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AA FFIIEELLDD GGUUIIDDEE TTOO IIDDEENNTTIIFFYYIINNGG TTHHEE MMOOSSTTCCOOMMMMOONN FFOORREESSTT PPEESSTTSS OOFF PPIINNEE
PPLLAANNTTAATTIIOONNSS
A Production of the Alabama Forestry Commission
INTRODUCTIONYou notice that several
trees in a particular pine plantation are declining, dying or dead. The above ground tree symptoms are thinning, sparse crowns with yellow, chlorotic needles. The few pines that are dead have many needles that are reddish-brown. These declining and dead pines are scattered throughout the stand. What forest pest could be causing such wrath on these once assumingly healthy pines? There are several forest pests that could possibly be causing these apparent symptoms. The most common ones that generally affect southern pine plantations in Alabama that will exemplify these symptomatic tree responses are southern pine beetle
(Dendroctonus frontalis), Ips engraver beetle (Ips spp.), black turpentine beetle(Dendroctonusterebrans), annosusroot rot (Spinigermeineckellum),littleleaf disease
(Phytophthoracinnamomi), pitchcanker (Fusariumsubglutinans),needle cast
(Hypoderma spp. and Lophodermium
spp.), and pinedecline
(Leptographiumspp.).
Certain forest pests affect pine plantations at different stages; for instance, the previous eight pests listed generally affect older, mature trees. If these pests are present under unusual circumstances, they are quite difficult to distinguish between each other. Pine pests like the reproduction (pales and pitch-eating) weevils, brown spot needle blight,
pine tip moths and pine webworm basically affect pines during their seedling and sapling stages. Still other forest pests that are quite distinguishable can affect older pines in plantations as well and they are fusiform rust, pine sawflies, woolly pine scale,
pine needle rust and southern pine coneworm. Once a pine has succumbed from a primary pest, secondary pests begin to attack the tree. These secondary pests such as the flatheaded borers, roundheaded borers and ambrosia beetles are normally attracted to pines recently attacked by southern pine bark beetles. Other unconventional factors like our natural environment still have an influence on the health of pines. Abiotic factors like devastating hurricanes, strong winds, salt sprays, a prescribed burn, a persistent drought, misapplied herbicides or logging damage can have detrimental effects on pine plantations. These conditions are also pests to trees.
This guide can be used as a tool to assist forest professionals and concerned landowners alike in distinguishing the differences between these common forest pests of pine plantations. There is a step-by-step procedure with illustrations on identifying a particular forest pest to aid in the learning process.
PESTS OF YOUNG PINE PLANTATIONS
Reproduction Weevils – Pales Weevil (Hylobius pales), Pitch-eating Weevil(Pachylobius picivorus)
Host: Loblolly pine, longleaf pine, shortleaf pine, slash pine, pond pine, sand pine, spruce pine
Adult: Similar in appearance, the pales and the pitch-eating weevils are both brown to black in color with yellowish-white speckled markings. Having a long snout with tiny chewing mouthparts on a small head, the adult weevil is approximately 1/4 to 1/3 inch long. The legs are rather long compared to most pine weevils and bark beetles. The damage to pine seedlings is generally done by the adult weevil.
University of Georgia and the USDA Forest Service, forestryimages.org
Pupa and Larva: The pupa is creamy white and the size of the adult weevil. The larva is also the size of the adult weevil (1/4 to 1/3 inch long) with a white, legless body and an orange to amber colored head. The larva hatches from a small white egg that is usually laid in buried pine slash, in the roots of freshly cut pine stumps, or in severely damaged pine trees.
Damage: The most visible symptom is the girdling of the seedling’s root collar below the ground line. There may be patches of bark removed (from feeding) anywhere on the stem and branches. Buds and needles may also be damaged. The adult weevil usually feeds at night and is basically inactive during day-light hours. Because of its unique feeding habits, the damage (the symptom) done by the adult weevil is more readily noticeable than the actual weevil (the sign) itself. Since the adult weevil overwinters in the soil and duff layer, damage to the seedling is usually not done during the winter months. The University of Georgia and the USDA Forest two feeding peaks for adults are during the Service, forestryimages.org spring and early fall. Just a note, the larvae do not cause harm to the seedlings; they tend to feed on the roots of cut stumps.
Control: The most practical and least expensive method is to postpone planting of a recently harvested site for 9 to 12 months. If a pine stand is harvested before June 1, then reforestation can be done that following winter. Adult weevils are attracted to the resin flow of recently cut or severely damaged pines. Delaying reforestation will allow aging of the stump and slash, thus reducing resin flow which will make the site less attractive to weevils.
Insecticides can be used to dip roots, spray foliage or apply to the soil at the base of the seedling. The cut stump can also be sprayed with an approved insecticide. Do not combine treatments within the same year such as dip the roots in an insecticide and apply a granular insecticide to the soil. Insecticides like Sevin or Malathion are recommended for
University of Georgia and the USDA Forest Service, control. forestryimages.org
University of Georgia and the USDA Forest Service, forestryimages.org
Brown Spot Needle Blight (Scirrhia acicola)
Host: Mainly longleaf pine and sometimes Scotch pine but can under unusual circumstances affect slash pine, loblolly pine, white pines
Fungus: The boat-shaped spores are produced in the yellow bands on the needles from early spring to late summer. These fungal yellow lesions can develop on secondary needles at any time, but are most commonly seen from May to October. On infected longleaf pine needles, the symptom is most noticeable in August and September.
University of Georgia and the USDA Forest Service, forestryimages.org
Damage: Longleaf pines in the seedling or grass stage are most susceptible to brown spot needle blight. Infected needles will initially have grayish- green spots. These spots will soon turn to a straw- yellow color. In the later stage of infection, theses spots will become light brown with a chestnut- colored margin. Eventually, the needle tissue dies beyond and between the groups of lesions. The University of Georgia and the USDA infected needles will finally have an overall
Forest Service, forestryimages.org brown appearance with a green base, a mottled middle section and a brown apex, distinctively. These dead infected needles will defoliate causing a reduction in seedling growth. Very seldom will longleaf pines succumb to brown spot needle blight unless the seedlings experience several consecutive years of infection and defoliation.
