometimes been taken as synonymous, and in fact have
overlapped in a number of cases.
The purpose of this essay is to get better socio-economic understandings on craft businesses in
Japan from the viewpoint of traditional handicraft industries which include a wide range of
handmade objects. It is not without academic interest to study an essential feature of this genre.
Here is a need to sharpen the focus of the distinction among various genres of handmade articles. To
conclude in advance, the author can say that these concepts, from the viewpoint of economic theory,
can be and should be clearly distinguished one from another respectively.
I. Handicraft Industries in Japan
1. Handicrafts by definition
Handicraft is a type of work where useful and decorative items are made chiefly by hand or by
applying only simple tools. Handicrafts are generally considered more traditional work, created as a
An Economic Essay on Traditional Handicraft Industriesby Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTD-TEKI
KDGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal
佐 中 忠 司
Tadashi SANAKA
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necessary part of daily life. Handicraft items are intended to be used, worn, and so forth, having a
purpose beyond simple decoration. The term is also applied to traditional means of making goods.
Items made by mass production or machines are not handicrafts. In practical terms, the categories
have a great deal of overlap. The individual artisanship of the items is a paramount criterion; such
items often have cultural and/or religious significance. So-called arts and crafts, however, implies
more of a hobby pursuit, a demonstration and/or perfection of a creative technique. Usually, what
distinguishes the term handicraft from the frequently used category arts and crafts is a matter of
intent.
In a preindustrial community, it is said that artisans were the dominant producers of such goods
including furniture, clothing, jewellery, household items, and tools. Artisans traditionally work in media
such as wood, ceramic, glass, common and precious metals, basketry, textile, and leather.
Artisans employ creative thinking and manual dexterity to produce their goods that may be
functional or strictly decorative. It is well conceivable that manufacture by skilled hand and with hand
tools imparts unique and individual qualities to artisanal products, in contrast to mass produced goods
where every one is nearly identical. The term “craft" is often used to describe the family of artistic
practices within the decorative arts that traditionally are defined by their relationship to functional or
utilitarian products or by their use of such natural media as wood, clay, glass, textiles, and metal. Folk
art follows craft traditions, in contrast to fine art or “high art" and crafts practiced by independent
artists working alone or in small groups are often referred to as studio craft.
The decorative arts are often categorized in opposition to the “fine arts", namely, painting, drawing,
photography, and large-scale sculpture. Some distinguish between decorative and fine art based on
functionality, intended purpose, importance, status as a unique creation, or single-artist production.
Fine art is any art form developed primarily for aesthetics rather than utility. This definition tends to
exclude visual art forms that could be considered craftwork or applied art, such as textiles. The final
cause of fine art is the art object itself; it is not a means to another end except perhaps to please those
who behold it.
Applied arts refers to the application of design and aesthetics to objects of function and everyday
use. Fine art is seen as being distinct from applied arts, which presumably includes the more
commonplace crafts of the masses within the realm of the arts. Whereas fine arts serve as intellectual
stimulation to the viewer or academic sensibilities, the applied arts incorporate design and creative
ideals to objects of utility, such as a cup, magazine or decorative park bench. Since the Arts and Crafts
Movement at the turn of 19th century, the applied arts have increasingly gained in importance and
recognition.
2. A brief history of Japan’s craft industries
Crafts which had thrived under the patronage of daimyA, feudal lord, were in some places developed
into nationwide large-scale industries of the time. During the following period some crafts gradually
became extinct, while other crafts were supported by the new government. These crafts which were
regarded as important for export trade were strategically marketed by sending them to a series of
international exhibitions and traded through semi-governmental companies. Interest was aroused
further by the Japonisme trend propagated in the West. It is said that so-called “export crafts" of the
time had characteristics of modern technology and taste often reflecting Victorian excessive
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decorativeness and the contemporary design trend of Art Nouveau and were developed through
various channels.
Craft-based proto-design activities were also developed during this time. When the Ministry of
Agriculture and Commerce Exhibitions (NAShAmushABijutsu KAgei Tenrankai ) was set up in 1913,
one of its missions was to improve and activate export craft design. The Imperial Craft Association
(TeikAku KAgei Kai ) was established in 1926, modelled after the Deutsche Werkbund. The
government also sent students and envoys to the west to learn advance craft and industrial technology.
In 1928 the Ministry of Commerce and Industry established the Industrial Arts Research Institute
(KAgei ShidAsho) to take the official initiative in the research and development of export craft design
by taking advice from eminent western designers.
The TaishA(1912-1926) and early ShAwa (1926-1989) periods are often called the “golden period"
of the modern crafts movements. Arguably the most important modern craft movement was the
mingei (folk crafts) movement led by Yanagi SAetsu, which began in the 1920s. This movement
“discovered" functional daily crafts with simple natural beauty, made by anonymous craftspeople as
modern aesthetic objects. Yanagi’s mingei theory, which argues “quintessential Japaneseness" as
“modern", became the inspiration for both nationalists and Japanese craft artists. A number of
eminent studio craft artists representing Japanese modern craft emerged from this movement. While
the Japanese vernacular was searched, new types of studio craft artists who trained in art schools
emerged under the strong influence of modern movements such as Art Deco and Constructivism.
Their creative energy led to the publication of numerous craft magazines and the mushrooming of
avant-garde craft groups. The Japan Craft Art Association (Nihon KAgei Bijutsu Kai ) was established
in 1926. This was followed in 1928 by official recognition of modern studio craft through the addition of
a “craft art" section to the prestigious Imperial Arts Exhibition (Teikoku Bijutsu Tenrankai, based on
the earlier Bunten and launched in 1919 after the model of the French Salon), thereby recognising
craft as a “creative art" along with paintings and sculpture. This became a landmark for the modern
craft world.
