african herbal remedies with antioxidant activity: a...

Review ArticleAfrican Herbal Remedies with Antioxidant Activity: A PotentialResource Base for Wound Treatment

Mary Gulumian ,1,2 Ewura Seidu Yahaya ,3,4 and Vanessa Steenkamp 3

1National Institute for Occupational Health, Johannesburg, South Africa2Haematology and MolecularMedicine, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa3Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa4Department of Pharmacology, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana

Correspondence should be addressed to Mary Gulumian; mary.gulumian@nioh.nhls.ac.za

Received 3 May 2018; Revised 23 October 2018; Accepted 7 November 2018; Published 22 November 2018

Academic Editor: Olumayokun A. Olajide

Copyright © 2018 MaryGulumian et al.This is an open access article distributed under theCreative Commons Attribution License,which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The use of traditional herbal remedies as alternativemedicine plays an important role in Africa since it forms part of primary healthcare for treatment of various medical conditions, including wounds. Although physiological levels of free radicals are essential tothe healing process, they are known to partly contribute towound chronicitywhen in excess. Consequently, antioxidant therapy hasbeen shown to facilitate healing of suchwounds. Also, a growing body of evidence suggests that, at least, part of the therapeutic valueof herbals may be explained by their antioxidant activity.This paper reviews African herbal remedies with antioxidant activity withthe aimof indicating potential resources for wound treatment. Firstly, herbalswith identified antioxidant compounds and, secondly,herbals with proven antioxidant activity, but where the compound(s) responsible for the activity has not yet been identified, arelisted. In the latter case it has been attempted to ascribe the activity to a compound known to be present in the plant family and/orspecies, where related activity has previously been documented for another genus of the species. Also, the tests employed to assessantioxidant activity and the potential caveats thereof during assessment are briefly commented on.

1. Introduction

Human cells are continuously exposed to exogenous oxi-dants as well as to those produced endogenously duringnormal physiological processes. Antioxidants form part ofprotective mechanisms that exist in human cells to scavengeand neutralize these oxidants. Oxidants such as the reactiveoxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS)are involved in several diseases [1, 2]. Antioxidant defensesare defective in these diseases and therefore it is possible tolimit oxidative damage and ameliorate disease progressionwith antioxidant supplementation [3].

With reference to wounds, antioxidants play pivotal rolesthat consequently restore normalcy to injured skin. Basallevels of ROS and other free radicals are essential in almostall phases of the wound healing process (Figure 1) [4].During haemostasis, ROS regulates the constriction of bloodvessels to limit loss of blood. Furthermore, ROS facilitates themigration of neutrophils and monocytes from surrounding

blood vessels towards the injury site. The presence of ROSand other free radicals in the wound vicinity during theinflammatory phase of the healing process is also required forinfection control and general maintenance of sterility. Finally,ROS promotes the proliferation of keratinocytes, endothelialcells, and fibroblasts, thereby enhancing angiogenesis andcollagen deposition. However, uncontrolled release of ROScould cause oxidative stress, resulting in cellular and tissuedamage, thereby causing delayed healing [1].

To keep ROS within physiological levels, antioxidantsserve as electron donors, thereby preventing them from cap-turing electrons from other molecules which ultimately leadsto their destruction [4]. Both nonenzymatic antioxidantssuch as glutathione, ascorbic acid, and 𝛼-tocopherol, as wellas enzymatic antioxidants like catalase and peroxiredoxin,have shown potential to normalize high ROS levels and thusstimulate healing [4]. By normalizing ROS, antioxidants canenhance their physiological roles and thereby accelerate thewound healing process. Naturally occurring antioxidants are

HindawiEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2018, Article ID 4089541, 58 pageshttps://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4089541

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1284-6831http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5003-9662http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3575-0410https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4089541

2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Inflammatory phaseNeutrophil influx

ROS

Normal level Oxidative stress

HaemostasisROS mediated

vasoconstrictionLymphocyterecruitment

Pathogendefence

Tissue repairROS mediated cell

divisionCell death Necrosis

Woundhealing

Delayedhealing

Figure 1: Role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the wound healing process.

generally favoured over their synthetic counterparts, as thelatter are suspected to cause or promote negative healtheffects [5]. This has resulted in the restricted use of syntheticantioxidants in several countries [6].

This review provides a comprehensive list of Africanmedicinal plants and isolated compounds with antioxidantactivities, with the aim of highlighting the continent’s richherbal resource base for possible management of wounds andallied conditions. Previous reviews have listed a number ofthese African medicinal plants with antioxidant properties[7–9].The present work has therefore aimed to expand the listto includemedicinal plant specieswith antioxidant propertiesthat are used in different African countries including thosefrom Madagascar and Mauritius. For the sake of inclusivity,plants that have been shown to contain compounds that holdthe potential of being novel antioxidants are also consid-ered. In addition, those with anti-inflammatory propertieswere also included due to an earlier observation that theanti-inflammatory activities of the same extracts could beexplained, at least in part, by their antioxidant properties [10].Additional efforts were also made to include information,where available, on their vernacular names, their regionaldistribution, and medicinal use and plant parts used forthese preparations or for the isolation of the antioxidantingredient(s). Table 1 lists medicinal plants that have beeninvestigated and have confirmed antioxidant and/or anti-inflammatory activity and that contain compounds which areknown to have such activities. Table 2 on the other handlistsmedicinal plants that have confirmed antioxidant activitybut the compounds responsible for their antioxidant propertyhave not yet been identified.

Many edible and culinary herbs and condiments werealso included in these two tables as they were used incertain instances as medicinal herbs to treat diseases. Theseincluded fruits and seeds of Balanites aegyptiaca, leaves ofBoscia senegalensis, leaves of Entada africana and seeds ofParkia biglobosa, from Niger [11], also leaves, seeds, andstem-bark of Mangifera indica from Benin and BurkinaFaso [12, 13], leaves of Cynara scolymus from Ethiopia [14,

15], leaves of Aspalathus linearis from South Africa [16–21],leaves of Cinnamomum zeylanicum from Madagascar andEthiopia [22–24], essential oils from the bark and leavesof Ravensara aromatica from Madagascar [23, 25], budsof Syzygium aromaticum from Madagascar [23], seeds ofTrigonella foenumgraecum from Ethiopia and Morocco [26–28], and oils in seeds of Nigella sativa from African countriesof the Mediterranean region [29–31].

2. Tests Used to Assess Antioxidant Activitiesof African Medicinal Plant Extracts

A variety of test systems were employed to assess theantioxidant properties of the medicinal plant extracts andcompounds listed in Tables 1 and 2. A comprehensive listof the methods used in antioxidant activity determination,as well as their merits and demerits, has already beenpublished [343–346].Themethods used in the determinationof antioxidant activity of natural products and isolatedcompounds result in varied outcomeswhen the same samplesare tested in different laboratories and by other researchers[347]. Furthermore, results of different methods cannot becorrelated, as contradictory results are usually obtained.Hence, although several assays are available, none of themis capable of accurately and completely determining theantioxidant activity of a test substance because of the complexnature of the redox-antioxidant system in vivo (Figure 2).Based on this complexity, antioxidants are broadly classifiedas (i) inhibitors of free radical formation, (ii) free radicalscavengers, (iii) cellular and tissue damage repairers, and (iv)signalling messengers [347].

The inhibition of free radical formation could protectagainst oxidative damage by suppressing the formation ofactive ROS/RNS. This typically involves reduction or inhibi-tion of substrates required for free radical formation such asmetal ions like iron (Fe) and copper (Cu). The sequestrationof these metal ions by antioxidant compounds like ellagicacid and glutathione is known to suppress formation of

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3

Table1:Medicinalplantswith

confi

rmed

antio

xidant

activ

ity,sho

wnto

containcompo

unds

thatarek

nownto

have

such

activ

ity.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

Aloaceae

Aloe

barbadensis

Mill.

Burn

plant,

siber,

sbar/essou

ktou

ri/m

ar,sbar

Leafexud

ate

Algeria,

Morocco,

Tunisia

Antioxidant

activ

ity.

Usedas

laxativ

e,pu

rgative,diuretic,

asthma,baldness,cuts,bo

unds,skinrash.

Flavon

oids,two

dihydrocou

marin

deriv

atives

and

twoflavone

glycosides

[32–34]

Aloe

claviflora

Burch.

Kraalaloe

Leafexud

ate

SouthAfrica

Radicalscaveng

ingactiv

ityandmod

erate

activ

ityin

thelipid

peroxidatio

nassay

Chromon

eglycosid

e[35,36]

A.sapona

ria(A

it.)H

aw.

Mpelu

Mnemvu

Soap

aloe,

African

aloe

Leafexud

ate

SouthAfrica

Radicalscaveng

ingactiv

ityandmod

erate

activ

ityin

thelipid

peroxidatio

nassay

Chromon

eglycosid

e[35,37]

A.thraskiiBa

ker

Dun

ealoe,

ikhala,umhlaba

Leafexud

ate

SouthAfrica

Radicalscaveng

ingactiv

ityandmod

erate

activ

ityin

thelipid

peroxidatio

nassay

Chromon

eglycosid

e[35,36]

Amaran

thaceae

Amaranthus

caud

atus

L.Tasselflo

wer

Seed;

Youn

gshoo

tsEthiop

iaAntioxidant

prop

ertie

sTo

coph

erols,ph

enolicacids

[38–40

]

Ana

cardiaceae

Anacardium

occid

entale

L.Not

signalized

Stem

-bark

Nigeria

Anti-infl

ammatoryp

roperties.

Agathisfl

avon

e,qu

ercetin

3-O-rutinoside,

quercetin

3-O-rhamno

side

[41,42]

Lann

eaedulisEn

gl.