Control: For a longleaf pine plantation, the best method is to conduct a prescribed burn, preferably in the winter. This management activity will reduce or even eliminate the fungus while encouraging the seedlings to quickly grow out of the grass stage. For ornamental longleaf pine seedlings and for Scotch pines, a fungicide (such as Bravo, Maneb or Manzate) University of Georgia and can be used as an effective treatment. The USDA Forest Service, forestryimages.org
Pine Tip Moths � Nantucket Pine Tip Moth (Rhyacionia frustrana)
Host: Loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, slash pine, sand pine, spruce pine, pitch pine, pond pine, Virginia pine, Scotch pine but will not attack longleaf pine or white pines
Adult: The Nantucket pine tip moth is gray with irregular patches of red, copper and gray bands on the wings. This relatively small moth approximately 1/4 inch long is rarely seen, not even during its active period from February to late fall. The moths emerge from infested branches anytime from February to March, and mate to start a new generation.
Pupa and Larva: The brown pupae are approximately 1/4 inch long (the size of the adult moth) and exist in the infested branches. These insects overwinter as pupae. The larvae, however, cause the most damage to the pines. Approximately 3/8 inch long, the worm- like larvae are yellowish-white to light brown. The larvae initially feed on new growth until they bore into the shoot for additional food.
Damage: The most recognizable damage is the browning and dying of infested shoots. A closer view will reveal resin beads and fine webbing on the branch tips. When infested shoots or buds are broken open, they will be hollow. The larvae or pupae may be observed at the bottom end of these hollowed shoots and buds, especially if the adult moths have emerged.
Control: In most cases, pine saplings do not succumb to pine tip moth attack. The main damage occurs in the stems. There is visible dieback of shoots causing deformity of the stems resulting in stunted growth of the pine. In an infested pine plantation, a control method is generally not recommended (too impractical and not economically feasible). Pine saplings are most susceptible during the first 5 years before crown closure. Once the pines are more than 5 years old and taller than 12 feet, they are not very susceptible to attack.
If a control method is recommended, the best one is to be proactive in the site preparation regime. Intensive site preparation can have a negative effect on controlling the pine tip moth’s population. Excessive herbaceous weed control eliminates the habitat of its natural predators. Reducing some of the management activities associated with site preparation can sustain the predators’ population, thus keeping the pine tip moth’s infestation to a minimum.
Insecticides can be used to control pine tip moth. Most of the systemic insecticides for pine tip moth control are no longer available. Pounce, a contact insecticide, is still used today but timing of its application is very crucial in its effectiveness. There is a new systemic product called PTM by BASF that is currently being tested for practical use and economic feasibility. Sevin can also be used to control pine tip moth attack.
Pine Webworm (Tetralopha robustella)
Host: Longleaf pine, loblolly pine, slash pine, shortleaf pine, pitch pine, Virginia pine, white pines
Adult: The adult moth is smoky gray with front wings dark gray to brown at the base and tips. The wingspan is approximately 1 inch long.
Pupa and Larva: The larvae are approximately 3/4 inch long with a dark and light brown head and a light brown body with 4 darker stripes. The pupae are reddish-brown and approximately 1/2 inch long and generally exist in the soil from winter until they emerge in the spring as adults.
Damage: The most recognizable damage on pines is the large mass of brown frass and coarse pellets entangled in a silken web created by the larvae. There are usually several larvae in this silken- webbed nest. The larvae feed within the nest, clipping off pine needles. Young pine saplings around 1 to 3 years old are most susceptible, but older pines can occasionally be attacked by the pine webworm. Death of infested pines is very rare, but growth loss may occur.
Control: In a pine plantation, a control method is generally not recommended. Natural enemies such as insect parasites will increase, reducing the pine webworms’ population. Hand picking the individual nests from infested pines can be an effective method. Insecticides like Sevin or Malathion can be used on high value pines.
PESTS OF PINE PLANTATIONS
Fusiform Rust (Cronartium quercuum f. sp. Fusiforme)
Host: Loblolly pine and slash pine are the most susceptible while longleaf pine is somewhat susceptible and shortleaf pine is least susceptible
Alternate Host: Oak species
Fungus: Orange-yellow blisters (spores) form on the surface of pine galls in the spring. Later during the spring season, these orange spores are produced on the undersurface of young oak leaves. By early summer, these visible orange spores produce brown, hair-like structures that will become a different spore type. This new spore type will eventually infect pines.
Damage: The symptom most noticeable on pines is the actual gall located on an infected stem or branch. On older trees, the galls can appear somewhat depressed and canker- like. The infection generally starts on a branch and eventually spreads to the main stem. Sometimes, these infected branches and stems are killed beyond the point of the galls. The presence of pitch is often associated with rust galls due to insect infestation or pitch canker infection. In early spring, orange-yellow blisters are visible on the surface of rust galls. Infected pine seedlings may succumb to fusiform rust within 2 to 3 years. Older pines with severe infections on the main stem may break at the gall site.
Control: The main control recommendation is to be proactive and plant genetically resistant pines. In a pine plantation, control is difficult. The removal of oak species in the vicinity can reduce the occurrence of fusiform rust, but this task is rather complicated. If there are just a few stem galls on a limited number of pines, then the infected stems can be pruned. For high value and ornamental pines, an approved fungicide like Bayleton can be applied to infected trees.
Pine Sawflies � Blackheaded Pine Sawfly (Neodiprion excitans), Redheaded Pine Sawfly (Neodiprion lecontei), Loblolly Pine Sawfly (Neodiprion taedae linearis), Slash Pine Sawfly (Neodiprion merkeli), Sand Pine Sawfly (Neodiprion pratti), Spruce Pine Sawfly (Neodiprion warreni), Virginia Pine Sawfly (Neodiprion pratti pratti)
Host: Loblolly pine, longleaf pine, pond pine, pitch pine, sand pine, shortleaf pine, slash pine, spruce pine, Virginia pine – depending on the pine sawfly species
Adult: The adult is a wasp-like or a fly-like insect. Redheaded Pine Sawfly The adult emerges from a cocoon usually located in the litter layer or soil. The time of emergence depends on the particular sawfly species. The adults mate and the females lay their eggs in slits on pine needles.