During the Second World War craft activities were heavily politicised. In collaboration with the
Imperial Rule Assistance Association (Taisei Yokusan Kai ), national bodies such as the Industrial Arts
Research Institute and the Great Japan Crafts Association (Dai Nippon KAgei Kai, established in 1943
and later to become the Japan Arts and Crafts Control Association, Nippon Bijutsu Oyobi KAgei TAsei
KyAkai ) implemented the regulations and exerted control over craft makers. The aim was to promote
the creation of daiyAhin (substitute products) and a number of selected crafts deemed necessary for
daily use, made of non-precious materials.
One of the most important developments of the post-war period was the establishment of the Japan
Craft Association (Nihon KAgei Kai ) and the opening of the Japan Traditional Crafts Exhibition
(Nihon DentAKAgeiten) in 1955. At this time the government also set up an “honours listing" for
crafts and craft makers, governed by the Ministry of Education, awarding the titles of Important
Intangible Cultural Property (JuyAMukei Bunkazai ) and Living National Treasure (Ningen KokuhA).
In this way, traditional techniques and craftspeople have been protected from extinction. Studio craft
activities have been ever more diversified. The establishment in 1958 of the Nitten - Japan Fine Arts
Exhibition (Nihon Bijutsu Tenrankai, successor to the Teikoku Bijutsu Tenrankai of 1946) and in 1961
of the Association of Contemporary Craft Artists (Gendai KAgei Bijutsuka KyAkai ) created the two
An Economic Essay on Traditional Handicraft Industries by Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTB-TEKI KBGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal 41
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central organs of “creative crafts."
In 1953, as part of its efforts to develop Japanese craft and product design, the Industrial Arts
Research Institute became engaged in a project to develop “Japanese Modern" styles to accord with the
global “Good Design" movement. This led to the emergence of a new type of craft called kurafuto,
which occupied the space between studio craft and craft design/product design. Kurafuto sought to
create a contemporary mingei through the mass production of well-designed, functional and affordable
household crafts.
1956 saw the establishment of a national craft union known initially as the Japan Designer
Craftsman Association; it was renamed in 1976 as the Japan Craft Design Association. This national
craft union seeks to contribute to the development of the industries and enrichment of the cultural
standard of daily life in Japan through promotion of the trade of the knowledge and experience in craft
and design. It regularly exhibits works by members at an annual “New Craft Exhibition" at Matsuya
Department Store in Tokyo.
Another important organ is the Craft Centre Japan (CCJ), which was established in 1960 and holds a
permanent exhibition space at the Maruzen Bookshop in Tokyo, as well as spaces in Sapporo, Nagoya
and Okayama. CCJ displays newly-designed local household crafts with the aim of revitalising the
economy through the modernisation of local crafts by local designers. This aim is shared by the
ideology of the New Mingei (Shin Mingei ). In effect, the mingei movement has been subsumed by this
collective kurafuto movement and continuously developed to the present.
Within the frame of handicraft production after the war, the traditional handicraft industry has
been in a steady decline. Some items of new decorative designs including so-called studio craft are
emerging as art objects rather than functional utensils.
The Japanese Cultural Agency also has an independent program of promoting crafts that
complements the work of the Association. “Masterpieces" is the right word for many objects. Nowhere
else in the world is such lavish government support and consumer affection lavished on such small
objects: ceramics, lacquer ware, weaving, bamboo, paper, wood, metal work, even fans, umbrellas, art
dolls, ink, ink stones, ink brushes, and the list goes on. Often these are produced by “Living National
Treasures" (the Japanese words translate much more elegantly to “Bearers of Intangible Cultural
Assets"), bestowed by a government-appointed committee for each craft tradition on the truly
exceptional practitioner. All this had to be systematised in some meaningful way, so in 1987 the
Japanese government established the Japan Craft Forum.
(The outline of this part is a brief summary referring to an article Japan ‘OVERVIE' Traditional
crafts by Yuko Kikuchi )
II. MINGEI (folk crafts of Japan)
1. Evaluation of handicrafts: from William Morris to SEetsu Yanagi
It was about forty years later than the Arts and Crafts movement led by William Morris and his
followers in the UK and Europe that the mingei (folk crafts) movement flourished in Japan in the
period 1926 to 1945.
William Morris took art in all its manifestations as a life-affecting issue.
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‘He believed the most admirable and successful works were those designed specifically to suit their
purpose and that beauty was the natural result of hard and honest labour. Improving design and the
conditions and manner of artistic production provided a panacea for correcting social injustices and
the basis of his philosophy for a just and worthwhile life. To paraphrase, he believed that contented
and valued workers could not help but produce admirable art and, as a result, a happier and more
beautiful world.'
‘He set high standards but loved nothing better than to be totally involved in manual work which he
described as “delightful ... hard on the body but easy to the mind". He loved to work in groups of
friends or alongside his own employees, and when establishing his workshops ensured that the
conditions were good and the work as enjoyable as he could make it.'
‘Many Arts and Crafts designers and crafts workers copied these ideas but it was the ethical spirit of
work, the intellectual and psychological underpinning behind almost everything that Morris believed
and practised, that remains his greatest legacy.'
(Linda Parry ‘William Morris and the Arts and Crafts Movement’, 2008-2009).
The mingei was almost equivalent to, and in many aspects directly inspired by, these western
parallels. Its underlying aim was to preserve and revitalise rural folk crafts, and through them to
establish a new aesthetic in modern crafts.
‘The ideologies of the Mingei movement, which found beauty in everyday objects (one of the main
characteristics of Arts and Crafts throughout the world), were channeled through the founding of
museums, the practices of collecting, the publication of journals and manifestos, the formation of
craft associations, and through exhibition and display. The concept of the home as the environment
in which the ideas and philosophies of the Mingei movement could become relevant to contemporary
life was also central to the way the Arts and Crafts Movement manifested itself in Japan.'
