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Medicina pediátrica en pequeños animales
PRESENTATION BROCHURE
Lactation
HUSBANDRY AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN FARROWING UNITS II
Emilio Magallón Botaya (Coordinator)Alberto García Flores
Roberto Bautista MorenoBoris Alonso Sánchez
José Ignacio Cano LatorreSilvia Almenara Díaz
Patricia Prieto MartínezPablo Magallón Verde
After providing a comprehensive review of the fundamental aspects of farrowing (physiology, facilities, organisation, etc.) in the fi rst volume, in this second volume the authors focus on the next phase, lactation. From the technical and physiological aspects that affect both the mother and the piglet, to production targets, feeding, health programmes on the farm or personnel management. These are topics that will undoubtedly be helpful in the daily practice of professional veterinary surgeons.
As in the previous volume, the authors have achieved a very practical book with rigorous contents, based on their experience and technical literature, accompanied by a large amount of visual material to complement the information given.
HUSB
ANDR
Y AN
D M
ANAG
EMEN
T PR
ACTI
CES
IN F
ARRO
WIN
G UN
ITS
II. L
acta
tion
Emili
o M
agal
lón
Bota
ya (C
oord
inat
or)
After providing a comprehensive review of the fundamental aspects
of farrowing (physiology, facilities, organisation, etc.) in the first
volume, in this second volume the authors focus on the next phase,
lactation. From the technical and physiological aspects that affect
both the mother and the piglet, to production targets, feeding,
health programmes on the farm or personnel management. These
are topics that will undoubtedly be helpful in the daily practice of
professional veterinary surgeons.
As in the previous volume, the authors have achieved a very
practical book with rigorous contents, based on their experience
and technical literature, accompanied by a large amount of visual
material to complement the information given.
Husbandry and management practices in farrowing units II. Lactation
Lactation
HUSBANDRY AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN FARROWING UNITS II
Emilio Magallón Botaya (Coordinator)Alberto García Flores
Roberto Bautista MorenoBoris Alonso Sánchez
José Ignacio Cano LatorreSilvia Almenara Díaz
Patricia Prieto MartínezPablo Magallón Verde
After providing a comprehensive review of the fundamental aspects of farrowing (physiology, facilities, organisation, etc.) in the fi rst volume, in this second volume the authors focus on the next phase, lactation. From the technical and physiological aspects that affect both the mother and the piglet, to production targets, feeding, health programmes on the farm or personnel management. These are topics that will undoubtedly be helpful in the daily practice of professional veterinary surgeons.
As in the previous volume, the authors have achieved a very practical book with rigorous contents, based on their experience and technical literature, accompanied by a large amount of visual material to complement the information given.
HUSB
ANDR
Y AN
D M
ANAG
EMEN
T PR
ACTI
CES
IN F
ARRO
WIN
G UN
ITS
II. L
acta
tion
Emili
o M
agal
lón
Bota
ya (C
oord
inat
or)
Author: Emilio Magallón (coordinator), Alberto García, Roberto Bautista, Boris Alonso, José Ignacio Cano, Silvia Almenara, Patricia Prieto and Pablo Magallón.
FormAt: 17 x 24 cm.
Number oF pAges: 200.
Number oF imAges: 150.
biNdiNg: Hardcover.
retAiL priCe
55 €
Presentation of the book
In the past few years, the pig production industry in general and sow farms in particular have undergone great changes: increase in the average size of farms, introduction of new, more prolific genetic lines, improvements in health, better qualified professionals, chan-ges in feeding patterns, better facilities, etc.
As a consequence of these significant changes, productivity on sow farms has increased to such an extent that it is necessary to apply new management and husbandry practices in all the areas of production, but particularly during farrowing and lactation. Sows farrow many more piglets, but with a lower birth weight. Furthermore, the new genetic lines of sows are thinner, have greater mammary development, a greater milk production and require a good body condition to rear their piglets. This entails longer and more productive lactations with changes in the diets, facilities, sow and piglet management practices, per-sonnel management, etc.
With this book, the authors aim to provide an update on the new husbandry and manage-ment practices in farrowing units, with a focus on lactation.