Pupa and Larva: The pupae are quite similar to the adults in size and encased in a brown papery cocoon. The larvae size varies anywhere from 3/4 inch to 1 inch long having a similar appearance University of Georgia and the USDA to a caterpillar. The larvae cause the most Forest Service, forestryimages.org damage by feeding on the outermost parts of pine needles. Virginia Pine Sawfly
Blackheaded Pine Sawfly
University of Geogia and the USDA University of Georgia and the USDA Forest Forest Service, forestryimages.org Service, forestryimages.org
Damage: There is some defoliation in the crown. Other needles may be partially or completely consumed giving a tufted-like appearance (shortened stubs on branches). Partially consumed needles will turn reddish-brown and have a straw-like presence. Colonies of sawfly larvae can be viewed on branches during certain times of the year.
Redheaded Pine Sawfly Blackheaded Pine Sawfly
University of Georgia and the USDAUniversity of Georgia and the USDA Forest Service, Forest Service, forestryimages.org
forestryimages.org Virginia Pine Sawfly
Loblolly Pine Sawfly
University of Georgia and the USDA Forest Service, forestryimages.org University of Georgia and the USDA
Forest Service, forestryimages.org
Control: For a pine plantation, a control method is not usually recommended. Natural predators and climatic conditions will soon reduce the population. Trees seldom succumb to pine sawfly attacks. Insecticides such as Pounce, Sevin or Malathion can be used on ornamental pines and Christmas tree plantations.
Woolly Pine Scale (Pseudophilippia quaintancii)
Host: Mainly eastern white pine and Scotch pine, but can also attack loblolly pine, longleaf pine, shortleaf pine, slash pine
Adult: A very small insect, the female adult is approximately 1/16 inch long with a greenish-brown body covered with a thick layer of fleecy white wax.
Pupa and Larva: Not known to have an official pupa or larva stage, the woolly pine scale does have an egg and an immature (crawler) stage. The different immature stages are better known as instars, often referring to the last instar stage as the pupa. Because of its size, the egg and immature woolly pine scale may be difficult to see with the naked eye.
Damage: The most noticeable sign on infested pines is the masses of woolly white wax at the base of needles and on shoots. Sooty mold fungi are occasionally present, resulting in blacken needles and shoots. Woolly pine scale infestation can occur on one or on several pines. Death from this pest is rare unless it is accompanied by other stress factors. Severe attack, however, can cause branch dieback.
Photograph by Guy Jones
Control: In a pine plantation, a control method is generally not recommended. Eventually, natural predators will prey on the woolly pine scale, keeping the population at low levels. Insecticides like Sevin or Malathion can be used on high value and ornamental pines. Horticultural oils can also be applied to infested areas on the tree. Any pesticide used must be applied during the “crawler” stage, from May to July in order to have any effect on the infestation.
Pine Needle Rust (Coleosporium spp.)
Host: All two and three needle southern pines
Alternate Host: Various broad-leaved plants like golden rod, aster, sunflower, morning glory
Fungus: The fungus overwinters in pine needles, emerging from the surface of these infected areas University of Georgia and the USDA Forest as papery white pustules in late spring or early Service, forestryimages.org summer. This is the time where the infection is most noticeable on pines. During the summer months, the pustules rupture and orange- yellow spores are blown to leaves of alternate hosts. By late summer, these spores appear on the leaves of these alternate hosts.
Damage: Pine needle rust is a common disease, but generally innocuous, having very
little impact on infected pines. Mainly a problem for aesthetic reasons, this fungus does not cause death to affected pines.
University of Georgia and the USDA Forest Service, forestryimages.org
Control: In a pine plantation or an urban setting, a control method is generally not recommended. The removal of alternate hosts in the area of the pines can reduce the incidence of pine needle rust. For aesthetic purposes, a fungicide like Bayleton can be applied during late summer to fall on vulnerable pines as a control and preventative method.
University of Georgia and the USDA Forest Service, forestryimages.org
Southern Pine Coneworm (Dioryctria amatella)
Host: Loblolly pine, longleaf pine, sand pine, shortleaf pine, slash pine, spruce pine
Adult: The adult insect is a blackish-gray moth with dark grayish-brown front wings. On the front wings are white zigzag crossbands and patches. The hind wings are light grayish-brown. The wingspan of the adult moth is slightly longer than 1 inch.
Pupa and Larva: The pupa is dark brown and approximately the size of the adult moth. The larva is approximately 3/4 inch long when mature and a combination of many colors. The larva’s body is a reddish-purple brown with an undersurface that is green.
Damage: The larvae do the most damage by feeding in pine cones or in the inner bark of shoots, branches, and stems. The most noticeable symptom is the large pitch mass that can exceed 1 inch in diameter on infested branches and stems. This pitch mass is similar in appearance to pitch masses created by the black turpentine beetle. This mass is milky white with some redness and pinkness color. During the pupa stage of the insect, a tan case can generally be seen protruding from a pitch mass. Since an attack is commonly adjacent to a recent bark injury or fusiform rust gall, the pitch mass may be located at that particular site on the pine.
Control: The best control method is to be proactive and avoid bark injury to trees. If southern pine coneworm infestation or fusiform rust gall infection is located on a branch, prune off that branch. For high value and ornamental pines, an insecticide such as Pounce can be applied to infested areas on the tree.