‘In the period following the Second World War, their work laid the foundations for the development
of a new European crafts movement which stressed the importance of handcraft and emphasised the
role of the individual maker. In Japan the concept of Mingei and the importance of crafts remained
central to its sense of place, while in other countries crafts also flourished.'
(Karen Livingstone ‘Morris to Mingei ; the Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain, Europe and
Japan,' 2008-2009).
2. What is mngei (folk crafts of Japan)?
2-1. Definition and brief history
Before so-called pre-industrial periods, items necessary for daily life had been produced by hand.
Such items as clothes, household utensils, furniture and so on used to be handmade presumably by local
people. Among everyday ordinary and utilitarian objects produced by nameless and unknown
craftsmen, some kind of beauty surged up as a matter of wide concern among aesthetic critics and
activists. The idea and activity has gradually culminated in the mingei movements. The term mingei
was a new word coined in the mid-1920’ by Soetsu Yanagi and his fellow enthusiasts.
Mingei is, thus, (1) utilitarian oriented and (2) commonplace ordinary or a “normal" thing. The term
was applied to refer to handmade products, for the most part, by unknown craftsman for use by
An Economic Essay on Traditional Handicraft Industries by Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTB-TEKI KBGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal 43
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ordinary people in their everyday lives --- works, that is, made by people for the people. Mingei
(standing for minshu-teki kAgei ) is translated as “folk crafts" in English. Although the philosophical
pillar of mingei is “hand-crafted art of ordinary people” or “people's art", votaries involved put
comparative emphasis on the utilitarian aspect, rather than “folk arts."
Those who make mingei items are not notable individuals, but nameless craftspeople. What is made
is not to be displayed but to be appreciated by everyday usage. They are regular indispensable things
made in quantity and affordably priced. The nature of mingei is borne from the community’s way of
life. However, mingei is not every single inexpensive necessity you see lined on shop shelves. Mingei
must be honest to its utilitarian purpose.
2-2. Categorical criteria
Handicrafts in general are not necessarily mingei, if the concern in decoration and ideas preceded
utilitarian basics. Mingei items must be: I. honest to utility and “healthy" in form, II. particular about
quality, III. produced without being forced, artificial or self-imposing, IV. conscientious of the user.
(SAetsu Yanagi ‘Proposition on Mingi')
The following is regarded as some important criteria of mingei arts and crafts:
‘made by anonymous crafts people, produced by hand in quantity, inexpensive, used by the masses,
functional in daily life, and representative of the region in which it was produced.' (‘mingei', from
Wikipedia).
‘For these reasons, mingei must be faithful to everyday life and “health" both physically and
spiritually'.
‘The true is your true companion for life. It has the virtue of being useful, dependable, convenient,
and comforting to live with. It has the affection to grow on you. Mingei is therefore natural, genuine,
simple, durable, and safe.' (SAetsu Yanagi ‘Proposition on Mingi') ‘For nothing is healthier than
normal things.'(SAetsu Yanagi, Folk-crafts In Japan)
2-3. The specific characteristics
(a) spirituality
Yanagi went into particulars why he paid special attention to the spirituality accompanying mingei :
Normal: Handicrafts by the craftsmen have been neglected because of the normality of their beauty.
The folk crafts were made to be ordinary. As a Buddhist monk said; “The everyday norm is truth."
Ordinary and normal qualities are the secret of beauty.
Natural: The craftsmen are not conscious of creating beauty. They do not now what they are doing;
their hands work unconsciously and naturally. That is why folk crafts are natural and unassuming,
without any intentional touch or unnatural, contrived twists.
Healthy: The beauty of folk crafts is health, calm, quiet and unpretentious. Folk crafts are well-
formed and built so as to suit everyday uses. There is no eccentricity nor abnormality in the folk
crafts.
Non-Egocentric: Art objects are often the products of egocentric ideas while folk crafts are the
works of unknown craftsmen who do not have any self-consciousness during working time. The
beauty of folk crafts is the beauty of non-individualism.
Simplicity: Folk crafts are made simple in shape, in color and in design. There is not any surplus of
decoration in folk crafts, which are made in quality with simple techniques to keep costs low. Folk
佐 中 忠 司44
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crafts are simple, plain and functional.
Intimate Mood: Since folk crafts are simple and unassuming, they give us an intimate feeling,
creating a homelike atmosphere, which one cannot find in the work of individual artists.
Freedom: Folk crafts are made freely and nonchalantly by craftsmen who have no ambitious aim of
creating a masterpiece, and who rather enjoy themselves working. The craftsmen do not care about
unevenness or imperfection of their works, while an artist aims to make things perfect and spotless.
The free attitude of the craftsmen creates the beauty of spontaneity and vitality.
(SAetsu Yanagi ‘The Collection of the Japan Folk Crafts Museum’, Expo’ 70).
(b) the Buddhist concept
Furthermore, the craftsmen did not attempt to create the products with their imagination; instead,
they followed faithfully and blindly the traditional way of making which was the crystallized golden
rule set up by their ancestors’ experiences and wisdom acquired over generations. Each pattern, each
design, and each glaze was not a new experimentation, but the result of tradition. The beauty of folk
crafts is not attributed to the talent of any genius. It is not the outcome of intellect or of individual
expression. The beauty of these unknown craftsmen’s works is attributed to the “other-power"
(tariki), that is to say, a simple belief in tradition. With practically no exceptions, folk crafts are
beautiful; it is difficult to find any bad, or degenerate works among them. (SAetsu Yanagi `The
Collection of the Japan Folk Crafts Museum’, Expo’ 70).
A national tradition is normally experienced, in practice, via the outer shapes of things, but this
carries with it the danger that tradition, in time, will degenerate into the preservation of empty forms.