The book starts with a reminder of the technical and physiological aspects of lactation and continues with the environmental control of farrowing units and feeding of the lacta-ting sow and suckling piglet. It then focuses on sow management during this phase, with an emphasis on fostering techniques and management practices after weaning. It also provides information on health programmes and personnel management, as well as on production targets during lactation.
In the authors’ opinion, there was a need for a book that would review the new ways of working and managing modern sow farms. A book with rigorous, scientific grounds that would also be pleasant to read. This is why numerous images, diagrams and summaries have been included.
This book has been written by professionals in the sector who are very involved in the daily work on sow farms. They have therefore chosen to avoid overly technical terms and have used an accessible and simple language.
This book is aimed at a very heterogeneous audience, from veterinary professionals to students, unit supervisors and farm workers specialised in farrowing unit management, and, of course, to all those veterinary or animal husbandry professionals who would like to know the latest innovations in farrowing unit management on modern sow farms in a quick and direct manner.
Finally, it should be remembered that this book is the second part of a work on husbandry and management practices in farrowing units. The first volume, “Husbandry and mana-gement practice in farrowing units I. Farrowing”, addressed all the questions related to farrowing and this second volume will deal with those related to the lactation period.
Husbandry and management practices in farrowing units II. Lactation
The authors
Emilio Magallón Botaya (coordinator)Emilio Magallón Botaya graduated in Veterinary Medicine in 1978 from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, with a specialisation in Animal Production and Agricultural Economics.
After starting his professional career as a large animal veterinary surgeon, he started wor-king in the swine sector in 1981; initially as a technician, later as a team leader and then as a production manager in one of the most important Spanish swine production companies.
For several years he was an associate professor of Swine Production at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of the University of Zaragoza. He also participated as a professor of Economic Analysis Applied to Swine Production for a Master’s degree programme in Ani-mal Production and Health organised in partnership by the universities of Zaragoza, Léri-da, Barcelona and Madrid.
He has participated in several research projects related to the swine sector and is currently co-leading a project for the genetic improvement of swine funded by the Spanish Centre for Industrial Technological Development (CDTI), in collaboration with the animal production area of the Spanish Institute of Food and Agriculture Research and Technology.
Emilio Magallón has published numerous articles on the Spanish swine sector and has participated in numerous seminars and panel discussions throughout Spain.
He is a member of Anaporc (Spanish Scientific Swine Production Association) and foun-ding member of the AVPA (Association of Swine Veterinary Practitioners of Aragon), and is currently part of its board of directors.
Alberto García FloresAlberto Garcia Flores graduated in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2000, with a specialisation in Animal Medicine and Health.
After finishing his studies, he went on to take a specialisation course in swine production. He started his professional career as a veterinary surgeon for the control of infectious diseases associated with production animals.
More than 10 years ago, he joined the swine production company of a multinational firm, where he works as a veterinary surgeon in the areas of production, nutrition, diagnosis and treatment of diseases and carries out tasks related to the technical and economic management of farms. He participates in the planning and carrying out of R&D studies on swine production.
He has published several articles and studies on swine. Furthermore, he has participated in several conferences and panel discussions.
He is a member of the Association of Swine Veterinary Practitioners of Aragon (AVPA).
Roberto Bautista MorenoRoberto Bautista Moreno graduated in Veterinary Medicine from the University of Zarago-za, Spain, in 1990, with a specialisation in Animal Medicine and Health.
He started his professional career in the sheep sector and worked in the areas of sheep health and production in different livestock companies. He later worked as a sales repre-sentative for a pharmaceutical company.
Since 1997 he has been working for livestock production companies, initially in the beef sector as a veterinary surgeon for a company based in the Spanish regions of Aragon and Navarre, and later in the swine sector as a veterinary surgeon for Inga Food, S.A., where he has been in charge of the technical, economic and clinical management of sow farms and fattening units for more than 15 years.
He is a member of the AVPA and is currently a member of its board of directors.
Boris Alonso Sánchez Boris Alonso Sánchez graduated in Veterinary Medicine from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 1998, with a specialisation in Animal Production and Agricultural Economics.
In 1999 he started his professional career as a technician and sales representative for several companies. From 2001 to 2007, he was responsible for the management of pig fattening and breeding farms and since 2007 he has been working for the Technical Vete-rinary Service of Inga Food, S.A., in the region of Aragon.
He has participated in numerous seminars and training sessions on swine production.