Wild

Grape

Root-bark

Zimbabw

e

Semipolar

extractshigh

activ

itybo

thas

radicalscavengersa

ndlip

oxygenase

inhibitors.Lipop

hilic

extractsinhibitoro

f15-lipo

xygenase.

Usedforp

ainful

menstr

uatio

n,urogenita

linfection,

sexu

allytransm

itted

diseases.

Twoalkylpheno

ls(cardo

nol7

andcordon

ol13)

andthreed

ihydroalkylhexenon

es[43–45]

Lann

eavelutin

aA.R

ich

Bemmbeyi

Raisinier

velu,

Lann

éavelouté

Leaves,bark,

root

Mali

Antioxidant

prop

ertie

sProantho

cyanidins

[46,47]

Man

giferaindica

L.Mango

Mangoro

Leaves,seeds,

stem-bark

Benin

BurkinaF

aso

Anti-infl

ammatory,analgesic

,and

hypo

glycem

iceffects.

Usedto

treaturogenita

linfectio

n,tonic,

diarrhoea,toothache,gingivitis,liver

disease,diabetes.

Polyph

enolics,flavono

ids

[12,13,46,47]

4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

Apiaceae

Centellaasiatica(L.)

Urb.

Gotukola

Leaves

SouthAfrica

Antioxidant

andanti-inflammatory

activ

ities.

Usedforw

ound

healing.Protectio

nagainstradiatio

n-indu

cedinjury.

Cardioprotectiv

eeffect.

Oraltreatmentincreased

antio

xidant

enzymes.

Quercetin

andtetrandrine

[48–

55]

Apo

cyna

ceae

Alsto

niabooneiDeW

ild.

Awun

,Eg

buStem

-bark

Root-bark

Nigeria

Ghana

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ctivity.

Usedforitsanalgesic

and

anti-inflammatoryp

roperties.

Rutin

,Quercetin

robino

bioside,

Kaem

pferol-3-O

-rutinoside,

Kaem

pferol-3-O

-rob

inob

iosid

e[56–

59]

Catharanthus

roseus

(L.)G.D

on

Madagascar

periw

inkle

kaka

poul,

karaktèd

ezosm

blan,zèb

sosyé

Who

leplant

Madagascar

Antioxidant

activ

ityandability

toincrease

antio

xidant

enzymes.

Usedforc

onjunctiv

itis.

Phenols

[60]

Arecaceae

ElaeisguineensisJacq.

Ori

Nuts

Ghana

Nigeria

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ctivity.

Usedto

treatrheumatoidarthritis.

3,4hydroxybenzaldehyde,p-hydroxybenzoicacid,

vanillica

cid,syrin

gica

cid,ferulic

acid,

caroteno

ids,𝛼-to

coph

erol

[12,61]

Asclepiad

aceae

Secamonea

fzeliiR

hoem

.Ahaban

Kroratim

aStem

CentralAfrica

Antioxidant

andanti-inflammatory

prop

ertie

s.Usedforw

ound

healing.

Flavon

oids,caffeica

cidderiv

atives

and

𝛼-to

coph

erol.

[62–64

]

Aspho

delaceae

Bulbinec

apita

taPo

elln.

Scentedgrass

bulbine

Roots

Aeria

lparts

SouthAfrica

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ndwe

akantio

xidant

andfre

eradicalscavenging

andlip

idperoxidatio

ninhibitio

nactiv

ities.

Knipho

lone

asas

electiv

einh

ibito

rof

leuk

otrie

nemetabolism

.Usedas

amild

purgativea

ndto

cure

gono

rrho

ealinfectio

ns.

Anthraquino

neKn

ipho

lone

[65–73]

BulbinefrutescensW

illd.

Snakefl

ower,

cat’stail,

burn

jelly

plant

Leafjuice

Roots

SouthAfrica

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ndwe

akantio

xidant

andfre

eradicalscavenging

andlip

idperoxidatio

ninhibitio

nactiv

ities.

Knipho

lone

isas

electiv

einh

ibito

rof

leuk

otrie

nemetabolism

.Usedto

treatbu

rns,rashes,blisters,insect

bites,crackedlip

s,acne,coldsores,

mou

thulcersandareaso

fcracked

skin.

Phenylanthraqu

inon

es,

Isofuranon

aphtho

quinon

es,

Gaboroq

uino

nesA

andBand

4-O

-dem

ethylkniph

olon

e-4-O

-beta-D-

glucop

yranoside,andKn

ipho

lone

(anthroq

uino

ne)

[65,67,70,74,

75]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

Kniphofia

foliosa

Hochst.Re

d-no

t-peker

Kenya

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ndwe

akantio

xidant

andfre

eradicalscavenging

andlip

idperoxidatio

ninhibitio

nactiv

ities.

Knipho

lone

asas

electiv

einh

ibito

rof

leuk

otrie

nemetabolism

.Usedfora

bdom

inalcram

ps,w

ound

healing

Anthraquino

ne:K

niph

olon

e[65,76–78]

Asteraceae

Artemisiaabyssin

icaSch.Bip.

Chikug

n(A

mharic

)Ar

rtta

bera

(Or)

Who

leplant

Ethiop

ia

Radicalscaveng

ingandantio

xidant

activ

ities.

Usedforstomachpain

andwo

und

healing.

Essentialoils

andflavono

ids

[79–82]

A.afra

Jacq.

exWilld.

African

worm

wood

Wild

worm

wood

Roots,ste

ms

andleaves

Ethiop

iaSouthAfrica

Radicalscaveng

ingandantio

xidant

activ

ities.

Usedforstomachpain,cou

ghs,colds,

fever,lossof

appetite,colic,headache,

earache,intestinalw

ormstomalaria.

Essentialoils

andflavono

ids

[79,82–8

4]

A.arvensisL.

Mug

wort

Wormwo

odWho

leplant

Algeria

Radicalscaveng

ingandantio

xidant

activ

ities.

Phenoliccompo

unds

andflavono

ids.

[85]

A.campestrisL.

Fieldsagewo

rtField

worm

wood

Who

leplant

Algeria

Radicalscaveng

ingandantio

xidant

activ

ities.

Usedto

treatinsomnia

Phenoliccompo

unds

andflavono

ids.

[85–87]

Bidens

pilosa

L.Blackjack

Leaves

Roots

SouthAfrica

Antioxidant

andanti-inflammatory,

antib

acteria

l,antih

ypertensivea

ctivities.

Usedto

treatdiabetes

andbackache.

Phenoliccompo

unds:quercetin

3-O-rabinob

iosid

e,qu

ercetin

3-O-rutinoside.

Twono

velm

etho

xylatedflavone

glycosides:

quercetin

3,3-dim

ethylether

7-O-c¢-L-rham

nopyrano

syl-(1∼

6)-fl-D

-glucopyrano

sidea

ndthek

nownqu

ercetin

3,3-dim

ethylether

7-O-fl-D

-glucop

yranoside

[19,88–

91]

6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineTa

ble1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

Cyna

rascolym

usL.

Globe

artic

hoke

Leaves

Ethiop

ia

Antioxidativ

eand

lipid-lo

werin

gprop

ertie

sand

eNOSup

-regulating

ability.

Usedto

treatchronicliver

andgall

bladderd

iseases,jaund

ice,hepatitisand

atherosclerosis.

Polyph

enolicflavono

idcompo

unds

[14,15,92,93]

Helichrysum

dasyanthum

Sweet

Afrikaans

common

name

ofko

oigoed

(bedding

material)

Leaves

SouthAfrica

Antioxidant,radicalscavenging

and

anti-inflammatorya

ctivities.

Usedto

treatwo

unds,infectio

ns,

respira

tory

cond

ition

s.

Essentialoils

[94–

96]

H.petiolareHilliard

&B.L.Bu

rtt.

Everlasting

,Im

phepho

Leaves

SouthAfrica

Antioxidant,radicalscavenging

and

anti-inflammatorya

ctivities.

Usedto

treatwo

unds,infectio

ns,

respira

tory

cond

ition

s,asthma,chest

prob

lemsa

ndhigh

bloo

dpressure

Essentialoils

[94–

96]

Tagetesm

inutaL.

Khakibu

shstink

ingroger

musterJoh

nHenry,w

ildmarigold

Leaves

Madagascar

Antim

icrobialandantio

xidant

activ

ity.

Usedas

anthelmintic

,antisp

asmod

ic,

purgativea

ndforthe

treatmento

fgastr

itis,indigestion

andinternalwo

rms.

Essentialoils.

[23,97]

Balano

phoraceae

Thonningia

sanguinea

Vahl.

Nkomango

Roots

Ghana

Antioxidativ

eand

radicalscaveng

ing

activ

ities

andlip

idperoxidatio

ninhibitory

activ

ity.

Usedforb

ronchialasthma,rheumatoid

arthritis,

atherosclerosis

anddiabetes.

Ellagitann

ins:Th

onning

ianinAandB

[98–

103]

Balanitaceae

Balanitesa

egyptia

ca(L.)

Delile

Hausa:adu

wa

Desertd

ate

Bark

and

roots

EastAfrica

Antioxidant

prop

ertie

sinvitro

confi

rmed.

Theb

arkandrootsa

reused

aslaxativ

es,

andforc

olic.Th

ebarkisused

forsore

throats,andas

arem

edyforsterility,

mentaldise

ases,epilepsy,yello

wfever,

syph

ilis,andtoothaches.