The most important thing here is the strength of the roots that lie hidden beneath the ground even
before any visible form becomes apparent. Tradition, to use another metaphor, might be likened to an
underground supply of water that lies beneath our feet waiting only to be dug for; it is not a supply
channeled in overground from some other source, but a spring ever welling up from the depths of the
earth, a spring that is ancient yet eternally brimming with new life. (Supplement by ShAji Hamada to,
Japan Folk Crafts Museum, Expo’70).
Reflecting on this process, Yanagi concluded that beauty was not the result of any conscious intent
but was born of chance and the cumulative skill of generations of unknown artists. He saw this process
as akin to the Buddhist concept of tariki, the attainment of salvation not through one’s own merits but
through complete reliance on the Buddha’s mercy. (‘folk crafts’, JAPAN An Illustrated Encyclopedia,
1994).
According to his idea, the most crucial things with mingei are “the true spirit of the traditional
styles" and “the craftsman’s attitude to his work". Yanagi theorized that the arduous repetition of
work brought total disengagement of self; no hesitation, anxiety, or ambition in creation. Submissive
reliance on tariki (other power) or the “Greater Power" resulted in the production of warm items
through the medium of man. Yanagi accounted tradition ― the accumulation of wisdom and
experience ― as the “Given Power" that enabled the individual “to produce work of astonishing merit
with the utmost ease." (The Japanese Folk Crafts Museum )
Yanagi described the beauty of mingei with words such as wholesome, honest, natural, innocent,
free, simple, and pure. It is a quality that lies in what he called the “Eternal Now," a state in which all
dual distinctions, such as old and new, are eliminated. (MINGEIKAN HISTORY, HISTORY - Japan
Folk Crafts Museum)
An Economic Essay on Traditional Handicraft Industries by Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTB-TEKI KBGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal 45
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Mingei is the highest combination of utility and beauty. Yanagi had an exceptional eye for true
beauty and found the heart of beauty in people’s everyday craft. He had the insight to notice the
significance of the arts and crafts as the source of beauty in every person’s everyday material and
spiritual life. His gospel of sincerity and beauty to enrich everyone’s lives developed and expanded
throughout Japan and then to the world as the mingei movement. (SAetsu Yanagi ‘Proposition on
Mingei ’, MINGEI: 1995).
(c) “folk arts” as compared with fine arts
The products are those of the unelaborated art of craftsmen, and not works of art by geniuses. The
consumers of these products are also the general populace. The history of art is the biography of a few
geniuses, and the works of the great multitude of artisans are forgotten before they are recorded on
the pages of history. Not pure aestheticism, but usefulness, is the primary consideration. And because
it is useful, it has been given a place inferior to the fine arts.
Not beauty for beauty’s own sake, but beauty answering all immediate needs of life - that is the
essence of ceremonial tea. And the votaries of cha-no-yu have chosen their tea-things from among
them. For cha-no-yu is not an aesthetic of the eye alone: beauty is also found in usefulness. In brief, it
may be defined as an aesthetic of actual living, and one in which utility is the first principle of beauty.
And that is why great significance has been attracted to certain articles necessary for everyday life.
One distinguishing feature of our aesthetics appreciation, as compared with that of Western
appreciation is the emphasis we place on the things of immediate use in living. Why do we pay so much
for mere containers for tea drinking? Because to us they are as artistic and beautiful as painting and
sculpture. No other people in the world attach as much importance to things of daily use as the
Japanese. (SAetsu Yanagi, Folk-crafts In Japan, 1936).
Then, what is the nature of the beauty of peasant ware which has been discovered by those tea-
masters who posses a high degree of aesthetic sensibility? This is an interesting consideration. In the
first place, such ware is non-individualistic. The vessels were made not by a well-known artist but by
many persons in a like manner into a like shape. In other words, it is tradition, and not individuality,
that characterizes people’s art. The handicraftsmen of olden times were faithful to the tradition of
their fathers. As in mediaeval Europe art meant adherence to tradition, so in the East all works of arts
and crafts were governed equally by common principles. As a result, no work of people’s art is signed
by the creator.
In the realm of people’s art, all efforts to attribute a particular work to a definite artist - which is a
great concern of the art historian - are quite useless. The highest virtue of the beauty of people's art
is its non-individuality. (SAetsu Yanagi, Folk-crafts In Japan , 1936).
‘By folk crafts I refer-chiefly to handcrafts of pre-industrial periods. I feel that modern machine-
made products are not the expression of the people, but rather the result of commercialism. Until
recently, man was apt to think that only the fine arts are essential in the realm of beauty. However, I
found in folk crafts an important key to solve the question of beauty, they are healthy, natural,
simple, unpretentious, and beautiful. (Supplement by ShAji Hamada to, Japan Folk Crafts Museum,
Expo’70).
Utility was the main characteristic of these crafts; therefore they were made functionally and
佐 中 忠 司46
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practically in order to endure the rough handling of everyday use. Since the craftsman had to produce
them at low cost and in quantity, they were obliged to work hard in repeating the same type of process
over and over again. This repetitious exercise made the craftsmen skilful in technique, compared with
individual artists who work on single objects of art one at a time.
‘Through seeing the collection of folk crafts at the Japan Folk Crafts Museum, you will understand
and appreciate the beauty of unknown craftsmen’s works which has been neglected for many years.
Seeing the objects without any prejudice or any distorted information is very important in order to
penetrate their beauty and to discover their charm.’
‘I sincerely hope that you will view the collection of this Museum with your eyes and with your heart,
not with your brain nor with your knowledge.’ (Supplement by ShAji Hamada to, Japan Folk Crafts
Museum, Expo’70).
Based on these theories Yanagi coined the term mingei to differentiate between bijutsu, or fine art,
which he saw created for aesthetic appreciation alone, and kAgei, or utilitarian craftwork made for
practical use.