José Ignacio Cano LatorreJosé Ignacio Cano Latorre graduated in Veterinary Medicine from the University of Zara-goza, Spain, in 1990, with a specialisation in Animal Production and Agricultural Econo-mics. He holds the official certificate in cooperative company management approved by the Spanish Ministry of Labour (1989-1990). In 1991, he took an advanced course on domestic animal nutrition organised by the INRA in Paris, France.
Since 1992 he has been working as a veterinary surgeon for the swine technical service of a company leader in the animal feed industry, and has carried out and implemented arti-ficial insemination on the company’s farms. He specialises in the technical and financial management of breeding, fattening and post-weaning farms. Since 2008, he has served as the team leader of the same company and collaborated with its R&D centre.
José Ignacio has been involved in several national publications and has attended and par-ticipated in numerous seminars and national and international conferences in Spain and in different countries of great relevance in world swine production.
Husbandry and management practices in farrowing units II. Lactation
Silvia Almenara DíazSilvia Almenara Díaz graduated in Veterinary Medicine from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2006, with a specialisation in Animal Production and Agricultural Economics.
Her final project towards her Master’s degree in Swine Production and Health, organi-sed in partnership by the faculties of veterinary medicine of the universities of Zaragoza, Barcelona, and by the School of Agriculture Science of Lérida, won a prize awarded by the Association of Swine Veterinary Practitioners of Aragon.
She has done internships in different companies in the sector and since 2008 she has been working for an important animal production company in the area of Zaragoza.
Silvia Almenara has participated in various conferences and training sessions on swine production and health.
Patricia Prieto MartínezPatricia Prieto Martínez graduated in Veterinary Medicine from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2006, with a specialisation in Animal Production and Agricultural Economics.
She completed her training with practical work experience in different areas of production at the schools of veterinary medicine of the universities of Lisbon and Costa Rica. In 2007, she took a Master’s degree in Animal Production and Health organised by the universities of Zaragoza, Lérida and Barcelona.
Patricia Prieto began her career in 2008 at the Technical Veterinary Service of one of the most important companies in the swine sector, where she manages several pig breeding and fattening farms.
She has participated in numerous conferences and training sessions on swine production.
Pablo Magallón VerdePablo Magallón Verde graduated in Veterinary Medicine from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2012.
He has done internships in the swine production company Inga Food, S.A., and has taken courses on Swine Production Medicine Clinical Rotation and Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine at the Iowa State University (USA).
He is currently studying a Master’s degree in Swine Health and Production organised in partnership by the universities of Zaragoza, Lérida, Barcelona and Madrid.
Since 2013 he has been working as a veterinary surgeon in one of the most important livestock companies in Spain.
www.grupoasis.com/promo/farrowing_lactation
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Author s CV.
Sample chapter compatible with iPad.
Communication services
Lactation
HUSBANDRY AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN FARROWING UNITS II
Emilio Magallón Botaya (Coordinator)Alberto García Flores
Roberto Bautista MorenoBoris Alonso Sánchez
José Ignacio Cano LatorreSilvia Almenara Díaz
Patricia Prieto MartínezPablo Magallón Verde
After providing a comprehensive review of the fundamental aspects of farrowing (physiology, facilities, organisation, etc.) in the fi rst volume, in this second volume the authors focus on the next phase, lactation. From the technical and physiological aspects that affect both the mother and the piglet, to production targets, feeding, health programmes on the farm or personnel management. These are topics that will undoubtedly be helpful in the daily practice of professional veterinary surgeons.
As in the previous volume, the authors have achieved a very practical book with rigorous contents, based on their experience and technical literature, accompanied by a large amount of visual material to complement the information given.