A S
TEP-
BY-
STEP
PR
OC
EDU
RE
TO A
ID IN
DIS
TIN
GU
ISH
ING
BE
TWEE
N C
OM
MO
N P
ES
TS O
F P
INE
S T
HA
T E
XEM
PLI
FYS
IMIL
AR
SY
MP
TOM
ATI
C T
RE
E R
ES
PO
NS
ES
NO
TES
REC
OR
DED
FO
R T
HIS
PIN
E ST
AN
D:
~ 13
-yea
r old
pla
nted
lobl
olly
pin
e st
and
in B
arbo
ur C
ount
y
~ Pi
ne s
tand
on
sand
y, w
ell-d
rain
ed s
oils
~ An
exi
stin
g dr
ough
t tha
t sta
rted
in th
e sp
ring
of 2
006
~ N
otic
e so
me
dead
pin
es in
Jan
uary
, 200
7
~ Pi
ne s
tand
was
thin
ned
appr
oxim
atel
y 6
mon
ths
earli
er
~ N
o fu
ngal
trea
tmen
t (bo
rax)
was
app
lied
to th
e st
umps
~ S
ympt
omat
ic p
ines
hav
e bo
th d
ead
and
gree
n br
anch
es
~ Tr
ee s
ympt
oms
incl
ude
chlo
rotic
to re
ddis
h-br
own
need
les
~ N
o no
ticea
ble
pitc
h tu
bes
~ N
o si
gn o
f any
con
ks in
the
duff
laye
r of t
he s
oil
~ N
o pr
omin
ent d
isea
se c
ircle
-sc
atte
red
dead
pin
es in
stea
d
PRO
CED
UR
E P
REV
IEW
:
~ W
hile
vie
win
g th
e st
and
in q
uest
ion
for c
hang
es in
vig
or,
exam
ine
an id
entif
ied
“unh
ealth
y”pi
ne
~ Ta
ke n
ote
of a
ny u
nusu
al p
hysi
cal f
eatu
res
that
are
vis
ible
~ An
alyz
e th
e so
il ty
pe, t
he re
lativ
e to
pogr
aphy
, the
exi
stin
gve
geta
tion
and
the
actu
al lo
catio
n (la
titud
e) o
f the
sta
nd
~ K
now
the
past
and
rece
nt m
anag
emen
t act
iviti
es a
nd th
eap
prox
imat
e da
tes
that
they
wer
e co
mpl
eted
~ Ac
know
ledg
e pa
st a
nd p
rese
nt w
eath
er c
ondi
tions
or a
nyot
her a
dver
se a
biot
icsi
tuat
ion
~ A
noth
er h
elpf
ul to
ol, r
etrie
ve a
cor
e sa
mpl
e to
det
erm
ine
grow
th ra
te d
urin
g th
e la
st fe
w y
ears
~ If
the
pest
is s
till u
ncer
tain
, cut
dow
n a
sym
ptom
atic
pin
e fo
rcl
oser
exa
min
atio
n
Proc
edur
e 1:
~ D
o an
ove
rvie
w o
f the
ent
ire c
ut p
ine
~ Ta
ke n
ote
of a
ny u
nusu
al p
hysi
cal f
eatu
res
1. L
ook
at th
e lo
wer
, mid
and
upp
er b
ole
for
past
and
pre
sent
pes
t dam
age
2. L
ocat
e an
d do
cum
ent a
ny s
igns
or
sym
ptom
s de
tect
ed
3. L
ook
at th
e cr
own
and
view
the
stem
s an
d
bran
ches
car
eful
ly
4. L
ocat
e an
d do
cum
ent a
ny s
igns
or
sym
ptom
s de
tect
ed in
thes
e ar
eas
This
Pin
e St
and:
~ Th
ere
are
no n
otic
eabl
e pi
tch
tube
s in
the
low
er,
mid
or u
pper
bol
e
~ Th
ere
are
no n
otic
eabl
e ex
it ho
les
in th
e lo
wer
bole
~ Th
ere
are
pin-
size
d ex
it ho
les
in th
e up
per b
ole
~ N
eedl
es o
n so
me
bran
ches
in th
e up
per c
row
n ar
ebr
own
~ S
ome
of th
e lo
wer
bra
nche
s an
d st
ems
still
have
gree
n ne
edle
s
This
Pin
e St
and:
~ S
crap
e ba
ck th
e ba
rk o
n th
e up
per b
ole
and
bran
ches
that
con
tain
the
exit
hole
s
~ Lo
ok fo
r sig
ns o
f the
sou
ther
n pi
ne b
eetle
, the
Ips
engr
aver
bee
tle o
r the
deo
dar w
eevi
l (th
e in
sect
som
etim
es a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith p
itch
cank
er)
~ Si
nce
new
nee
dles
on
the
low
er b
ranc
hes
are
not
gray
ish-
brow
n, th
e pe
st is
not
like
ly to
be
need
leca
stProc
edur
e 2:
~ E
xam
ine
mor
e in
tens
ely
the
area
of t
he tr
ee th
atillu
stra
te n
otic
eabl
e sy
mpt
oms
~ S
crap
e ba
ck th
e ba
rk in
sym
ptom
atic
are
as o
f the
tree
~ C
ut a
few
of t
he s
ympt
omat
ic s
tem
s fo
r clo
ser
exam
inat
ion
~ St
art e
limin
atin
g so
me
prev
ious
ly s
ugge
sted
pes
ts
~ D
ocum
ent f
indi
ngs
Proc
edur
e 3:
~ C
ontin
ue to
exa
min
e th
e tre
e sy
mpt
oms
~ Tr
y to
iden
tify
any
avai
labl
e si
gns
~ D
ocum
ent f
indi
ngs
~ C
ontin
ue to
elim
inat
e pr
evio
usly
sug
gest
edpe
sts
This
Pin
e St
and:
~ Th
ere
are
smal
l H a
nd Y
gal
lerie
s pr
esen
tun
der t
he b
ark
in th
e ar
ea o
f the
exi
t hol
es
~ Th
ere
is a
blu
e st
ain
fung
us p
rese
nt u
nder
the
bark