3. Beautility
An idea of mingei was originally brought about from discovery of the sincerity of handicrafts people.
Due to their wholesome, pure and healthy characteristics, it is said that “the most beautiful objects
were the products not of individual artists but the collective genius" of the ordinary artisans. (‘folk
crafts', JAPAN An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1994).
Utilitarian objects by common people are expected to emerge as beautiful as well and, thus, its
beauty emanates from the item’s purpose and utility. It must fundamentally be healthy and free from
artificial contrivance of the craftspeople.
‘But utility is a necessary part in the completeness of life, and in order that beauty may be brought
into life, crafts - so far neglected -must play a vital part. I, for one, attach great importance to the
alliance of Beauty with daily Life.' ‘Utility, all would agree, is the first characteristic of people's
art.'
(SAetsu Yanagi, Folk-crafts In Japan , 1936).
No matter what the handicrafts, so far as they are authentic ones, any objects can be indigenous
artistic sources for so-called beautility (*) accordingly. Thanks to these ideas, beautility of handicrafts
by the people and for the people can arguably supersede the beauty of articles used by the people of
upper class, which are exhibited in most museums.
(*) beautility is a compound word made up of beauty and utility.
Yanagi explored enthusiastically why he put a special importance to the so-called beautility.
‘As these workers of people's art were originally meant to be useful in daily life, they would not
serve the purpose if they were over-adorned and over-decorated. These utensils are
characteristically simple in shape, in colour, and in design. Simplicity may be thought of as being
An Economic Essay on Traditional Handicraft Industries by Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTB-TEKI KBGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal 47
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characteristic of cheap things, but it must be remembered that it is a quality that harmonizes well
with beauty. That which is truly beautiful is often simple and sparing.’ (SAetsu Yanagi, Folk-crafts
In Japan, 1936).
According to him, the way of approach of modern European art history was inadequate in
understanding mingei, because it used to put emphasis on the creativity of individual artists.
4. The tradition inherited and modern
Even in the modern type of mingei, the fundamental soul is still expected to remain as the true spirit
of the traditional styles.
The displays have been divided into three main sections. The first focuses on old folk crafts, while
the second is a selection of works of today that inherit the old, traditional techniques. Where the one
brings home even more strongly the strangely modern appeal of the old, the other is a reminder that
even today excellent work is being produced in the true spirit of the traditional styles. (Supplement by
ShAji Hamada to, Japan Folk Crafts Museum, Expo’70).
In his book The Unknown Craftsman (outside link), Yanagi writes:
‘On reflection, one must conclude that in bringing cheap and useful goods to the average household,
industrialism has been a service to mankind - but at the cost of the heart, of warmth, friendliness
and beauty. By contrast, articles well made by hand, though expensive, can be used in homes for
generations, and thus considered, they are not expensive after all.'
‘In the wake of the great tide of industrialism in the early part of the last century, something of the
human touch and spirit was lost in everyday articles of use. It was with a sense of urgency that
Yanagi and his lifelong companions, the potters Bernard Leach, Hamada ShAji, Tomimoto Kenkichi
(who later left the Mingei group) and Kawai Kanjiro sought to counteract the desire for cheap,
mass-produced products by pointing to the works of ordinary craftsmen that spoke to the spiritual
and practical needs of life.’ (MINGEIKAN HISTORY, HISTORY - Japan Folk Crafts Museum)
Thus the mingei movement had three objectives: the collection and display of folk crafts, a thorough
survey and study of mingei in Japan, and financial assistance to declining mingei arts along with the
organization of craftsman to engage in the production and sale of authentic mingei articles. The first
objective was realized with the establishment of the Japan Folk-Craft Museum in Tokyo in 1936.
Surveys of folk crafts in Hokkaido and Taiwan during World War II resulted in Yanagi's posthumously
published Teshigoto no Nihon (1972, Handicrafts in Japan), and periodicals devoted to crafts helped
disseminate the ideals of the mingei movement in Japan. With the third objective, however, the mingei
movement was less successful. (SAetsu Yanagi ‘The Collection of the Japan Folk Crafts Museum',
Expo’70).
However the significance of the mingei movement may be seen in its anti-modern tendencies,
Buddhist influence, and emphasis on regional and ethnic culture. (‘folk crafts’, JAPAN An Illustrated
Encyclopedia, 1994). Use of the term mingei spread rapidly, and by now it is a household word in
Japan. Unfortunately, however, worthwhile folk craft products, both old and new, have become
increasingly scarce. On the other hand, a flood of work is being turned out which, though superficially
佐 中 忠 司48
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in the folk craft style, is in fact calculated to give a false idea of its true nature.
5. Folk crafts’ and handicrafts
According to Yanagi, the character of kAgei was defined, first, by yA(use or function): kAgei objects
must be simple and sturdy to function effectively. Second, kogei objects must be produced on a large
scale at low prices. Third, the beauty of authentic kAgei is created by anonymous laborers who have
honed their skill by turning out large numbers of articles without thought of self-expression. Fourth,
handcrafted kAgei objects are superior to those made by machine. (‘folk crafts’, JAPAN An Illustrated
Encyclopedia, 1994). By the early 20th century, however, with the introduction of synthetics and
increasing reliance on machinery, folk crafts began to decline. Folk crafts in Yanagi's sense of the
term have nearly become extinct in Japan.
However, folk traditions in a broader sense are thriving. Under the Cultural Properties Law of 1950
the concept of cultural assets (bunkazai ) was revised and broadened, encouraging governmental
participation in the preservation of folk knowledge, folk performing arts, games, and folk utensils
(mingu) used for making clothing, food, and shelter, and in trade or communal life. (‘folk crafts',
JAPAN An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1994). Adherents of the mingei movement revered products that
expressed regional and ethnic distinctions and claimed that the Japanese central government was
ruining local culture and encouraging its absorption by a uniform society. (‘mingei', The Kodansha
Bilingual, 1998).