HUSB
ANDR
Y AN
D M
ANAG
EMEN
T PR
ACTI
CES
IN F
ARRO
WIN
G UN
ITS
II. L
acta
tion
Emili
o M
agal
lón
Bota
ya (C
oord
inat
or)
Table of contents
1. Introduction
2. Technical and physiological considerations regarding lactation
Natural behaviour of the sow and piglet during lactation
Nursing
Behaviour of the sow in the farrowing room
Weaning
Physiology of lactationMammary gland formation
Anatomical review of the mammary gland
Number and type of teats
Endocrinology of lactation
Lactogenesis
Maintenance of lactation (galactopoiesis)
Milk ejection
Lactation curve and milk production
Phases of nursing
Composition of colostrum
Composition of milk
Physiology of the suckling piglet Mortality at birth-weaning
Hierarchy
Play
Physiology of weaningHormonal changes in the sow
Age at weaning
Weight at weaning and growth curve
Weaning and stress in the piglet
3. Environmental control
Environmental requirements of the lactating sow and piglet
Environmental control systems
Animal welfare requirements
4. Feeding of the lactating sow and piglet
Key concepts of nutritionFeed requirements
Water requirements
Feeding of the lactating sow
Types of feed
Feeding curves
Feeding of the suckling pigletCreep feed
Milk replacers
Yoghurt
Gel
Other dietary supplements
Body condition monitoring systemsVisual monitoring
Body condition scoring
Individual weight control with scales
Control of back fat thickness
Weight control using a measuring tape
5. Lactating sow management
Management practices during lactation
Different management strategies: cross-fostering, nurse sows, artificial lactations, complete lactations
6. Suckling piglet management
Piglet management
Processing of piglets: teeth clipping, tail docking, identification…
Main piglet management proceduresCastration
Inguinal hernia surgery
7. Cross-fostering management
Introduction
Partial cross-fostering
Shunt fostering
8. Weaning management
Sow weaning management
Piglet weaning management
Age at weaning
Types of weaning. Partial weaning
9. Health programmes
Health strategy
Main diseases of the lactating sowMastitis
Digestive problems
Joint problems
Demineralisations
Main diseases of the pigletDiarrhoeic problems
Parasitic problems
Coccidia
Ascaris
Exudative epidermitis
Meningitis
Others
BiosafetyProphylactic programmes
Vaccines for the sow and piglet
Antiparasitic treatments
Systematic treatments
10. Personnel management
Necessary aspects for correct personnel management
Selection
Education
Motivation
Training
Planning
Responsibility
Communication
Staff turnover
Teamwork
Working with objectives
Work health and safety
11. Production targets during lactation
Concept of present sow
Concept of productive sow at first service
Concept of productive sow at first farrowing
Farrowing per sow and year
Weaned piglets per litter
Productivity per sow and yearPresent sow
Productive sow at first service
Productive sow at farrowing
12. Conclusions
13. Reference list
1
2Natural behaviour of the sow and piglet during lactation
NursingImmediately after the birth of her piglets, the sow already has colostrum availa-
ble in her udders, as high oxytocin levels (hormone involved in milk ejection) are
reached after farrowing. From the first day on and progressively, colostrum secre-
tion stops while milk secretion starts; this latter is no longer available continually,
which requires piglets to massage and stimulate the mammary glands to ensure
milk ejection. At the beginning, the frequency of nursing is every 40-60 minutes,
although it decreases as the lactation period progresses.
Short after their birth, piglets compete with each other in order to establish their
social hierarchy. As a result, the largest and more vigorous piglets suckle from the
thoracic teats, which are the most productive. Once the hierarchy is established,
piglets always suckle from same teat. Piglets choose a teat from their second day
of life; they seem to guide themselves through the smell of the saliva they leave
on the teat.
The largest and more vigorous piglets nurse the most productive teats, as a result of the hierarchical order established by competition between the members of the litter.
Technical and physiological considerations regarding lactation
HUSBANDRY AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN FARROWING UNITS II. LACTATION.
2
Behaviour of the sow in the farrowing roomThe behaviour of sows with their piglets has an influence on neonatal mortality
rates, especially as regards the risk of crushing. The sows that remain in lateral
recumbent position allow their piglets better access to their teats. Thus, the sows
that move less and those that do not make sudden movements, prevent many
deaths by crushing from occurring (Fig. 1). Sows with inappropriate behaviour
increase mortality rates.
There is a clear relationship between sows with a good behaviour (good mothers) and productivity.
Figure 1 Sow lying down carefully in order not to crush her piglets.
Figure 2 Piglet crushed by its mother. Skin lesions and cyanosis of the mucosae may be observed.
How dangerous a sow’s movements are depends on how careful she is when lying
down, how fast she does so and where the piglets are. The danger a sow repre-
sents varies according to the environmental conditions and the time of the day.