Cou

marins,flavono

ids,sapo

nins

(Balanin

1(3𝛽,12𝛽,14𝛽,16𝛽)c

holest-

5-ene-3,16-diylbis(𝛽-d

-glucopyrano

side)-12-sulphate,a

newste

rol

sulfo

natedandBa

lanin2(3𝛽,20S,22R

,25R

)-26-

hydroxy-22-acetoxyfurost-

5-en-3-

yl-rhamno

pyrano

syl-(1→2)-glucopyrano

side,a

novelfurostano

lsapon

in)

[11,104–

106]

Bign

oniaceae

Jacarand

amim

osaefolia

D.Don

.Sh

arpleaf

Jacarand

aLeaves

Stem

-bark

Nigeria

Show

nto

have

antim

icrobialactiv

ityand

used

totre

atinfections

Phenylethano

idglucoside,jacarano

ne[107–109]

Spathodeacampanu

lata

P.Beauv.

African

tulip

Stem

-bark

Nigeria,G

hana,

Cam

eroo

n(Yaoun

deregion

)

Anti-infl

ammatory,antio

xidant,

hypo

glycem

ic,anticom

plem

entand

anti-HIV

activ

ities.

Usedto

treatitching

,arthritis,and

diabetes.

Flavon

oids

andcaffeicacid

deriv

atives

[63,110

]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

Tecomasta

ns(L.)

H.B.&

K.Yello

wtrum

petb

ush

Leaves

Stem

-bark

Nigeria

Anti-d

iabetic

activ

ityisshow

n.4-O-E-caffeoyl-alpha-L-rhamno

pyrano

syl-(1→

3)-alpha/beta-D-glucopyrano

se,E/Z-acetosid

e,iso

acetoside

[107,111]

Cappa

raceae

Cleomea

rabica

L.Cleomee

feina

Leaves

Egypt

Antioxidant

activ

ity,inh

ibited

lipoxygenasea

ctivity

andcalcium

iono

phore-stimulated

LTB4

synthesis

inhu

man

neutroph

ils.

Usedto

treatwo

unds

andprevent

inflammation

Rutin

andqu

ercetin

.[112,113]

Clusiaceae

Garcin

iakolaHeckel

Bitte

rcola/aku

ilu,agbuilu

.Nigeria

Hausa:

Góó

ròpl.

gwârrááo

rgòòràrràkáı́

Seeds

Nigeria

Inhibitlipid

peroxidatio

nandprotectiv

eagainstH2O2-in

ducedDNAstr

and

breaks

andoxidized

bases.

Usedforlaryngitis,cou

ghs,liver

disease,

bron

chitisa

ndthroatinfections.Inh

ibits

AflatoxinB1

indu

cedgeno

toxicity.

Biflavono

id:kolaviro

n[114–120]

Harun

gana

madagascarie

nsisPo

ir.Otori

Stem

-bark

Easte

rnNigeria

Sign

ificant

antio

xidant

activ

ity.

Usedto

treatskin

diseases.

Prenylated

Anthron

oids:harun

madagascarin

A[8,9-dihydroxy-4,4-bis-(3,3-dim

ethylallyl)-6-

methyl-2

,3-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)anthrone],

harung

anolB

[121–123]

Hypericu

mcarin

atum

Gris

eb.

Not

signalized

Leaves

Egypt

Antioxidant

andradicalscaveng

ing

activ

ities.

Benzop

heno

nes:carip

heno

neA(6-benzoyl-5,7-

dihydroxy-2,2,8-trim

ethyl-2

H-chrom

ene)and

carip

heno

neB(8-benzoyl-5,7-dihydroxy-2,2,6-

trim

ethyl-2

H-chrom

ene).

[124,125]

H.perforatum

L.Com

mon

St.-Joh

ns’w

ort

Who

leplant

Egypt

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ndanti-oxidant

activ

ities.Freer

adicalscavenging

,metal-chelatio

n,andreactiv

eoxygen

quenchingactiv

ities.Protectivea

gainst

scop

olam

ine-indu

cedalteredbrain

oxidatives

tresssta

tusa

ndam

nesia

inrats.

Abilityto

supp

ressthea

ctivities

of5-lip

oxygenase(5-LO

)and

cycloo

xygenase-2

(COX-

2),key

enzymes

intheformationof

proinfl

ammatory

eicosano

idsfrom

arachido

nica

cid(A

A).

Analgesic,antise

ptic,antisp

asmod

ic,

digestive,diuretic

andsedativ

e.

Flavon

oids:R

utin,hyperoside,iso

quercitrin,

avicularin,quercitrin,and

quercetin

.[124,126–131]

8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

Cochlospe

rmaceae

Cochlospermum

tinctorium

A.Rich.

N’tirib

ara

Roots

Sudan,

Ugand

aWestA

frica

Antioxidant

activ

ity.

Usedform

alaria,jaund

ice.

Polyph

enols:gallo

tann

insa

ndferulic

acids

[35]

Com

bretaceae

Combretum

woodii

Drum.

Large-leaved

forest

bushwillow

Leaf

SouthAfrica

Antioxidant

andantib

acteria

lactivities.

Also

tann

inssho

wedinhibitory

effecto

nFe2+-in

ducedlip

idperoxidatio

nand

radicalscavenger

activ

ity.

Usedforp

neum

onia,syphilis,abd

ominal

pain

andconjun

ctivitis.

Polyph

enols:Com

bretastatin

B5(2,34-trihydroxyl,3,5,4-tr

imetho

xybibenzyl).

Tann

ins.

[132–137]

Combretum

imberbe

Not

signified

SouthAfrica

Com

bretum

speciesa

rewidely

used

for

treatingabdo

minaldisorders(e.g

.abdo

minalpains,diarrhea)b

ackache,

bilharziasis,

chestcou

ghs,colds,

conjun

ctivitis,dysm

enorrhoea,earache,

fatte

ning

babies,fever,headache

1𝛼,3𝛽-dihydroxy-12-oleanen-29-oic,

1-hydroxy-12-olean-30-oicacid,

3,30-dihydroxyl-12-oleanen-22-one,and

1,3,24-trihydroxyl-12-olean-29-oicacid,a

new

pentacyclic

triterpenoid

(1𝛼,23-dihydroxy-12-oleanen-29-oic

acid-3𝛽-O

-2,4-di-a

cetyl-l-rhamno

pyrano

side)

[138]

Guier

asenegalen

sisJ.F.Gmel.

N’kun

djè

Leaf

Western

Africa

Antioxidant

andradicalscaveng

ing

activ

ities.

Usedto

treatdysentery,diarrhoea,

gastr

o-intestinalpains

anddisorders,

rheumatism

,diabetesa

ndfever.

Flavon

olaglycones,flavono

lglycosid

esand

flavono

ids(catechin,m

yricitrin,rutin

and

quercetin

)asw

ellastannins

(galloylqu

inicacids

(hydrolysabletann

ins).

[139–143]

Term

inaliaseric

eaBu

rch.ex

DC.

Silver

cluste

r-leaf

Bark

SouthAfrica

Radicalscaveng

ingandantio

xidant

activ

ities.

Usedto

treatdiabetes

andpn

eumon

iaandto

relieve

colic

Pentacyclic

triterpenoids

Ano

lignanB

[21,136,144]

Com

melinaceae

Commelina

diffu

saBu

rm.f.

Wanderin

gJew

Clim

bing

day

flowe

rLeaves

Ghann

aAnti-infl

ammatorya

ndantio

xidant

prop

ertie

s.Usedto

treatfevera

ndisdiuretic

Flavon

oids

[63,145]

Palisotahirsuta

K.Schu

m.,

Not

signified

Aqueou

sleaf

extracts

Nigeria

Anti-infl

ammatorye

ffectsa

gainst

carrageenanindu

cedhind

pawoedema

Not

identifi

ed[14

6,147]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

Crassulaceae

Bryophyllum

pinn

atum

(Lam

.)Oken

Syno

nym:K

alan

choe

pinn

ata(Lam

.)Pers.

Ufu

ivo

Leaves

Nigeria,Sou

thAfrica

Anti-infl

ammatoryp

roperties.

Usedfore

arache.

Flavon

oids,polypheno

ls,triterpenoids

[12,148,149]

Cupressaceae

Juniperusp

rocera

Hochstex.En

dl.

African

Juniper

Youn

gtwigs

andbu

dsEthiop

iaAntioxidant

andfre

eradicalscavenging

activ

ities.

Usedto

relieve

stomachpain.

Essentaloils

[79,150,151]

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea

dumetorum

(Kun

th)p

axYam

Tubers

Nigeria

Antioxidant

activ

ityto

mod

ifyserum

lipid

andanti-inflammatorya

ctivity.

Usedto

treatdiabetes.

Dioscorea

andDioscoretine

[152–154]

Drosera

madagascarie

nsis

(DC.)

D.ram

entaceaBu

rchell

Sund

ewRo

otsa

ndflo

wers

Madagascar

Anti-infl

ammatorye

ffects.

Usedto

treatcoug

hsandasthma

Flavon

oids:hyperoside,qu

ercetin

and

isoqu

ercitrin

[155,156]

Drosera

rotund

ifolia

L.Ro

und-leaf

Sund

ewRo

otsa

ndflo

wers

Madagascar

Anti-infl

ammatorye

ffects.

Usedto

treatcoug

hsandasthma

Flavon

oids:hyperoside,qu

ercetin

and

isoqu

ercitrin

[155,157]

Euph

orbiaceae

Alchornealaxiflora

(Benth)P

ax&K.

Hoff

m.

Wild

banana

Leafandroot

Nigeria

Antioxidant

andanti-microbialactiv

ity.

Usedto

treatjaun

dice

andliver

disorders.

Also

used

infood

preservatio

n.