Yanagi saw kAgei as a broader term than mingei: kAgei included objects made by machine and by
individual artists, as well as “aristocratic" works. But he also claimed that the best of kAgei belonged to
the category of mingei. Second, kAgei objects must be produced on a large scale at low prices. Third,
the beauty of authentic kAgei is created by anonymous laborers who have honed their skill by turning
out large numbers of articles without thought of self-expression. Fourth, handcrafted kAgei objects are
superior to those made by machine. (‘mingei', The Kodansha Bilingual, 1998).
Folk crafts are generally classified in the categories of ceramics; wood and bamboo articles; metal
and leather objects; dyeing and weaving; paper; and painting, sculpture, and calligraphy. Numerous
types of paintings and religious sculptures are considered representative of Japanese folk crafts,
although in these categories there are different opinions about what is and what is not folk craft.
(According to Yanagi’s somewhat personal and subjective criteria, Otsu-E are included among folk
arts where as Ukiyo-E are not.) Present designations of what can be considered mingei should not be
accepted as final, since scholars may develop a more comprehensive method of categorization in the
future. (‘folk crafts’, JAPAN An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1994).
Items created with commercial motives are dishonest to its purpose. Items made in fashion are
elegant and refined and often based on distinct preferences. (SAetsu Yanagi ‘Proposition on Mingei',
MINGEI : 1995). Among a number of handmade objects, distinguishing features of mingei as compared
with those of the rest lie behind the spiritual stance of votaries involved, especially that of artisans.
SAetsu Yanagi puts the most important stress on the spiritual attitude with which handmade articles
are to be made; that is, of selfless unknown craftspeople or of self-assertive artistic craftspeople. Here
lies the vital distinction between so-called mingei (folk craft) and art crafts even if their apparent
beauty bears a close resemblance or overlap.
An Economic Essay on Traditional Handicraft Industries by Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTB-TEKI KBGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal 49
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6. Traditional handicraft as “fine art”
“The Japanese Traditional Crafts" is the term which used to be applied by The Japan Crafts
Association (Nihon KAgeikai ). The Japanese Traditional Crafts Exhibition (Nihon DentAKAgeiten)
celebrated its 50th anniversary in the autumn of 2003.
The production of hand-crafted items historically fostered in different parts of Japan developed
under the programme of modernization instituted during the Meiji period (1868-1912) into what may
be called a traditional crafts industry. At the same time, inspired by developments taking place in
Europe, Japan saw the rise of artist-craftsmen and the pursuit of individualistic expression through
the making of crafts. The term traditional crafts as it is used in Japan today covers all of these
activities.
In the 1940s, when Japan was suffering from severe shortages and the desolation of its people
following the ravages of the Second World War, the traditional crafts industry was on the verge of
extinction.
Re-establishing the foundations of Japanese society and encouraging industry were of the utmost
urgency, and in 1950 the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties was enacted in order to help
rebuild and reaffirm Japan’s unique way of life and system of spiritual values. Every year since 1954,
the Japanese Traditional Crafts Exhibition has carefully selected works in accordance with the
commitment to “protect and foster crafts which have high historical or artistic value" encoded in the
Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties.
Traditional crafts industries in the regions began a belated recovery in the latter half of the 1950s.
Since then, however, mass production, mass consumption, globalization and recession have all taken
their toll on the industry’s business trend. While the Traditional Crafts Exhibition has prevailed for 50
years despite these circumstances, the situation today, which is marked by a relentless decline of
support for traditional crafts resulting from rapid changes in people’s values, is once again critical.
Traditional crafts have been deeply rooted in the everyday lives of the Japanese people. The changing
of the way of lives, which are clearly differentiated in Japan, have always been reflected in the choice
of designs and materials, as has been sensitivity to the feelings of others, another virtue of Japanese
culture. To understand traditional crafts, manifestations that they are of many of Japan's most
essential qualities, is to understand Japanese people better and their culture as a whole.
So-called studio pottery is made by modern artists working alone or in small groups, producing
unique items or pottery in small quantities, typically with all stages of manufacture carried out by one
individual. As is often the case with craft, much studio pottery is tableware or cookware but an
increasing number of studio potters produce non-functional or sculptural items. The Arts and Crafts
movement has played a significant role in the formulation of the studio crafts due in large part to the
Arts and Crafts movement’s emphasis on both the handmade object and the importance of the
individual maker.
Viewed in comparison to the practice of traditional craft which tends to generate craft objects out of
necessity or for ceremonial use, studio craft represents a contemporary shift from traditional craft by
producing craft objects at the whim of the maker or intended owner and which tend to be at best only
desirable for use and sometimes outright in opposition to the usefulness.
Since the 1980s there has been a distinct trend away from functional pottery and some studio potters
now prefer to call themselves ceramic artists, ceramicists or simply artists. Studio pottery is often sold
佐 中 忠 司50
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at high prices, and their simple, functional designs chimed in with the modernist ethos. The products of
artistic production are produced within a specific community of practice and while they differ from the
products produced within the communities of art and design, the boundaries often overlap resulting in
hybrid objects, but today “crafts" are most commonly seen as a form of hobby or art.
The Industrial Revolution and the increasing mechanisation of production processes gradually
reduced or eliminated many of the roles professional craftspeople played, and the term craft also refers
to the products of artistic production or creation that require a high degree of tacit knowledge. As the
interpretation and validation of art is frequently a matter of context, an audience may perceive crafted
objects as art objects when these objects are viewed within an art context, such as in a museum or in a
position of prominence in one’s home.