As a general rule, piglets in danger make strident vocalisations when they are
trapped by the sow. This gives the trapped piglet more chances of survival, as if
the mother takes too long to realise what is occurring and stand up, the piglet will
die by asphyxiation (Fig. 2).
2. Technical and physiological considerations regarding lactation
3
Sows need a very quiet environment to nurse their piglets properly and display
appropriate maternal behaviour; any cause of stress (noises, unknown personnel,
etc.) will make them fearful and anxious and may result in difficulties to nurse their
litter and a reduction of their milk production.
The sows that display inappropriate behaviour should be identified so as to con-
trol them and euthanise them if necessary, especially on selection farms. The
selection of sows for numerical productivity should be accompanied by new stu-
dies on behaviour to characterise maternal abilities and thus select those females
with good behaviour.
WeaningUnder natural conditions, weaning is a gradual process in all mammal species.
As the offspring grow, their nutritional needs change and increase. Their mother’s
milk production is therefore insufficient to satisfy them. The offspring progressively
get used to the solid foods required by each species.
In the case of sows, gradually and as lactation progresses, these may even reject
nursing attempts by their piglets. In wild pigs, piglets make a slow transition from
a diet exclusively based on milk to a diet without milk until they become nutri-
tionally independent from the sow at about 8 to 12 weeks of life. Other authors
mention a longer process of up to 17 weeks.
The gradual process through which piglets change from one diet to another inclu-
des four phases.
1. Hiding phase: first week of lactation. Piglets remain isolated in the nest built
by their mother and sporadically make excursions around it.
2. Familiarising phase: second and third week of lactation. Piglets leave the
nest and follow the sow. They remain with the rest of the litter, but do not
interact with the other piglets, or only very little. Piglets start rooting in this
phase.
3. Integration and learning phase: until the seventh week of lactation. Piglets
increase their grazing behaviour and interact with other piglets from their
social group. Sows leave them alone for increasingly longer periods of time,
the time interval between two nursing sessions increases and these latter
are increasingly shorter.
4. Independence phase: until the seventeenth week of lactation, maximum.
Nursing becomes less and less frequent until it stops at a determined
moment. Piglets “function” independently as part of the extended social
HUSBANDRY AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN FARROWING UNITS II. LACTATION.
4
group. They feed on their own although they still sleep with the social group
together with their mother.
The interval between nursing cycles varies greatly. It lasts 40-60 minutes during
the first week of lactation and then increases to 90 minutes between the second
and fourth week. From the tenth week of lactation, the interval between two nur-
sing sessions lasts 300 minutes.
Physiology of lactation
Mammary gland formationThe formation of the mammary glands from skin cells starts very early during foe-
tal development. Before one month of gestation, it is already possible to observe
the differentiation of the mammary lines, where thickenings occur to eventual-
ly form the future teats, and whose number will be the same as the number of
mammary glands of the adult pig. On about day 70 of foetal life, the future mam-
mary gland can be observed as a bud with an outer part that will form the teat,
and an inner part that will give rise to the mammary ducts. These buds both
develop into the lactiferous ducts and grow in a conical shape, so that they are
raised from the skin surface and form the teat.
On the piglet’s first day of life, there is already a rudimentary duct system with no
gland tissue. Mammary glands remain inactive until puberty. At this moment and
at the start of sexual maturity, they develop under the effect of ovarian hormones,
and the non-glandular tissue starts to develop rapidly. The ducts form a very den-
se network, basically of stroma.
Most of this development takes place from the second half of gestation (70-90
days), when the fat and connective tissue (stroma) is replaced by parenchyma
(lobular-alveolar tissue). From day 90, the number of epithelial cells is highest and
the mammary gland’s secretory activity starts.
After farrowing, the increase in prolactin levels and decrease in oestrogen and
progesterone levels lead to an increase in milk secretion. Sucking by the piglets
and the action of oxytocin lead to the ejection of colostrum and milk.
2. Technical and physiological considerations regarding lactation
5
Anatomical review of the mammary glandThe sow’s mammary glands extend from the sternum to the inguinal region. They
appear as raised areas with the shape of half spheres across the ventral region,
each with its respective teat.