Quercetin-7,4-disu

lphate,quercetin,

quercetin

-3,4-disu

lphate,

quercetin

-3,4-diacetate,rutin

andqu

ercetrin

[158–161]

Brideliafer

rugin

eaBe

nth.

Ora

Leaves,stem

andbark

WestA

frica

Dem

ocratic

repu

blicof

Con

go,N

igeria

Anti-infl

ammatory.

Usedto

treatdiarrhea,dysentery,

gastr

o-intestinaldiso

rders,gynecological

disorders(inclu

ding

sterility

),and

rheumaticpains.

Abiofl

avon

oid:Gallocatechin-(4→

O→

7)-Epigallo

catechin.

[12,57,162–166]

Mallotuso

ppositifoliu

s(G

eiseler)Muell.Arg.

Jororo

Káfàrm

útúw

ààSenampend

iMvu

ndza

jembe

Leaves,roo

tsWestA

frica

Nigeria

Antioxidant,anti-infl

ammatorya

ndantim

icrobialactiv

ities.

Usedfora

bortion.

Flavon

oids:quercetin

andqu

ercitrin.

[167–172]

10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

Faba

ceae

Aspalathus

linearis

(Brum.F.)R.

Dahlgr.

Rooibo

sLeaves

SouthAfrica

RadicalScaveng

ingCapacity

Usedto

treatsto

machcram

ps,insom

nia,

andto

redu

cestr

ess.

PhenolicFractio

ns,Tannins

andmon

omeric

flavono

idsa

spalathin,no

thofagin,quercetin,

rutin

,isoqu

ercitrin,orie

ntin,isoorientin,luteolin

,vitexin,

isovitexin,andchrysoeriol.

[16–

21,173,174]

Burkea

afric

anaHoo

kWild

Syrin

gaBa

rkMaliand

Sub-Saharan

Africa

Antioxidant

andradicalscaveng

ing

activ

ity.

Usedto

treatcoug

hs,colds,stomach

obstr

uctio

n,infusio

nsagainst

gono

rrho

eaandsyph

ilis.

Proantho

cyanidins;fisetinidol-(4alpha-

>8)-catechin3-gallateandbis-fisetinidol-(4alpha-

>6,4alpha->

8)-catechin3-gallate,w

ithsm

aller

amou

ntso

fflavan-3-ols(catechin,epicatechinand

fisetinidol)

[175,176]

Crotalariapodocarpa

DC.

Crotalaria

Roots

SouthAfrica

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ctivity.

Usedforthe

treatmento

fsore-eyes

and

boils.

Expectorant.

Flavon

oids

[67,177]

Cyclo

piainterm

edia

E.Mey.and

C.subternata

Vog.

Hon

eybu

shLeaves

and

stem

SouthAfrica

Antioxidant

activ

ity.

Usedas

tonicfor

colds,catarrhand

tuberculosis.

Pinitol,shikim

icacid,p-cou

maricacid,

4-glucosyltyrosol,epigallocatechin

gallate,the

isoflavone

orob

ol,the

flavano

nesh

esperedin,

narir

utin

anderiocitrin,a

glycosylated

flavan,the

flavonesluteolin

,5-deoxyluteolin

and

scolym

oside,thex

anthon

emangiferin

andthe

flavono

lC-6-glucosylkaempferol.

Phenoliccontent:tyrosoland

ametho

xyanalogue,2-[4-[O

-alpha-apiofuranosyl-(1

→6)-beta-d-glucopyrano

syloxy]

phenyl]ethanol,4-[O-alpha-apiofuranosyl-(1

→2)-beta-d-glucopyrano

syloxy]benzaldehyde,

fiveg

lycosylatedflavono

ls,twoiso

flavones,four

flavano

nes,twoiso

flavones,andtwoflavones

[19,21,178–181]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

Eriosemarobu

stum

Twigs

Burund

i,Ethiop

ia,K

enya,

Rwanda,

Tanzania,

Ugand

a,Dem

ocratic

Repu

blicof

Con

goand

Cam

eroo

n

Usedtradition

allyforthe

treatmento

fcoug

hsin

EastAfricaa

ndskin

diseases

inCentralAfrica

2,3,5,5,7-pentahydroxy-3,40-dimetho

xyflavone,

2,3,5,5,7-pentahydroxy-4-m

etho

xyflavone

[182,183]

Erythrinalatissim

aE.

Mey.

Broad-leaved

coraltree

Stem

Woo

dRo

otwo

odSeeds

SouthAfrica

Botsw

ana

Antim

icrobialactiv

ityandwe

akradical

scavenging

prop

ertie

s.Pu

rgative.

Flavon

oids

andiso

flavono

ids.

Isofl

avon

es:erylatissin

AandB.

Flavanon

e:erylatissin

Candflavono

idsa

ndIsofl

avon

eglycosid

es:4-hydroxyiso

flavone-7-O

-beta-D

-glucopyrano

side(compo

und1);

4-hydroxyiso

flavone-7-O

-alpha-L-rhamno

syl

(1→

6)-beta-D-glucopyrano

side(compo

und2);

andan

ewcompo

und4,8-dim

etho

xyiso

flavone-7-O

-alpha-L-rhamno

syl(1→6)

glucop

yranoside

(8-O

-methylre

tusin

-7-O

-alpha-L-rhamno

syl

(1-6)-beta-D-glucopyrano

side)(com

poun

d3)

Isofl

avon

oids:

5,7-dihydroxy-2,4,5-tr

imetho

xyiso

flavano

ne.

[67,184–

186]

E.lysistemon

Hutch.

Com

mon

coral

tree;luckyb

ean

tree

Bark

SouthAfrica

Mild

antio

xidant

activ

ity.

Usedto

treatsores,wo

unds,abscesses

andarthritis.

Threep

renylatedflavono

idderiv

atives;

5,7,4-tr

ihydroxy-8-(3-m

ethylbut-2-enyl)-6-

(2-hydroxy-3-m

ethylbut-3enyl)isoflavone

(isoerysenegalenseinE),5,7,2-tr

ihydroxy-4-

metho

xy-5-(3-m

ethylbut-2-enyl)iso

flavano

ne(ly

sisteiso

flavano

ne),5,4-dihydroxy-6-(3-

methylbut-2-enyl)-2-hydroxyiso

prop

yldihydrofurano[4,5:8,7]isoflavone

(isosenegalensin

),together

with

thefou

rkno

wn

flavono

idsa

byssinon

eV-4-m

ethylether,

alpinu

miso

flavone,w

ighteone

andbu

rttin

one

[187–190]

12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineTa

ble1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

Melilotuseleg

ans

Salzm

.exSer.

(syn

.M.

abyssin

icaBa

ker)

Egug

,Gug

i,Yemen

berri

Elegantswe

etclover

Leaves

Ethiop

ia

Anti-infl

ammatoryp

roperties.

Usedfora

sthma,haem

orrhoid,wo

unds,

excavatedsore,piles,ulcersmou

thinfection,

laceratedwo

unds,

haem

orrhoids,bronchialasthma

(personal

commun

ication)

Flavon

oids:kaempferol

[191–194]

Millettia

griffoniana

Baill.

Not

signalized

Root-bark

and

seeds

Cam

eroo

nAnti-infl

ammatorya

ctivity.

Usedas

anantim

alarial.

Cou

marin:

4-hydroxy-3-(3,4-m

ethylenedioxyphenyl)-5,6,7-

trim

etho

xycoum

arin,durmillon

e,od

orantin

,7-metho

xyebenosin,calop

ogon

ium

isoflavone

Band7,2-dim

etho

xy-4,5-m

ethylenedioxy

isoflavone

maxim

aisoflavone

G(5)a

nd7-hydroxy-6-metho

xy-3,4-

methylenedioxyisoflavone

andnewprenylated

isoflavono

idsg

riffon

iano

nesA

,B,C

,Dand

E.Griff

oniano

neD((7E

)-(6,7-dihydroxy-3,7-

dimethyloct-2-enyl)o

xy-4-m

etho

xyiso

flavone),

aniso

flavone.

[195–202]

Parkiabiglo

bosa

(Jacq.)Be

nth

African

Locust

Bean

Nèrè

Ojin

yi

Bark

Seeds

Mali

Sudan

IvoryCoast

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ctivity.

Usedas

antiseptic

andto

treatcoug

hs,

chestp

ain,

andwo

undhealing

Tocoph

erol,ascorbica

cid(Seeds)

[12,33,34,36–

39,43–

53,55,64

,66–

72,118,119,121,

138,159,182,195,

203–235]

Peltophorum

afric

anum

Sond

.Weeping

wttle

Root

and

bark

SouthAfrica

Antioxidant

andantib

acteria

lactivities

Usedto

treatdiarrhoea,dysentery,sore

throat,w

ound

s,back

andjointp

ains,

HIV-A

IDS,venerealdiseases

and

infertility.

Flavon

olglycosides

andflavono

lglucosid

egallates

[236–2

38]

Piliostigm

athonningii

(Schum

.)Miln

e-Re

dh

Cam

el’sfoo

ttre

e,Mon

key

Bread

Niama(

Mali).

Abefe

Kalgo

Okp

oatu

Omepa

Root,bark,

pods,leaves

Nigeria,

Ethiop

iaBo

tswana,

Kenya,Nam

ibia,

Senegal,South

Africa,Sudan,

Tanzania,

Ugand

a,Za

mbia

Anti-o

xidant

andanti-inflammatory

prop

ertie

s.Usedto

treatwo

unds,chron

iculcers,

coug

h,respira

tory

disordersa

ndtoothache,gu

minflammation,

arthritis,

headache,backache,and

antio

xidant

supp

lement.