III. DentE-teki KEgei-hin SangyE(Japan’s Traditional Craft Industries)
In Japan there are a large number of traditional craft products that can be traced back through the
ages. Each is unique, fostered through regional differences and loving dedication, and provides a
continual wealth of pleasure. However, during the last 50 years, changes in the socio-economic
structure of Japanese society, accompanied by a Westernization of traditional lifestyle, have affected
conventional ways of the production of some traditional crafts. Due to the socio-economic turmoil,
many traditional craft industries that date from before the Edo period (1600-1868) face considerable
problems.
Japan’s traditional craft industries are on the verge of steady decline in the world of business. Some
conceivable reasons are: the difficulty in getting the raw materials such as Japanese lacquer, wood, and
potter's clay; mass production and mass consumption caused by technical innovation have accelerated
the spread of disposable low-cost products; and the change in Japan’s economic structure which has
brought about a change in people’s life style.
But the situation is in general getting unfavorable. The Japanese economy is more different than it
was a few decades ago, and though this claim may still be true, how long it will hold has become a valid
question. Much more than the quantity of handicraft activity in Japan, what is of interest and value is
that Japan has been and still remains a repository of continental Asian craft techniques, many of which
have disappeared long ago on the continent.
On the other hand, Japan’s fast-moving society is beginning to see more value in the traditional craft
items. That is partly because of the difficulty in getting the materials and the growing demand in
handmade products. With some kind of deep-rooted needs for high-quality products, which bring
about “comfort" and “real affluence", Japanese traditional crafts have been gaining wide ranging
attraction as irreplaceable cultural items.
1. Traditional craft products designated
Traditional craft products are designated by the Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI).
METI’s effort to promote traditional Japanese crafts have been carried out hoping that the industries
will continue to exist in spite of the adverse business circumstances.
For a craft item to be designated DentA-teki KAgei-hin SangyA(a Traditional Craft Product) under
the Law for the Promotion of Traditional Craft Industries, it must satisfy the criteria outlined below.
An Economic Essay on Traditional Handicraft Industries by Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTB-TEKI KBGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal 51
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1. Must be used in daily life
2. Must be handmade
3. Must be made by traditional techniques and technology
4. Must have materials that are used traditionally
5. A production district must be formed
Generally, Japanese traditional craft is called “DentA-kAgeihin". It has an another name, “DentA-
teki-kAgeihin". In Japanese law it is referred to as, “DentA-teki-kAgeihin-sangyA-no-shinkA-ni-
kansuru-hAritsu" (“Densan-hA" abbreviated). The law regulates the promotion of the Japanese
traditional craft industry.
Items that are not craft products themselves, but which are indispensable for the production of a
Traditional Craft Product and which satisfy all criteria apart from “1." are categorized as traditional
craft tools and materials designated by METI and are promoted in the same way as Traditional Craft
Products.
By adding “teki " to the word, “DentA-kAgeihin", Japanese traditional craft is defined as - a craft
that has the particular materials and the special techniques which are inherited and characterise itself,
and that tries to improve and match the industrial environment and the needs of people without losing
the characteristic(s).
2. Conditions to be met
The law requires that “DentA-teki-kAgeihin" meets the following conditions:
a. The article must be used mainly in daily life.
Such as a marriage, funeral, seasonal, or coming-of-age ceremony. This means it is based on daily
life. “KAgeihin"and “YA-no-bi ", mean beauty of work in Japanese. When many people use and
watch something for a very long time, its work and use gets better. Its color, pattern, and form are
influenced deeply by Japanese lifestyle and traditional culture.
b. The article must be primarily handmade.
All parts of it don’t have to be handmade, but the part that has the characteristic such as its quality,
form, design, and/or technique of creation must be handmade. Using a machine in an auxiliary
making process is allowed, if its characteristics are not lost. All products are made through the
process of human touch. Therefore their size and form are ergonomic, appropriate, and safe.
c. The article must be manufactured by traditional techniques and technology.
“Traditional" means a continuation of more than 100 years. It is thought that technique and
technology of “KAgeihin" are established by many craftsmen trying, failing, and improving for more
than 100 years. Gizyutsu (technique in Japanese) and GihA(technology in Japanese) are inseparable
from each other. Gizyutsu generally means a craftsman’s skill and precision, and GihAgenerally
means the historical know-how and continuation of the process from selecting materials to making.
Traditional technique and technology may be improved and developed if they don't degrade the
characteristics of the product.
d. The materials should be chiefly those which have been used traditionally.
This is similar to number 3 above, the materials must have been used and examined carefully for
佐 中 忠 司52
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more than 100 years and be matched to humans and nature. Some of the materials are now scarce
and difficult to obtain. In these cases, changing the material is allowed if it doesn’t drastically change
the product’s characteristics.
e. The industry must be of a regional nature.
A production district must be formed where certain craftsmen may work and business be conducted.
“Certain craftsmen" is normally 30 craftsmen or 10 firms. Success of some firms is not enough to
form a producing district. Reliability, confidence and responsibility of all people in the district are
required.
During the latter half of the 1960s, interest in traditional craft industries increased. Subsequently,
laws concerning the promotion of traditional craft industries were enacted in May, 1974. As of 2008,
there are 210 different crafts which METI designates as “DentA-teki-kAgeihin" in Japan.
Among the many different types of Japanese handicrafts are those that formerly were important
local industries protected and promoted by the feudal lords. In July, 1975, based on the new legislation,
the Association for the Promotion of Traditional Craft Industries was established by a nation-wide
consensus from the traditional craft industry. This Association, under the guidance of national and
regional authorities, has been active in the promotion of traditional crafts at a grass-roots level while
ensuring that these traditions are passed on to the next generation.
Thus, the Association for the Promotion of Traditional Craft Industries is an organization affiliated
with the government (METI). These industries vary greatly in size and organization and do not
represent all the crafts or craft communities in Japan by any means. Most of the involved industries
are structured around a cooperative union or association (or sometimes more than one); not all of the
industries utilize handwork exclusively (there is limited mechanization); and not all are organized in
the same manner.