As shown in Figure 3, each gland has two totally independent duct systems; each
system has a small cistern and a duct. The cistern or lactiferous sinus is an ellipti-
cal dilation of the duct, whose walls form numerous longitudinal folds, which close
the passage to the lactiferous ducts hermetically. The cistern is communicated
with the gland’s internal wall through the ducts. The function of the ducts is to dra-
in the milk located in the alveoli. Each mammary gland functions independently.
Lactiferous ducts(intra, interlobular and greater)
Teat
Connective tissueLobe
Acini or mammary alveoli
Lactiferous sinus
Figure 3 Structure of the mammary gland. Source: Suis magazine. Anadon et al., 1996.
HUSBANDRY AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN FARROWING UNITS II. LACTATION.
6
Number and type of teatsThe sow’s number of mammary glands varies depending on the breed; the avera-
ge value is 10 teats for Iberian pig breeds, 10-12 for Duroc-Jersey breeds, 14-16
for Large White and Landrace breeds and 18 or more for Chinese breeds.
Genetic improvement has led to genetic lines of Large White and Landrace sows
with 18 or more teats. The most advanced genetic selection programmes are
currently working on selecting replacement gilts with a minimum of 14-16 functio-
nal teats.
Following the anatomical location of the mammary glands in sows, the first two
pairs are usually thoracic, the last two pairs are inguinal and the other intermediate
pairs are abdominal (Fig. 4). Mammary glands are located on the ventral line (on
the mammary line) and have a certain degree of bilateralism, although it is com-
mon to find a percentage of animals with an odd number of mammary glands.
Anatomical and physiological differences are responsible for variations in milk pro-
duction. The anterior or thoracic mammary glands have a greater blood supply
than the posterior ones (abdominal or inguinal) and therefore produce more milk.
Not all the mammary glands are functional; it is frequent to find inverted or inva-
ginated teats, which characteristically lack a glandular body and are shorter (17-
30 % of sows have one or more inverted teats). These abnormal teats do not
produce milk and their incidence varies according to authors.
Thoracic InguinalAbdominal
Figure 4 Number of mammary glands and anatomical distribution. Source: Barceló and De Paz. Fallo lactacional de la cerda, 2005.
2. Technical and physiological considerations regarding lactation
7
Teats and mammary glands according to the sow’s number of gestations or moment of lactation
Figure 5 First-parity gilt.
Figure 7 Ideal teats for nurse sows (long and narrow).
Figure 9 First week of lactation.
Figure 6 Multiparous sow.
Figure 8 Before starting lactation.
Figure 10 Late lactation.
HUSBANDRY AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN FARROWING UNITS II. LACTATION.
8
Milk production depends on udder massaging and teat sucking by the correspon-
ding piglet. If no piglet suckles from a teat, from the third day without any stimulus
on, the mammary gland will undergo involution, which may become irreversible.
Endocrinology of lactationThe mammary glands experience continuous structural and functional changes
related to the sow’s age (mainly puberty), the cycle phase (follicular or luteal) and
her physiological state: gestation, lactation or weaning.
Every year, the sow’s mammary glands undergo 2.3-2.5 cycles of development,
lactation and mammary involution. Mammary gland development in each lac-
tation has an influence on the glands’ production and functionality in the next
lactation.
The lactation period has two independent phases: lactogenesis or milk formation,
mainly regulated by prolactin; and milk ejection or let-down, regulated essentially
by oxytocin.
LactogenesisIn the gestating sow, progesterone levels start to decrease from the second or
third week before birth, although the reduction is more marked in the last two
days. This decrease in progesterone levels induces an increase in prolactin levels
and therefore, an increase in the size of the mammary glands, which grow mainly
in the last three weeks of gestation and reach their maximum development in the
three or four days previous to farrowing. A discharge of serous fluid through the
teats is observed 48 hours before farrowing and the sow starts to secrete colos-
trum 24 hours before giving birth to her piglets.
Lactogenesis is divided into a secretory phase, during which colostrum and milk
secretion starts, and a second phase of galactopoiesis, during which milk pro-
duction is maintained throughout the whole lactation period until weaning. A good
start of milk production is essential for a good lactation.
Mammary stimulation by a vigorous litter leads to an increase in prolactin levels and enhances milk production.