Proantho

cyanidinse

picatechin,catechintrim

ers

andoligom

ers,flavono

ids,po

lyph

enolics,

C-methylflavon

ols(in

theleafextract)

[12,58,239–245]

Sutherland

iafru

tescens

R.Br.

Cancerbush

Phetola

Leaves

SouthAfrica

Superoxide

andhydrogen

peroxide

scavenging

activ

ities.

Usedas

tonictobo

ostthe

immun

esyste

m.

Canavanine,pinitol

[246–248]

Trigo

nella

foenum

graecumL.

Fenu

greek

Seeds

Ethiop

ia,

Morocco

Protectiv

eeffectagainstO

xidativ

estre

ssdu

ringisc

hemia-reperfusio

n.Itishypo

lipidem

ic,and

isalso

used

totre

atbo

ilsandto

improvea

ppetite.

Free

phenolicsa

ndVitC

.[26–

28,249,250]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

Hum

iriaceae

Sacoglo

ttisgabonensis

Urb.

Cherry

tree,

ozou

gaStem

-bark

WestA

frica

Antioxidant

activ

ity.

Bergenin

[251–2

54]

Hyp

oxidaceae

Hypoxishemerocallid

eaFisch.&C.A.M

ey.

African

potato

Corms

SouthAfrica

Antioxidant

activ

ity.

Usedto

treattuberculosis,

cancer,bladd

erdisorders,benign

prostatic

hyperplasia

.Ro

operol

[188,255–2

57]

Lamiaceae

Ocim

umbasilicu

mL.

Mük

andu

Basil

Leaves

BurkinaF

aso

Ethiop

ia

Interm

ediateantio

xidant

activ

ityand

high

antib

acteria

lactivity.

Usedin

Ethiop

iato

treatCon

junctiv

itis

andin

Kenyatotre

atcoldsa

ndsto

macheache.

Linaloolbasil

oil

Methylchavicol,eugeno

l,(E)-methylcinnamate,

thym

ol,linaloo

l[23,258]

Ocim

umgratissim

umL.

Teab

ush,Scent

leaf/N

chuanw

u.Ujuju

okpevu

Basil

Leaves

Popu

larrepub

licof

Con

go(ex

Brazaville

Con

go)

Easte

rnNigeria

Antioxidant

activ

ityPo

pularrepub

licof

Con

goitisused

asa

laxativ

e,pu

rgative,andto

treatsnakebite,

diabetes,too

thache,gingivitis.

Xantho

microl,cirsim

aritin,rutin

,kaempferol

3-O-rutinosidea

ndvicenin-2w

ereidentified

asthem

ajor

flavono

ids,whereas

luteolin

5-O-glucosid

e,luteolin

7-O-glucosid

e,apigenin

7-O-glucosid

e,vitexin,iso

vitexin,qu

ercetin

3-O-glucosid

eand

isothym

usin

were

detected

asminor

constituents.

[12,58,258–262]

Lauraceae

Cinn

amom

umzeylan

icumBreyne

Cinn

amon

leaf

Leaves

Madagascar

Ethiop

ia

Very

high

antio

xidant

andhigh

antim

icrobialactiv

ities.

Usedto

treatdiarrhoea,rheumatism

,coldsa

ndhypertensio

n

Cinn

amaldehyde,eugenolandeugenylacetateto

bethem

ainconstituentso

fcinnamon

oil.

[22–24,263]

Ocoteabu

llata(Burch.)

Baill.

Blackstink

wood

Unu

kane

(Zulu)

Bark

SouthAfrica

Anti-infl

ammatory,cycloo

xygenase

inhibitory

activ

ity.

Urin

arydisorders,headaches.

Mon

oterpeno

ids

[188,264

]

Ravensaraarom

atica

Sonn

.Nutmeg

havozo

Bark

Leaf

Madagascar

Lowantio

xidant

andantim

icrobial

activ

ity.

Usefulfor

chronicr

espiratory

cond

ition

s,andsometim

eshelpfulincaseso

fasth

ma.

Essentialoils,prin

cipally

compo

sedof

the

mon

oterpene

hydrocarbo

nsa-pinene,sabinene,

myrcene,lim

onene,&thea

zulene:iso-le

dene.In

barks,estragole(methylchavicol)bu

tleaves

containb-myrcene,1,8-cineole,linaloo

l,and

carotol.

[23,25,265]

14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineTa

ble1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

Malvaceae

Hibiscus

sabdariffaL.

Redtea,

sorelle

Rosella

Flow

ers

Nigeria

SouthAfrica

Antim

utagenicactiv

ityandfre

eradical

scavenging

effectson

activ

eoxygen

species

Usedagainstinsom

nia,colic.

Flavon

olglucosideh

ibisc

itrin

Antho

cyanins.Such

ascyanidin

3-O-𝛽-D

-glucopyrano

side,cyanidin

3-O-(2-O-𝛽-

D-xylop

yranosyl)-𝛽-D

-glucopyrano

side,

delphinidin3-O-𝛽-D

-glucopyrano

sidea

nddelphinidin3-O-(2-O-𝛽-D

-xylop

yranosyl)-𝛽-D

-glucop

yranoside.

[19,21,266–

269]

Meliaceae

Trich

iliaroka

Chiov.

Soulafinzan

Root

Trop

icalAfrica

Mali

Sign

ificantlyprotectiv

eagainst

CCl4-in

ducedliver

damagea

ndpreventedperis

inusoidalfi

brosis.

Usedto

treatmalaria,abd

ominalpain

andderm

atitis.

Polyph

enols

[270,271]

Men

ispe

rmaceae

Sphenocentrum

jollyan

umPierre

Akerejupo

najo

Fruit

Root

WestA

frica

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ctivity.

Usedto

treatinflammatory-based

diseases

Furano

diterpenes:colum

bin,

isocolumbin.

Flavon

oids-richfractio

n.[272–274]

Tinosporabakis

Who

leplant

Sudan

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ctivity.Totre

atheadache

andrheumatism

Aditerpenoidfurano

lacton

e,columbin

[275]

Moraceae

Dorste

niabarte

rivar.subtria

ngularis

(Eng

ler)

M.E.E.Hijm

an&

C.C.Be

rg

Con

trayerva

Twigs/leaves

Cam

eroo

n

Antioxidant

prop

ertie

saccou

ntforthe

anti-inflammatorya

ctionof

thesee

xtracts

Usedto

treatarthritis,

rheumatism

,gou

t,headache

andotherformso

fbod

ypains.

Prenylated

flavono

ids:Th

reed

iprenylated

chalcones:bartericinsA

(-)-3-(3,3-dim

ethylallyl)-5-(2-hydroxy-3-

methylbut-3-enyl)-4,2,4-tr

ihydroxychalcone,

bartericinsB

(+)-3-(3,3-dim

ethylallyl)-4,5-[2-

(1-hydroxy-1-m

ethylethyl)-dihydrofurano]-4,2-

dihydroxychalcon

eand

bartericinsC

3,4-(6,6-dim

ethyldihydropyrano

)-4,5-[2,-

(1-hydroxy-1-m

ethylethyl)-dihydrofurano]-2-

hydroxychalcon

eand

also

twono

veldiprenylated

chalcones:3,5-di-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-

enyl)-4,2,4-tr

ihydroxychalcone,3,

4-(2,2-dim

ethylpyrano)-3-(2-hydroxy-3-

methylbut-3-enyl)-2,4-dihydroxychalcone,4,2,

4-tr

ihydoxy-3-prenylchalcon

eand

4,2,4-tr

ihydoxy-3,3-diprenylchalcon

e;and

5,7,4-tr

ihydoxy-8-prenylflavone.

Other

know

ncompo

unds

such

asstipu

lin,

4-hydroxylon

chocarpin,kanzon

olB,

3-(2-Hydroxy-3-m

ethylbut-3-enyl)-5-(3,3-

dimethylallyl)-4,2,4-tr

ihydroxychalcone,and

dorsteno

ne.

[67,276–

281]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

D.ciliataEn

gl.

Con

trayerva

Aeria

lparts

Cam

eroo

nCentralAfrica

Antira

dicaland

antio

xidant

activ

ities.

Usedas

food

additiv

e.

phenoliccompo

und(6-prenylapigenin)

Flavon

es:(ciliatin

A)5

,4-D

ihydroxy-5-

isoprop

enyldihydrfurano

l[2,3:7,6]flavone

(ciliatin

B)7,4-D

ihydroxy-3-m

etho

xy-6,6-

dimethyldihydropyrano

l[2,3:5,6].

[282–284]

D.convexa

DeW

ild.

Con

trayerva

Twigsa

ndleaves

Dem

ocratic

Repu

blicof

the

Con

go

Antioxidant

prop

ertie

saccou

ntforthe

anti-inflammatorya

ctionof

these

extracts.

Usedto

treatarthritis,

rheumatism

,gou

t,headache

andotherformso

fbod

ypains.

Prenylated

flavono

ids

[67,276,280]

D.m

anniiH

ook.f.

Con

trayerva

Twigs/leaves

Aeria

lparts

CentralAfrica

Antioxidant

actio

nagainst

copp

er-in

ducedLD

Loxidation,

this

activ

ityislik

ethe

non-prenylated

flavono

idqu

ercetin

.Also

,inh

ibition

ofplateletaggregationandinflu

ence

ofcycloo

xygenase

andlip

oxygenasea

ctivity.

Usedto

treatrheumatism

,stomach

disorders.

Anti-tric

homon

alactiv

ity.