The Japanese people as well as the people of the world should not forget the quality of handwork and
keep a place in their hearts for the unassuming and innocent products of direct human effort as well as
the products of contemporary technology.
Conclusive Remarks
This paper is chiefly meant as a brief rethinking about the vast field of Japanese traditional
handicraft industries from the viewpoint of economic aspects. It is hoped that this article will
contribute to draw attention and to whet people’s interest in the culture related to them.
Until the high-growth economic period in Japan, a number of handicraft people have been involved
as inevitable purveyors of the necessities of daily life without substantial change for a long time. From
that time, however, things took an aggravating turn in terms of the quality of life due to the reckless
withering commercialism. So-called mingei, above all ceramics, have received much active interest
from potters and pottery students abroad. But the information about the rest of traditional handicrafts
seems to be sparse in foreign languages.
Generations who got used to commune with handicraft items as daily utensils still have their deep-
seated tradition, but they are now almost retiring. Respecting the high quality of a number of
traditional handicraft, many Japanese people long for homes dotted with beautility that comes from
An Economic Essay on Traditional Handicraft Industries by Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTB-TEKI KBGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal 53
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much of the handicrafts traditions.
It is imperative, in a sense that these traditions should be passed on to future generations not only as
one of the cultural treasures of the nations but also as a rich utensil and beautility to improve the
quality of life. Traditional craft products are extremely different from those mass-produced, in that
they apparently bring a richness and charm to modern consumer life styles.
In order to be designated as a traditional craft by the government, it is absolutely necessary to prove
that the industry has been continuing in the business for roughly more than a century, and reveal itself
as a going concern together with its own prospectus in the future. On application, a proof of historical
existence without effective breaks and that of local ongoing operation en masse are inevitable requisite
conditions.
The spiritual aspect of artisans and the tradition inherited does not seriously matter here in
comparison to the case of mingei. The fundamental conditions prerequisite are mostly confined to the
methods and techniques to be applied and raw materials used well in the course of processing. The rest
of the conditions seemingly overlap in these genres.
On the other hand, a great majority of daily necessities nowadays come from the machine-made
inexpensive market. Good feeling for the qualities of handmade articles, in and of itself, is outstanding,
but the problem is a bit expensive and affected marketability. In the age of mechanical mass
production and new artificially synthesized materials, a growing number of handmade articles are
suffering from deteriorating conditions of the business. It seems that handmade items as conventional
daily necessities of the time have almost outlived their effective useful existence. Many people involved
in the trade make a precarious living on the fringes of society earning a very unstable and limited
income. By all means, we should try to tackle what has brought about the trends, before these
irreplaceable traditional cultures disappear from the world.
Crafts as fine and applied art are objects that evoke aesthetic emotions. From an aesthetic point of
view, artists try to embody their own individual emotion or spirit into the crafts merely as a vehicle for
the artistic purpose. That is, one can sublimate his or her energy through refined dexterity into some
works of art, which may be deeply expressive of individual emotion. An artist, thus, may try to give
actuality to emotions and feelings by means of handmade objects solely as shadow of daily goods. It
sounds as if the point of heart must be much more artistic than functional, because the handworker
does not deal either with the practical usefulness or industrial side of the thing, but with something
about the beauty. Almost nothing but aesthetic appreciation of the final product alone matters in this
case.
References
‘mingei ', retrieved from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
MINGEIKAN HISTORY, HISTORY - Japan Folk Crafts Museum
The Japanese Folk Crafts Museum
SAetsu Yanagi, Folk-crafts In Japan (Translated by Shigeyoshi Sakabe), Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai,
1936.
Nature of Folk-crafts An Essay by SAetsu Yanagi, Folk-crafts series No.1, Showa Shobo, 1941.
Yanagi SAetsu ,Works of the Artist and Mingei, 1961.
SAetsu Yanagi ‘The Collection of the Japan Folk Crafts Museum’, Japan Folk Crafts Museum, Expo’70
佐 中 忠 司54
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(Nippon Mingeikan).
Supplement by ShAji Hamada to, Japan Folk Crafts Museum, Expo’70 (Nippon Mingeikan).
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1989.
‘folk crafts', JAPAN An Illustrated Encyclopedia, Kodansha, 1994.
SAetsu Yanagi ‘Proposition on Mingei', MINGEI: Two Centuries of Japanese Folk Art, International
Programs Department, The Japan Crafts Museum, 1995.
‘mingei', The Kodansha Bilingual Encyclopedia of Japan, 1998.
DentA-KAgeihin - Traditional Japanese Crafts (www.japan-101.com/art/crafts_dento.htm)
Japanese Crafts: A Complete Guide to Today’s Traditional Handmade Objects, Japan Craft Forum,
Kodansha International, Paperback, 208 pages, June 2001.
Japan: OVERVIEW: Traditional crafts by Yuko Kikuchi (www.culturalprofiles.net/japan/directories/
Japan_Cultural_Profile/-6093.html)
Yuko Kikuchi, Japanese Modernisation and Mingei Theory, Cultural Nationalization and Oriental
Orientalism, Rougledge Curzon, 2004.
Linda Parry ‘William Morris and the Arts and Crafts Movement', Life and Art: Arts & Crafts from
Morris to Mingei, 2008-2009, Asahi Shimbun.
Karen Livingstone ‘Morris to Mingei ; the Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain, Europe and Japan,'
Life and Art: Arts & Crafts from Morris to Mingei, 2008-2009, Asahi Shimbun.
Traditional Crafts of Japan (http://www.kougei.or.jp/english/)
The Japan Crafts Association(http://www.artjapan.com/TEBIKI-E/8.html)
佐中 忠司(地域文化政策学科)
(2008. 10. 31 受理)
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