in th
e ar
ea o
f the
exi
t hol
es
~ Th
ere
are
no b
leed
ing
or re
sino
us c
anke
rslo
cate
d on
the
mai
n tru
nk, l
arge
bra
nche
s or
term
inal
ste
ms
~ Th
ere
is n
o de
finite
die
back
of t
he b
ranc
hes
~ Th
e di
seas
e pi
tch
cank
er is
elim
inat
ed
Proc
edur
e 4:
~ Lo
ok a
t soi
l cha
ract
eris
tics
and
topo
grap
hy
~ K
now
the
man
agem
ent h
isto
ry o
f the
sta
nd
~ C
ontin
ue to
elim
inat
e pr
evio
usly
sug
gest
ed p
ests
This
Pin
e St
and:
~ Th
e so
il ty
pe is
a w
ell-d
rain
ed, s
andy
soi
l
~ Th
e st
and
was
thin
ned
in m
id-s
umm
er, 6
mon
ths
prio
r to
this
dat
e
~ N
o fu
ngal
(bor
ax) t
reat
men
t was
app
lied
to th
est
ump
~ Th
ere
are
no c
onks
in th
e du
ff la
yer
~ Li
ttlel
eafd
isea
se is
elim
inat
ed b
ecau
se o
f the
sand
y so
il ty
pe
~ An
nosu
sro
ot ro
t is
elim
inat
ed b
ecau
se o
f the
date
of t
he a
ctua
l thi
nnin
g
Proc
edur
e 5:
~ Ex
amin
e th
e pr
imar
y an
d fin
e fe
eder
root
s fo
r sig
ns
~ Lo
ok fo
r bor
ing
and
exit
hole
s, b
leed
ing
and
resi
nous
cank
ers
or b
lue
stai
n fu
ngus
in th
e ro
ots
~ Ta
ke n
ote
of th
e co
nditi
on o
f the
root
s –
deca
yed,
dete
riora
ted
or h
ealth
y
~ M
ake
a fin
al c
oncl
usio
n on
the
iden
tifie
d pe
st
~ If
nece
ssar
y to
con
firm
the
pest
iden
tifie
d, ta
ke ro
otsa
mpl
es fo
r ana
lysi
s
This
Pin
e St
and:
~ Th
ere
are
no n
otic
eabl
e bo
ring
or e
xit h
oles
in th
e ro
ots
~ Th
ere
are
no n
otic
eabl
e re
sin-
soak
ed ro
ots
~ Th
ere
are
no s
igns
of b
lue
stai
n fu
ngus
in th
e ro
ots
~ Th
e ro
ots
do n
ot a
ppea
r to
be d
ecay
ed o
r det
erio
rate
d
~ Th
e di
seas
e co
mpl
ex p
ine
decl
ine
is e
limin
ated
~ S
igns
and
Sym
ptom
s: n
o pi
tch
tube
s, e
xit h
oles
and
blue
sta
in fu
ngus
in th
e up
per b
ole,
bro
wn
need
les
on th
eup
per b
ranc
hes
and
appa
rent
ly h
ealth
y ro
ots
~ Fi
nal c
oncl
usio
n: th
e pe
st is
Ips
engr
aver
bee
tlein
fest
atio
n w
ith s
ome
dam
age
from
the
deod
ar w
eevi
l
~ R
esid
ual p
ines
wer
e st
ress
ed fr
om w
ind
dam
age,
rece
ntth
inni
ng a
nd a
n ex
tend
ed d
roug
ht
SOU
THER
N P
INE
BA
RK
BEE
TLES
~ Th
is p
ictu
re il
lust
rate
s th
e 3
mai
n so
uthe
rn p
ine
bark
bee
tlesp
ecie
s (Ip
sen
grav
er b
eetle
, sou
ther
n pi
ne b
eetle
and
bla
cktu
rpen
tine
beet
le),
thei
r gal
lery
pat
tern
s an
d th
eir g
ener
al a
ttack
loca
tion
on th
e pi
ne tr
ee
~ Th
ere
are
3 di
stin
ct s
peci
es o
f the
Ips
engr
aver
bee
tle:I
psav
ulsu
s(s
mal
l Ips
or 4
-spi
ned
Ips)
,Ips
gran
dico
llis(5
-spi
ned
Ips)
and
Ips
callig
raph
us(6
-spi
ned
Ips)
~ Th
e ad
ult I
psbe
etle
is re
ddis
h-br
own
to b
lack
with
a s
coop
edou
t, sp
ined
post
erio
r and
rang
es fr
om 1
/16
to 1
/4 in
ch lo
ngde
pend
ing
on th
e sp
ecie
s:Ip
sav
ulsu
sis
1/1
6 in
ch lo
ng,I
psgr
andi
collis
is 1
/8 in
ch lo
ng, a
nd th
eIp
sca
lligra
phus
is 1
/4 in
chlo
ng
~ D
epen
ding
on
the
spec
ies,
the
adul
t Ips
beet
le w
ill at
tack
cer
tain
area
s on
the
pine
: the
4-a
nd 5
-spi
ned
Ips
will
atta
ck th
e up
per
bole
whi
le th
e 6-
spin
ed Ip
sw
ill at
tack
from
4 fe
et a
bove
gro
und
toth
e up
per b
ole,
all
crea
ting
Y-an
d H
-sha
ped
galle
ries
~ Th
e so
uthe
rn p
ine
beet
le(D
endr
octo
nus
front
alis
)is
redd
ish-
brow
n to
bla
ck a
nd a
ppro
xim
atel
y 1/
8 in
ch lo
ng w
ith a
roun
dpo
ster
ior
~ Th
e ad
ult s
outh
ern
pine
bee
tle g
ener
ally
atta
cks
the
tree
bole
from
4 to
30
feet
abo
ve g
roun
d cr
eatin
g S-
shap
ed g
alle
ries
~ Th
e bl
ack
turp
entin
e be
etle
(Den
droc
tonu
ste
rebr
ans)
is d
ark
brow
n to
bla
ck a
nd a
ppro
xim
atel
y 5/
16 in
ch lo
ng w
ith a
roun
dpo
ster
ior
~ Th
e ad
ult b
lack
turp
entin
e be
etle
gen
eral