Grenylatedandprenylated

flavono

idsa

ndflavono

nes:

Flavon

ones:

6,8-diprenyl-5,7,34-te

trahydroxyflavano

ne,

4-hydroxylon

chocarpin,4-metho

xyloncho

carpin,

6-prenylchrysoeriol,6,8-diprenyleriodictyol,

gancaoninPandPrenylated

flavono

ids:

6,8-diprenyleriodictyol,do

rsmanin

C7,8

-(2,2-Dim

ethylchrom

eno)-6-geranyl-3,5,3,4-

tetrahydroxyflavone

anddo

rsmanin

D6,8-Diprenyl-3

,5,7,4-te

trahydroxy-3-

metho

xyflavone,

dorsmanins1,J

and2-epimerso

fdorsm

aninsF

(6,7-(2,2-dim

ethylpyrano)-8-prenyl-5

,3,4-

trihydroxyflavano

ne,G

(6,7-(2,2-dim

ethyldihydro-pyrano)-8-prenyl-

5,3,4-tr

ihydroxfl

avanon

e).A

lso,dorsm

aninsF

andG.

Four

newprenylated

flavano

nes,named

dorsam

ineF

(7,8-[2-(1-h

ydroxy-1-

methylethyl)-

dihydrofurano]-6-prenyl-5

,3,4-

trihydroxyflavano

ne),do

rsmaine

G(6,7-[2-(1-h

ydroxy-1-

methylethyl)dihydrofurano

]-8-prenyl-5,3,4-

trihydroxyflavano

ne)a

nddo

rsam

ineH

(6-prenyl-8

-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-

5,7,3,4-te

trahydroxyflavano

ne).

[67,187,207,

285–287]

16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

D.poinsettifolia

var.

angusta

Engl.

Dingeteng

aWho

leplant

Cam

eroo

nAntira

dicaland

antio

xidant

activ

ities.

Usedto

treatinfected

woun

ds.

Grenylatedandprenylated

flavono

ids.Th

eun

usual4-phenyl-sub

stituteddihydrocou

marin

andther

areg

eranyl-and

prenyl-sub

stituted

Chalcone.

[207,288,289]

D.psilurus

Welw

.Dingeteng

aRo

ots

Cam

eroo

nCentralAfrica

Antira

dicaland

antio

xidant

activ

ities.

Usedagainstsnakebiteandto

treat

rheumatism

,headachea

ndsto

mach

disorders.

Grenylatedandprenylated

flavono

ids.

Threep

heno

liccompo

unds:6,8-diprenyl-3

[O],4-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)-3,5,7-

trihydroxyflavone,

3,6-diprenyl-8-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-

5,7,2,4-te

trahydroxyflavone

andan

unusualB/C

ringmod

ified

flavono

idderiv

ativefor

which

the

names

dorsilu

rinsC

,DandE,

respectiv

ely,are

prop

osed.

Twonewflavones,do

rsilu

rinsA

andB,

andan

ewbenzofuran

deriv

ativeh

aveb

eeniso

latedfro

mDorste

niap

silurus,togetherw

iththreek

nown

phenylprop

anoidderiv

atives,stearyl-p-cou

marate

[octadecanyl3-(4-hydroxyph

enyl)prop-2-enoate],

stearylferulate[octadecanyl

3-(4-hydroxy-3-m

etho

xyph

enyl)prop-2-enoate]

andpsoralen.

[206

,282,290–

292]

Myrtaceae

EugeniaellipticaSm

.Syzygiu

msm

ithii(Poir.)

Nied.

Lilly

Pilly

Leaves

Mauritius

Mod

ulatethe

expressio

nof

the

antio

xidant

enzymeg

enes.

Quercetin-3-O

-galactosid

e(hyperosid

e),

kaem

pferol-3-glucosid

e(astragalin),

quercetin

-3-O

-glucosid

e(iso

quercitrin),

(+)-catech

[293,294]

E.fascicu

lataWall.

Not

signalized

Leaves

Mauritius

Mod

ulatethe

expressio

nof

the

antio

xidant

enzymeg

enes.

Quercetin-3-O

-galactosid

e(hyperosid

e),

kaem

pferol-3-glucosid

e(astragalin),

quercetin

-3-O

-glucosid

e(iso

quercitrin),

(+)-catech.

procyanidinB2

dimer

and(-)-epicatechin

[293]

E.orbiculata

Lam.

Not

signalized

Leaves

Mauritius

Mod

ulatethe

expressio

nof

the

antio

xidant

enzymeg

enes.

Quercetin-3-O

-galactosid

e(hyperosid

e),

kaem

pferol-3-glucosid

e(astragalin),

quercetin

-3-O

-glucosid

e(iso

quercitrin),

(+)-catech.

quercetin

-3-O

-rutinoside(rutin

),

[293,295]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

E.pollicin

aJ.G

ueho

&A.J.Scott

Not

signalized

Leaves

Mauritius

Mod

ulatethe

expressio

nof

the

antio

xidant

enzymeg

enes.

Quercetin-3-O

-galactosid

e(hyperosid

e),

kaem

pferol-3-glucosid

e(astragalin),

quercetin

-3-O

-glucosid

e(iso

quercitrin),

(+)-catech.

(-)-epicatechingallate

[293,296]

Monim

iastrum

acutise

palum

J.Gueho

&A.J.Scott.

Not

signalized

Leaves

Mauritius

Mod

ulatethe

expressio

nof

the

antio

xidant

enzymeg

enes.

Quercetin-3-O

-galactosid

e(hyperosid

e),

kaem

pferol-3-glucosid

e(astragalin),and

quercetin

-3-O

-glucosid

e(iso

quercitrin).

(+)-catechin

[293–295]

M.globosum

J.Gueho

&A.J.Scott

Not

signalized

Leaves

Mauritius

Mod

ulatethe

expressio

nof

the

antio

xidant

enzymeg

enes.

Quercetin-3-O

-galactosid

e(hyperosid

e),

kaem

pferol-3-glucosid

e(astragalin),and

quercetin

-3-O

-glucosid

e(iso

quercitrin).

(-)-epicatechingallate

[293]

Syzygiu

marom

aticu

m(L.)

Merr.&L.M.Perry

Cloveb

udDrie

dflo

wers

Buds

Madagascar

Sudan

Antioxidant

andantim

icrobialactiv

ities.

Usedto

treattoothache

andthroat

inflammation.

Eugeno

lMethyleugenol

[23,297,298]

S.coria

ceum

J.Bosser&

J.Guého

Boisde

pomme

Mauritius

Abilitie

stomod

ulatethe

expressio

nof

thea

ntioxidant

enzymeg

enes.

Phenolsa

ndflavono

ids:

Quercetin-3-O

-rutinoside,

kaem

pferol-3-glucosid

e(astragalin)and

quercetin

-3-O

-glucosid

e(iso

quercitrin),

(+)-catechin,procyanidin

B1dimer,

(-)-epicatechingallate

[293]

S.glo

meratum

DC.

Boisde

pomme

Leaves

Mauritius

Abilitie

stomod

ulatethe

expressio

nof

thea

ntioxidant

enzymeg

enes.

Usedto

treatbo

ils,abscesses,fever

and

woun

dsandas

expectorant.

Phenolsa

ndflavono

ids:kaem

pferol-3-glucosid

e(astr

agalin)and

quercetin

-3-O

-glucosid

e(isoq

uercitrin),procyanidinB1

dimer,

(-)-epicatechingallate,chlorogenicacid,

(-)-epicatechin

[293]

S.guehoii

Not

signalized

Mauritius

Abilitie

stomod

ulatethe

expressio

nof

thea

ntioxidant

enzymeg

enes.

Phenolsa

ndflavono

ids:qu

ercetin

-3-O

-rutinoside

(rutin),kaem

pferol-3-glucosid

e(astragalin)and

quercetin

-3-O

-glucosid

e(iso

quercitrin),

(+)-catechin,chlorogenicacid,procyanidin

B2dimer

[293]

S.mau

ritianu

mJ.G

ueho

&A.J.Scott

Not

signalized

Leaves

Mauritius

Abilitie

stomod

ulatethe

expressio

nof

thea

ntioxidant

enzymeg

enes.

Phenolsa

ndflavono

ids:qu

ercetin

-3-O

-rutinoside

(rutin),kaem

pferol-3-glucosid

e(astragalin)and

quercetin

-3-O

-glucosid

e(iso

quercitrin),

(+)-catechin,chlorogenicacid

[293]

S.petrinense

J.Bosser&

J.Guého

Not

signalized

Mauritius

Abilitie

stomod

ulatethe

expressio

nof

thea

ntioxidant

enzymeg

enes.

Phenolsa

ndflavono

ids:qu

ercetin

-3-O

-rutinoside

(rutin),kaem

pferol-3-glucosid

e(astragalin)and

quercetin

-3-O

-glucosid

e(iso

quercitrin),

procyanidinB1

dimer,chlorogenicacid

[293]

18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

S.venosum

(Lam

.)J.G

ueho

&A.J.Scott

Not

signalized

Mauritius

Abilitie

stomod

ulatethe

expressio

nof

thea

ntioxidant

enzymeg

enes.

Phenolsa

ndflavono

ids:qu

ercetin

-3-O

-rutinoside

(rutin),kaem

pferol-3-glucosid

e(astragalin)and

quercetin

-3-O

-glucosid

e(iso

quercitrin),

(+)-catechin,procyanidin

B2dimer

[293,295,299]

Oleaceae

Olea

europaea

subspafric

ana(M

ill.)P

.S.

Green

African

wild

olive

Leaves

SouthAfrica

Potent

antio

xidant

activ

ity.

Usedas

eyelotions

andtonics,low

erbloo

dpressure,improvek

idneyfunctio

nanddealwith

sore

throats.Th

eearlyCape

settlersu

sedthefruits

totre

atdiarrhoea

Oleuafricein(m

ixture

ofoleano

licacid

and

ursolic

acids),Triterpeno

idsa

ndoleoropein.