2. Technical and physiological considerations regarding lactation
9
Maintenance of lactation (galactopoiesis)The activity of the pituitary gland is essential for the maintenance of lactation and
for milk secretion to begin. The continued production of prolactin is essential
during the whole lactation period. The sucking stimulus by the piglets keeps pro-
lactin levels high, which prolongs lactation and anoestrus in the sow.
If, for any reason, the sucking stimulus becomes weaker (partial weaning or nurse
sows with very small piglets or piglets that do not nurse enough), the sow may
come into heat even during lactation.
Milk ejectionThe oxytocin released through the hypothalamic-pituitary axis causes milk ejec-
tion or let-down while the piglet is nursing. The production of this hormone is
conditioned by a neurohormonal reflex caused by udder massaging and teat suc-
king by the piglets. The peripheral tactile information at the level of the mammary
glands is transmitted through the nerves to the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, which
induces the release of oxytocin to the bloodstream. The hormone reaches the
mammary glands, where it causes the contraction of the myoepithelial cells and
the emptying of the alveoli. The milk produced passes to the lactiferous ducts and
comes out from the teat to feed the piglets by means of sucking.
Lactation curve and milk productionA sow’s milk production mainly depends on her piglets’ vigour when sucking the
milk from the mammary glands, and varies in function of the litter size, number
of lactations, genetic line and feeding during the gestation phase and above all
during lactation.
The best way to calculate a sow’s milk production is to control the weight of her
piglets, although the data obtained this way may be partly erroneous. According
to the studies of Whittemore and Morgan (1990), it has been established that
every kilogram of weight gained by a piglet is equivalent to four litres of milk.
Therefore, a sow that weans 11 piglets with an average weight of 6.4 kg after
22 days and with a birth weight of 1.4 kg produces 220 litres of milk during her
lactation; that is to say, an average of ten litres a day. In another study (2009),
Collell mentions maximum productions of up to 12 litres a day (Fig. 11).
HUSBANDRY AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN FARROWING UNITS II. LACTATION.
10
Phases of nursingBased on the piglet’s behaviour, there are three phases during a nursing bout
(Fig. 12).
• First phase: very vigorous previous mammary massage that stimulates
oxytocin production. The piglets compete with each other and scream. The
sow grunts and calls the piglets, which coincides with the elimination of
oxytocin. This phase lasts between 1 and 3 minutes.
• Second phase: known as the milk ingestion or nutritive phase. As they hear
the sow’s signal, the piglets remain quiet and suckle from the teat waiting for
the milk to let down. As soon as it comes out, the piglets drink it very quickly
(Fig. 13). This phase only lasts between 10 and 20 seconds. In this phase,
oxytocin causes the contraction of the myoepithelial cells of the mammary
alveoli and milk let-down occurs.
• Third phase: it includes the massage of the mammary glands after milk
ejection. After ingesting the milk, the piglets massage the mammary glands,
albeit in a less vigorous manner, and the sow becomes quiet and grunts softly.
Three stages may also be distinguished according to who causes the nursing
bout:
• During the first ten days of life of the piglets, in 60-80 % of cases, it is the sow
that stimulates nursing, as she produces more milk than that which piglets are
able to ingest.
Dai
ly p
rodu
ctio
n (k
g)
Weeks of lactation
Lactation curve of a hyperprolific sow
Lactation curve of a sow12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 11 Lactation curve of a sow.
Editorial Servet, a division of Grupo Asís, has become one of the reference publishing com-panies in the veterinary sector worldwide. More than 15 years of experience in the publis-hing of contents about veterinary medicine guarantees the quality of its work. With a wide national and international distribution, the books in its catalogue are present in many diffe-rent countries and have been translated into nine languages to date: English, French, Por-tuguese, German, Italian, Turkish, Japanese, Russian and Chinese.
Its identifying characteristic is a large multidisciplinary team formed by doctors and graduates in Veterinary Medicine and Fine Arts, and specialised designers with a great knowledge of the sector in which they work. Every book is subject to thorough technical and linguistic reviews and analyses, which allow the creation of works with a unique design and excellent contents.
Servet works with the most renowned national and international authors to include the topics most demanded by veterinary surgeons in its catalogue. In addition to its own works, Servet also prepares books for companies and the main multinational companies in the sector are among its clients.
The publishing strength of Grupo Asís
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