ly a
ttack
s th
e tre
e bo
lefro
m g
roun
d le
vel t
o 6
feet
hig
h w
ith n
o ga
llery
pat
tern
Pai
ntin
g by
Ric
hard
Kle
ifot
hSo
uthe
rn F
ores
t R
esea
rch
Inst
itut
e
Sout
hern
Pin
e B
eetle
-Den
droc
tonu
sfr
onta
lis~
Atta
ck th
e up
per t
o th
e lo
wer
bol
e of
the
tree,
app
roxi
mat
ely
4 fe
etab
ove
the
grou
nd
~ Lo
blol
ly a
nd s
hortl
eaf p
ines
are
mos
t sus
cept
ible
to a
ttack
~ S
ympt
om: g
radu
al fo
liar d
isco
lora
tion
(from
gre
en to
yel
low
tore
ddis
h-br
own
to b
row
n)
~ S
ympt
om: r
eddi
sh b
orin
g du
st in
bar
k cr
evic
es a
nd a
roun
d th
eba
se o
f the
pin
e tre
e
~ S
ympt
om: w
hitis
h pi
tch
tube
s ab
out t
he s
ize
of a
dim
e in
bar
kcr
evic
es o
n th
e bo
le
~ S
ign:
sm
all,
redd
ish-
brow
n to
bla
ck b
eetle
app
roxi
mat
ely
1/8
inch
long
with
a ro
und
post
erio
r
~ A
dult
beet
le w
ill c
reat
e S
-sha
ped
galle
ries
unde
r the
bar
k
~ A
dult
beet
le w
ill v
ecto
r a b
lue
stai
n fu
ngus
that
will
cau
se a
reas
on
the
woo
d to
turn
blu
ish-
blac
k
~ S
ympt
om: a
gro
up o
f pin
es d
ead
or d
ying
with
nei
ghbo
ring
pine
sun
der a
ttack
~ M
orta
lity
occu
rs q
uick
ly, u
sual
ly 4
to 8
wee
ks a
fter n
otic
eabl
esy
mpt
oms
Con
trol
:
~ M
aint
ain
tree
vigo
r and
hea
lth
~ A
void
mec
hani
cal i
njur
ies
to re
sidu
al p
ines
~ Fo
r a p
ine
plan
tatio
n, c
ut/s
alva
ge in
fest
ed tr
ees
and
a bu
ffer o
f hea
lthy
ones
to p
reve
nt s
prea
d
~ Fo
r hig
h va
lue
and
orna
men
tal p
ines
, spr
ay re
cent
lyin
fest
ed p
ines
with
an
inse
ctic
ide
like
Ony
x, A
stro
orD
ragn
et
~ A
s a
prev
enta
tive
met
hod,
spr
ay n
eigh
borin
gun
infe
sted
or h
igh-
risk
pine
s w
ith a
n in
sect
icid
e lik
eO
nyx,
Ast
roor
Dra
gnet
Uni
vers
ity o
f Geo
rgia
and
the
USD
A Fo
rest
Ser
vice
, for
estry
imag
es.o
rg
Ips
Engr
aver
Bee
tle-I
ps s
pp. (
avul
sus,
gra
ndic
ollis
, cal
ligra
phus
)~
Dep
endi
ng o
n th
e sp
ecie
s, Ip
s w
ill in
fest
diff
eren
t are
as in
the
uppe
r bol
e of
the
tree
~ Th
e sm
all I
ps(a
vuls
us)a
nd th
e 5-
spin
ed Ip
s(g
rand
icol
lis)i
nfes
t the
ver
y to
p po
rtion
of a
pin
e
~ Th
e la
rger
, 6-s
pine
d Ip
s(c
allig
raph
us)w
ill in
fest
the
low
er to
the
uppe
r bol
e on
a p
ine
~ S
outh
ern
pine
spe
cies
(lob
lolly
, sho
rtlea
f, sl
ash,
etc
.) un
ders
tress
are
sus
cept
ible
to a
ttack
~ S
ympt
om: s
udde
n fo
liar d
isco
lora
tion
(from
gre
en to
redd
ish-
brow
n)
~ S
ympt
om: r
eddi
sh b
orin
g du
st in
bar
k cr
evic
es a
nd s
mal
l red
dish
-pin
k pi
tch
tube
s on
bar
k pl
ates
~ S
ign:
sm
all,
redd
ish-
brow
n to
bla
ck b
eetle
app
roxi
mat
ely
1/16
to 1
/4 in
ch lo
ng w
ith a
scoo
ped
out,
spin
edpo
ster
ior
~ M
ay n
ot s
ee p
itch
tube
s fro
m Ip
s in
fest
atio
n du
ring
drou
ghty
con
ditio
ns
~ Th
e ad
ult b
eetle
will
cre
ate
Y-s
hape
d an
d H
-sha
ped
galle
ries
unde
r the
bar
k
~ Th
e Ip
sbe
etle
will
vec
tor a
blu
e st
ain
fung
us th
at w
ill c
ause
are
as o
nth
e w
ood
to tu
rn b
luis
h-bl
ack
~ S
ympt
om: t
iny,
pin
-siz
ed e
xit h
oles
on
the
bole
and
ste
ms
of a
pin
e
~ M
orta
lity
from
Ips
infe
stat
ion
usua
lly e
xist
s on
a fe
w, s
catte
red
pine
s 4
to 6
wee
ks a
fter n
otic
eabl
e sy
mpt
oms
Con
trol
:
~ M
aint
ain
tree
vigo
r and
hea
lth
~ A
void
mec
hani
cal i
njur
y to
resi
dual
pin
es
~ Fo
r a p
ine
plan
tatio
n, c
ut/s
alva
ge in
fest
ed tr
ees
~ If
only
a fe
w p
ines
are
infe
sted
and
the
atta
ck is
not
spre
adin
g, d
elay
sal
vage
cut
for s
ever
al m
onth
s to
allo
w n
atur
alpr
edat
ors
like
the
cler
idbe
etle
to re
duce
the
popu
latio
n
~ Fo
r hig
h va
lue
and
orna
men
tal p
ines
, spr
ay re
cent
ly in
fest
edpi
nes
with
an
inse
ctic
ide
like
Ony