[84,300,301]

Peda

liaceae

Harpagophytum

procum

bens

DC.

exMeissner

Devil’s

claw

Root

SouthAfrica

Nativetothe

KalahariDesert

ofsouthern

Africa,Nam

ibia

and

Botsw

ana.

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ndability

toinhibit

thee

xpressionof

cycloo

xygenase-2

and

indu

ciblen

itricoxideb

ysupp

ressionof

NF-kapp

aBactiv

ation.

Usedforp

ain,

musculartensio

n,osteoarthritis,degenerativ

erheum

atism

orpainfularthrosisandtend

onitisa

swell

astonicfor

lossof

appetitea

nddyspeptic

complaints.

Rootsc

ontain

irido

idglycosides

mainly

harpagoside.

Other

constituentsa

reflavonesa

ndflavono

lskaem

pferol,and

luteolin.

[302–312]

Pipe

raceae

Piperg

uineense

Schu

m.&

Thon

n.

WestA

frican

blackpepp

erBu

shpepp

erIkom

,Amana

kakw

aleiyeyeh

asho

esie

taqu

aleM

esho

ro

Fruit,seed

andleaf

Ghana,W

est

Africa

Nigeria

Cam

eroo

n

Antioxidant

activ

ity.

Volatileo

ilcompo

nents-mon

oterpenes,

sesquiterpenes,terpeno

ids,lignans

andste

rols.

[313–316]

Podo

carpaceae

Podo

carpus

species

Podocarpus

elongates

Podocarpus

falca

tus,

Podocarpus

henkelii

andPodocarpus

latifolius

Leaves

and

youn

gste

ms

Easte

rnand

Southern

Africa

Theses

pecies

areu

sedto

treatfevers,

asthma,coug

hs,cho

lera,chest

complaints,arthritis,

rheumatism

,painful

jointsandvenerealdiseases

Diterpenoids,bioflavono

idsa

ndTo

tarol

[317]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

Ranu

nculaceae

Nigella

sativaL.

Blackcumin

Seed

African

coun

triesinthe

Mediterranean

region

Antioxidant

potentialsthroug

hscavenging

ability

ofdifferent

free

radicalsinclu

ding

thes

uperoxidea

nion

radical,inhibitio

nof

lipid

peroxidatio

n,andprotectio

nof

liver

againstcarbo

ntetrachloride(CCl4)-in

ducedliver

fibrosis

inrabb

itsUsedto

treatdiarrhoea,asthma,andas

gastr

oprotectivea

gent.

Oil:Th

ymoq

uino

ne[29–

31,318,319]

Rosaceae

Crataegusm

onogyna

Jacq.

Haw

thorn,

May

Blossom,M

ayDay

Flow

er,

WhiteTh

orn.

Fresh

vegetativ

eand

reprod

uctiv

eorgans

Mauritius,

NorthernAfrica

Antioxidant

activ

ities.

Usedforitsneuro-

andcardiosedativ

eactio

ns.

Polyph

enols:(proanthocyanidin,

flavono

id,

anthocyanin,

(-)-epicatechin,procyanidinB2

,chlorogenica

cid).

Flavon

oids:quercetin

andqu

ercetrin,glycosid

es,

proantho

cyanidins,anthocyn

aidins,sapon

ins,

tann

ins,andcratetegin

Also

,Vitamin

C.

[320–323]

Leucosidea

seric

eaLeaf,bark

androots

Southern

AfricaAntim

icrobialandanti-inflammatory

prop

ertie

sPh

enolics,alkaloidsa

ndsapo

nins

[210]

Pygeum

afric

anum

Hoo

k.f.

African

plum

tree

RedStinkw

ood

Bark

SouthAfrica

Anti-infl

ammatory.

Usedto

treatagainstb

enignprostatic

hyperplasia

,prosta

titis

14%triterpenes(urolic

acids,oleano

licacid,

crataegolic

acid),0.5%

n-do

cosano

lPh

ytosterol(𝛽-sito

sterol,𝛽-sito

sterone,

Cam

peste

rol

[188,324–327]

Rubiaceae

Crossopteryx

febrifuga

Benth.

RogerB

lench

“rim

ajogoo-hi/je

”

Seeds

Leafand

roots

Mali

Nigeria

Radicalscaveng

ingandlip

oxygenase

inhibitio

nactiv

ities.

Usedto

treatfevera

ndvario

usrespira

tory

diseases

Flavon

oids

[328–330]

Rutaceae

Agathosm

abetulin

a(Berg.)P

illans.

Roun

d-leaf

buchu

Leaves,

stems

SouthAfrica

Hydroxylradicalionscavenging

ability.

Usedforstomachprob

lems,kidn

eyand

urinarytrackdiseases.

Essentialoils

andflavono

ids

[188,331,332]

A.crenulata(L.)

Pillans

Oval-leaf

buchu

Leaves,

stems

SouthAfrica

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ctivity.

Usedto

treatbenign

prostatic

hyperplasia

,prosta

titis,

diabetes,

inflammationof

thec

olon

,gum

s,and

mucou

smem

branes.L

eavesc

hewe

dto

relieve

stomachcomplaints.

Essentialoils

andflavono

ids

[84,188,331,332]

20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

andplan

tnam

eVe

rnacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/ore

xperim

ental

valid

ation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

Fagara

zanthoxyloides

Lam.

xeti,

xeWô

Roots,

root-bark

Cam

eroo

n,Ugand

a

Antioxidant

activ

ity.

Usedto

treatging

ivitis,toothache,

urinaryandvenerealdiseases,

rheumatism

andlumbago,m

alariaand

otherinfectio

ns.

Phenylethano

idderiv

ative,lignans

andfagaronine

[333–336]

Sapind

aceae

Dodonaeaviscosa

Jacq.

Syno

nyms:Dodonaea

angustifolia

L.f.;

Ptele

aviscosaL.

Umusasa

Leaves

Rwanda

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ctivity

byinhibitin

gthes

ynthesisof

prostaglandin(PG)E

(2).

Usedto

treatrheumatism

,skininfections,

diarrhea,stomachaches,pains

ofhepatic

andsplenico

rigin,uterin

ecolic.Itisa

lsoused

asan

antip

ruriticin

skin

rashes

and

forthe

treatmento

fsom

ethroat,

derm

atitisa

ndhemorrhoids.

Quercetin,isorham

netin

[337–341]

Xan

thorrhoeaceae

Aloe

feroxMill.

Bitte

raloeo

rCapea

loe

Leaves

SouthAfrica,

Lesotho

A.fer

oxgelcon

tainsa

tleast130medicinal

agentswith

anti-inflammatory,analgesic

,calm

ing,antiseptic

,antivira

l,antip

arasitic

andantic

ancere

ffects

Chromon

es,anthraquino

nes,anthrone,

anthrone-C

-glycosid

es,and

otherp

heno

liccompo

unds

Barbaloin

[9]

Zing

iberaceae

Siphonochilusa

ethiopicu

s(Schwe

inf.)

B.L.Bu

rtt.

Wild

ginger

Natalginger

African

Ginger

Rhizom

eSouthAfrica

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ctivity

throug

hcycloo

xygenase

inhibitory

(prosta

glandin-synthetase

inhibitio

n),

activ

ity.

Usedto

treatCou

ghs,colds,asthma.

Sesquiterpenoid

[188,264,342]

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

Free radicalformation

Oxidativestress

Cellular andtissue damage

Delayedhealing

Free radicalscavenging Repair

Antioxidants

Signallingmessengers

Upregulation ofantioxidant compounds

and enzymes

Figure 2: Mechanism of antioxidant action in wounds.

hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and other free radicals [348, 349].

Furthermore, increasing evidence suggests a relationshipbetween metal overload and several chronic diseases throughthe induction of oxidative stress [350]. Therefore, inhibitionof free radical formation using metal ions as targets could beuseful therapeutically. Antioxidant assays designed for thispurpose include the cupric and ferric reducing antioxidantpower (CUPRAC/FRAP).Thesemethods measure the abilityof antioxidants to reduce cupric (Cu2+) and ferric (Fe3+) ions,respectively.

Another mechanism bywhich antioxidants act is throughthe suppression of oxidative stress by directly scaveng-ing active free radicals. Most commonly reported antioxi-dant assays such as 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), 2,2-diphenyl-p-picrylhydrazyl radi-cal (DPPH), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC),Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), total oxyrad-ical scavenging capacity (TOSC), and total radical antioxi-dant parameter (TRAP) are focused on testing the ability toscavenge free radicals. Furthermore, there are diverse cellularantioxidant assays that assess the ability of antioxidant com-pounds and substances to protect cells against excessive freeradical generation. Such assays involve the use of a fluorescentcompound such as 2,7-dichlorofluoroscein to determine theability of test samples to quench intracellularly generated freeradicals and inhibit radical formation and lipid peroxidation[345].

There are also numerous reports of the ability of antioxi-dants to repair damaged tissues and improve healing. Topicalapplication of kojic acid and deferiprone, two compoundswith the ability to scavenge free radicals, enhanced healing ofwounds in rats [351]. Also, the mitochondria-targeted antiox-idant, 10-(6-plastoquinonyl) decyltriphenylphosphonium,

acceleratedwound closure, stimulated epithelialization, gran-ulation tissue formation, and vascularization, and loweredlipid peroxidation in mice [352]. Moreover, an antioxidantpeptide (cathelicidin-OA1) promoted wound healing in amouse model with full-thickness skin wounds, acceler-ated reepithelialization and granulation tissue formation byenhancing the recruitment of macrophages to the woundsite, and induced cell proliferation and migration [353].Some antioxidants have also been reported to contribute tohealing by enhancing the activity of endogenous antioxidantcompounds and enzymes.The induction of the nuclear factorE2-related factor 2-(Nrf2)mediated antioxidative pathway bya rhomboid family protein (RHBDF2) promoted healing ofinjured tissues, suggesting a relationship between antioxidantgene induction and healing [354]. Niconyl-peptide enhancedwound healing and protected against hydrogen peroxide-induced cell death by increasing the expression of Nrf2expression in human keratinocytes [355].