x, A
stro
or D
ragn
et
~ A
s a
prev
enta
tive
met
hod,
spr
ay n
eigh
borin
g un
infe
sted
orhi
gh-ri
sk p
ines
with
an
inse
ctic
ide
like
Ony
x, A
stro
or D
ragn
et
Bla
ck T
urpe
ntin
e B
eetle
-Den
droc
tonu
ste
rebr
ans
~ A
ttack
the
low
er b
ole
of th
e pi
ne, f
rom
the
grou
nd to
app
roxi
mat
ely
6 fe
et h
igh
~ S
outh
ern
pine
spe
cies
(lob
lolly
, sho
rtlea
f, sl
ash,
etc
.) th
at a
re in
jure
d or
stre
ssed
are
sus
cept
ible
to a
ttack
~ S
ympt
om: l
arge
pin
kish
-whi
te to
redd
ish-
brow
n pi
tch
tube
s ap
prox
imat
ely
the
size
of a
hal
f dol
lar
~ S
ign:
sm
all,
dark
bro
wn
to b
lack
bee
tle a
ppro
xim
atel
y 5/
16 in
ch lo
ng w
ith a
roun
d po
ster
ior
~ A
dult
beet
le d
oes
NO
Tcr
eate
a p
artic
ular
gal
lery
pat
tern
und
er th
e ba
rk o
r vec
tor a
blu
e st
ain
fung
us
~ A
n in
divi
dual
pin
e or
sca
ttere
d pi
nes
are
gene
rally
infe
sted
with
bla
ck tu
rpen
tine
beet
les
~ M
orta
lity
usua
lly d
oes
not o
ccur
unl
ess
the
pine
is h
eavi
ly in
fest
ed w
ith b
lack
turp
entin
e be
etle
s
Con
trol
:
~ M
aint
ain
tree
vigo
r and
hea
lth
~ A
void
mec
hani
cal i
njur
ies
to re
sidu
al p
ines
~ If
the
num
ber o
f pitc
h tu
bes
is le
ss th
an th
e di
amet
er o
f the
tree
, spr
ay th
e in
fest
ed p
ine
with
an
inse
ctic
ide
like
Ony
x, A
stro
or D
ragn
et 3
feet
abo
ve th
e hi
ghes
t pitc
h tu
be
~ A
s a
prev
enta
tive
met
hod,
spr
ay n
eigh
borin
g un
infe
sted
or h
igh-
risk
pine
s w
ith a
n in
sect
icid
e lik
e O
nyx,
Ast
roor
Dra
gnet
~ Fo
r sev
erel
y in
fest
ed p
ines
, cut
/sal
vage
the
pine
s
Ann
osus
Roo
t Rot
-Spi
nige
r mei
neck
ellu
m(H
eter
obas
idio
n an
nosu
mor
Fom
es a
nnos
us)
~ P
ines
are
mos
t sus
cept
ible
in s
andy
, wel
l-dra
ined
soi
ls
~ D
urin
g th
e in
itial
infe
ctio
n, n
o up
per s
urfa
ce s
ympt
oms
are
appa
rent
~ A
fter a
thin
ning
, see
sig
ns a
nd s
ympt
oms
appr
oxim
atel
y 2
to 3
year
s la
ter
~ S
ympt
oms:
thin
, unh
ealth
y, c
hlor
otic
cro
wn
and
win
d-th
row
ntre
es
~ S
ign:
yel
low
ish-
brow
n co
nks
with
a w
hite
bot
tom
sur
face
in th
elit
ter l
ayer
(but
not
alw
ays)
~ R
oots
are
whi
te a
nd s
tring
y w
ith s
ome
that
are
resi
n-so
aked
and
stai
ned
~ In
the
SE
US
A, t
his
fung
us (B
asid
iom
ycet
es) u
sual
ly a
ffect
s a
pine
sta
nd fo
r up
to 1
0 ye
ars
~ P
ines
dec
line/
die
in g
roup
s be
caus
e th
e fu
ngus
spr
eads
from
tree
to tr
ee b
y ro
ot g
raft
Con
trol
:
~ O
n hi
gh h
azar
d si
tes,
thin
pin
e st
ands
dur
ing
low
risk
sum
mer
mon
ths
~ C
ondu
ct a
pre
scrib
ed b
urn
if po
ssib
le to
redu
ce th
e pr
esen
ce o
f the
fung
us
~ O
n hi
gh h
azar
d si
tes,
imm
edia
tely
app
ly th
e fu
ngic
ide
bora
x to
fresh
ly c
ut s
tum
ps
~ In
sev
erel
y in
fect
ed s
tand
s, h
arve
st th
e pi
nes
and
rege
nera
te th
e si
te a
fter 1
to 2
yea
rs to
pre
vent
infe
ctio
n to
see
dlin
gs
Uni
vers
ity o
f Geo
rgia
and
the
USD
A Fo
rest
Ser
vice
, for
estry
imag
es.o
rgU
nive
rsity
of G
eorg
ia a
nd th
e U
SDA
Fore
st S
ervi
ce, f
ores
tryim
ages
.org
Littl
elea
fDis
ease
-Phy
toph
thor
aci
nnam
omi
~ O
ccur
s us
ually
in h
eavy
cla
yey
soils
that
are
poo
rly d
rain
ed a
nd lo
w in
nitr
ogen
~ Th
e di
seas
e us
ually
occ
urs
on p
ines
gro
win
g on
low
qua
lity
site
s su
ch a
s ol
d fie
lds
~ S
hortl
eaf p
ine
is m
ost s
usce
ptib
le, f
ollo
win
g lo
blol
ly p
ine
~ Th
e fu
ngus
(an
Oom
ycet
es) i
nfec
ts p
rimar
ily s
mal
l, fe
eder
root
s
~ S
ympt
oms:
thin
ning
cro
wns
and
chl
orot
icne
edle
s
~ N
ew n
eedl
es in
the
crow
n of
infe
cted
pin
es a
re s
horte
r and
few
er in
num
ber
~ In
fect
ed p
ines
will
pro
duce
a h
eavy
cro
p of
sm
all c
ones
usu
ally
2 to
3 y
ears