The most common tests used to determine the antiox-idant activity of samples included the assessment of theability to scavenge free radicals such as DPPH, ABTS+ [16,19, 35, 62, 85, 94, 98, 99, 139, 158, 175, 184, 187, 266, 282,302, 356–364], or the hydroxyl radicals [79, 188, 267, 365,366], as well as the hydroperoxyl radicals by the Briggs-Rauscher reaction [104]. The ability of the extracts to chelatemetal ions was also determined as further indication oftheir ability to contribute in the reduction of free radicalssuch as the hydroxyl radical [114]. In addition, assessmentof the ability of these medicinal plant extracts to protectagainst lipid peroxidation was also included, which in turnwas measured by the malondialdehyde-thiobarbituric acid(MDA) test [320, 367], the modified thiobarbituric acidreactive species (TBARS) assay [18, 22], or conjugated diene

22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

formation [367]. Moreover, lipid peroxidation was assessedusing the fluorescent probe, diphenyl-1-pyrenylphosphine(DPPP) [188], or using the inhibition of Cu(2+)-mediatedoxidation of human low-density lipoprotein (LDL) [187, 367].The ability of extracts to protect against damage toDNAusingthe Comet assay was also employed [114, 188].

The antioxidant capacity of the medicinal plant extractswas determined using either the TEAC or FRAP assays [11,85, 302, 313, 321, 368]. The ability of extracts to modulatethe gene expression of the antioxidant enzymes, such asCu, Zn-superoxide dismutase (Cu, Zn-SOD),Mn-superoxidedismutase (Mn-SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase(GPx), was also used as a measure of their antioxidantproperties [293]. The photochemilumiescence (PLC) assay isa more recent antioxidant capacity assessment method andwas employed for the evaluation of antioxidant capacity ofbaobab fruit pulp extracts [369].

Anti-inflammatory properties of these extracts wereassessed by their ability to inhibit 5-lipoxygenases [94, 370,371] or cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2) activities [65,275, 317, 372, 373]. Using the former [374] and the latter[264, 331] methodologies, respectively, a great number ofSouth African medicinal plant extracts were screened fortheir anti-inflammatory properties. The effect of medicinalextracts on the biosynthesis of different prostaglandins wasassessed as a measure of their anti-inflammatory effect[239, 337, 375]. Extracts of Podocarpus species were shownto inhibit the activities of the COX enzymes [317]. Onceagain, using this test, the anti-inflammatory properties ofthe aqueous and ethanolic extracts of 39 plants used intraditional Zulu medicine were screened [376].TheHen’s EggTest-Chorioallantoic Membrane (HET-CAM) assay whichutilizes the CAM’s capillary system in bred hen eggs wasalso used to assess the anti-inflammatory activity throughantiangiogenic effects of the ethanol and aqueous extracts ofDrosera rotundifolia and D. madagascariensis [155].

The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory abilities of theherbal extracts were further assessed by evaluating their abil-ity to control the production of ROS produced by oxidativeburst in neutrophils stimulated with L-formyl-L-methionyl-L-leucyl-L-phenylalanine (FMLP) [21, 246]. The inhibitionof neutrophils elastase was used as a measure of anti-inflammatory property and it was proposed that the presenceof flavonoids such as hyperoside, quercetin, and isoquercitrinin D. rotundifolia [377] and five flavonoid compounds intwo Polypodium species (P. decumanum and P. triseriale)[378] were thought to contribute to this anti-inflammatoryactivity. These and other in vitro tests were used to assess theantioxidant properties of three Ghanaian species: Spathodeacampanulata, Commelina diffusa, and Secamone afzelii [63].

Inflammation is a complex mechanism with many path-ways. Several extracts derived from medicinal plants havebeen shown to modulate or inhibit the activities of mediatorsof inflammation. For instance, kolaviron, a bioflavonoidcompound isolated from the seeds of Garcinia kola, hasbeen reported to possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidantactivities via its effects on COX-2 and inducible nitric oxidesynthase (iNOS) by inhibiting the expression of nuclear factorkappa B (NF-𝜅B) [115]. Quercetin is a flavonoid molecule

ubiquitous in nature and functions as an antioxidant andanti-inflammatory agent. Dose- and time-dependent effectsof quercetin have been investigated on proinflammatorycytokine expression and iNOS, focusing on its effects onNF-𝜅B signal transduction pathways in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells by using real time polymerasechain reaction (RT-PCR) and immunoblotting. Curcumin, ayellow pigment of turmeric, has been shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory activity. Curcumin has been found effectivein the treatment or control of chronic inflammatory condi-tions such as rheumatism, atherosclerosis, type II diabetes,and cancer [203]. Calixto et al. reported that the anti-inflammatory action of active spice-derived componentsresults from the disruption of the production of variousinflammatory proteins (e.g., cytokines such as tumour necro-sis factor-alpha (TNF-𝛼), iNOS, and COX-2) [379].

Animal studies were also conducted to assess theantioxidant properties of several medicinal extracts. Theantioxidant potential of Hypericum perforatum, containingmany polyphenolic compounds, was evaluated on splanch-nic artery occlusion (SAO) shock-mediated injury [477]and also against elevated brain oxidative status induced byamnestic dose of scopolamine in rats [126]. Some medic-inal plant extracts were tested for their ability to protectagainst carbon tetrachloride-, 2-acetylaminofluorene- (2-AAF-), and galactosamine-induced liver as well as aflatoxinB1-(AFB1-)induced genotoxicity. Using this test, it was foundthat an extract of Garcinia kola seeds [116, 478, 479], adecoction of Trichilia roka root [270], extracts of Entadaafricana [442], and Thonningia sanguinea [98, 480] pos-sessed protective abilities. The antioxidant properties ofplant extracts against potassium bromate (KBrO(3))-inducedkidney damage showed the ability of G. kola seed extract toprotect the kidneys [481].

Animal studies were also used to assess the anti-inflammatory ability of a great number of medicinal plantextracts using the carrageenan-induced rat paw oedemamodel. Plants investigated include seed extracts of Picral-ima nitida [399], crude methanol extract of the root ofMoringa oleifera [469], powdered leaves and root ofMallotusoppositifolium [167], methanolic extract of Picralima nitidafruit [400], hot water extract of Alstonia boonei root-bark,Rauvolfia vomitoria root-bark, andElaeis guineensisnuts [56],secondary root aqueous extract of Harpagophytum procum-bens [303], crude extracts of Sphenocentrum jollyanum [272],aqueous and methanolic extracts of Hypoxis hemerocallideacorm [482], aqueous and methanolic extracts of Sclerocaryabirrea stem-bark [483], aqueous extract of Mangifera indicastem-bark [13], aqueous extracts of Leonotis leonurus leaves[484], leaf extracts of Bryophyllum pinnatum [148], methanolextracts of the stem-bark of Alstonia boonei [485], aerialparts of Amaranthus caudatus [486], methanolic extractsof Kigelia pinnata flower [415], and leaf and twig extractsof Dorstenia barteri [276]. In all of these studies, the anti-inflammatory effect against carrageenan-induced rat pawoedema was attributed to flavonoids and other polyphenoliccompounds. Animal tests also employed to assess the anti-inflammatory effects of the medicinal plant extracts includedinflammatory cell response such as neutrophil chemotaxis

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23

Table2:Medicinalplantswith

confi

rmed

antio

xidant

activ

ityor

medicinalplantsthatcontaincompo

unds

thataren

otkn

ownto

have

antio

xidant

activ

ity.

Family

andplan

tna

me

Vernacular

name

Plan

tpart

Cou

ntry

/area

Med

icinalusea

nd/or

expe

rimentalvalidation

Com

poun

dsisolated

Reference

Acantha

ceae

Barle

riaspecies

B.alboste

llata,

B.greenii,

B.prionitis

Leaves,

twigsa

ndroots

SouthAfrica

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ndantio

xidant

activ

ities

Not

identifi

ed[212,213]

Hypoeste

srosea

Decne.

Not

signalized

Leaf

extract

Nigeria

Anti-infl

ammatorya

ctivity

duein

partto

itsability

toinhibit

NF-kapp

aBactiv

ationthroug

hdirectinhibitio

nof

IkappaBkinase

(IKK

).

Diterpene:Hypoesto

xide

(abicyclo[9,3,1]

pentadecane)

[380,381]

Aizoa

ceae

Glinus

lotoidesL.

“Mettere”

Hairy

carpet-w

eed

Seeds

Cam

eroo

nEthiop

ia,

Sudan,

Ugand

a,Eg

ypt.

Usedto

treatcardiovascular

and

gastr

ointestin

alsyste

m.

Threefl

avon

oids:apigenin-7-O-glucosid

e,iso

vitexin,andluteolin-7-O

-glucosid

eTh

reeisoflavono

ids:

5,7,2,4-te

trahydroxy-6-(3,3-

dimethylallyl)isoflavone,

5,7,4-tr

ihydroxy

-6,3-di-(3,3-dimethylallyl)isoflavone,and

5,7,2,4-te

trahydroxy-6,3-di-(3,3-dimethy