prio
r to
deat
h
~ A
fter n
otic
eabl
e sy
mpt
oms,
pin
e tre
es u
sual
ly s
uccu
mb
to th
e di
seas
e fro
m 6
to 2
0 ye
ars
late
r
~ C
onfir
mat
ion
of th
is d
isea
se c
an o
nly
be d
one
by la
bora
tory
ana
lysi
s
Con
trol
:
~ Fo
r sev
erel
y in
fect
ed s
tand
s, h
arve
st p
ines
and
rege
nera
te s
ite w
ith a
mor
e re
sist
ant p
ine
spec
ies
~ Fo
r hig
h va
lue
and
orna
men
tal p
ines
in th
e ea
rly s
tage
s of
the
dise
ase,
com
mer
cial
ferti
lizer
and
amm
oniu
m s
ulfa
te c
an p
reve
nt s
ympt
oms
from
adv
anci
ng
Uni
vers
ity o
f Geo
rgia
and
the
USD
A Fo
rest
Ser
vice
, for
estry
imag
es.o
rgU
nive
rsity
of G
eorg
ia a
nd th
e U
SDA
Fore
stS
ervi
ce, f
ores
tryim
ages
.org
Pitc
h C
anke
r-Fu
sariu
m s
ubgl
utin
ans
~ H
ost p
ines
are
sla
sh, l
ongl
eaf,
shor
tleaf
and
eas
tern
whi
te p
ines
~ Th
is fu
ngus
(Deu
tero
myc
etes
) will
als
o af
fect
san
d, lo
blol
ly a
nd V
irgin
ia p
ines
~ Th
e fu
ngus
usu
ally
exi
sts
in s
tand
s w
here
the
pine
s ar
e ov
erst
ocke
d an
d pl
ante
d of
f site
~ S
ympt
om: b
leed
ing,
resi
nous
can
ker o
n th
e m
ain
trunk
, lar
ge b
ranc
hes
or te
rmin
al s
tem
s
~ S
ympt
om: s
hoot
die
back
that
usu
ally
exi
st fr
om th
e w
inte
r thr
ough
the
sprin
g
~ S
ympt
om: p
itch-
soak
ed w
ood
bene
ath
the
cank
er
~ Th
e de
odar
wee
vil c
an v
ecto
r the
fung
us
~ Th
e fu
ngus
can
ent
er th
e st
em th
roug
h in
jurie
s fro
m a
dver
se w
eath
er c
ondi
tions
~ P
ine
mor
talit
y fro
m th
is fu
ngus
is ra
re
Nee
dle
Cas
t-H
ypod
erm
asp
p. a
ndLo
phod
erm
ium
spp.
~ E
aste
rn w
hite
, lob
lolly
, sla
sh, s
hortl
eaf,
Virg
inia
and
Sco
tch
pine
s ar
e su
scep
tible
as
wel
l as
spru
ce a
nd fi
rs
~ N
eedl
es, u
sual
ly th
e on
es o
n th
e lo
wer
bra
nche
s, a
rein
fect
ed b
y th
e fu
ngi i
n w
inte
r and
ear
ly s
prin
g
~ V
isua
l sym
ptom
s of
infe
cted
nee
dles
turn
ing
yello
w to
red
to g
rayi
sh-b
row
n ge
nera
lly b
egin
in e
arly
spr
ing
~ Fu
ngal
spo
res
are
spre
ad to
oth
er n
eedl
es d
urin
g w
etw
eath
er in
spr
ing
and
sum
mer
~ B
y la
te s
prin
g to
sum
mer
the
infe
cted
nee
dles
giv
e th
epi
ne tr
ee a
bro
wn
“fire
-sco
rche
d”ap
pear
ance
~ N
eedl
e ca
st te
nds
to e
xist
mor
e so
in y
ears
of h
eavy
rain
fall
~ A
fter t
urni
ng g
rayi
sh-b
row
n, s
ome
infe
cted
nee
dles
will
shed
~ M
orta
lity
to p
ines
is ra
re
~ N
eedl
e ca
st v
ery
seld
om c
ause
s pe
rman
ent d
amag
e,pi
nes
gene
rally
reco
ver o
n th
eir o
wn
~ Fu
ngic
ide
as a
con
trol i
s no
t usu
ally
nee
ded
unle
ss th
eaf
fect
ed h
osts
are
com
mer
cial
pla
ntin
gs s
uch
as C
hris
tmas
tree
plan
tatio
ns
Con
trol
:
~ Fo
r hig
h va
lue
and
orna
men
tal
pine
s, a
fung
icid
e lik
e M
anza
teor
Man
ebca
n be
per
iodi
cally
app
lied
from
Dec
embe
r to
June
Pine
Dec
line-
Lept
ogra
phiu
msp
p.(p
roce
rum
, ser
pens
, ter
ebra
ntis
)~
Pin
es g
row
ing
off s
ite w
ith c
erta
in p
ast m
anag
emen
t act
iviti
es(li
ke c
rop
plan
ting)
are
mos
t sus
cept
ible
~ A
dver
se w
eath
er a
nd e
nviro
nmen
tal c
ondi
tions
(i.e
. a d
roug
ht) c
an c
ause
pin
es to
be
susc
eptib
le
~ Lo
blol
ly a
nd s
hortl
eaf p
ines
are
mos
t sus
cept
ible
whi
le s
lash
pin
e is
leas
t sus
cept
ible
~ Tr
ee s
ympt
oms
rese
mbl
e th
e on
es o
f litt
lele
afdi
seas
e
~ B
ecau
se th
ere
is n
o di
seas
e ce
nter
, inf
ecte
d pi
nes
are
gene
rally
sca
ttere
d th
roug
hout
the
stan
d
~ S
ympt
om: s
hort,
thin
, chl
orot
ic c
row
n
~ S
ympt
om: r
esin
-soa
ked
lesi
ons
on in
fect
ed ro
ots
and
som
e bo
ring
and
exit
hole
s in
root
s
~ B
lue
stai
n fu
ngus
in th
e pr
imar
y an
d fin
e fe
eder
root
s
~ Th
eH
ylas
tes
beet
le a
nd s
omet
imes
the
Hyl
obiu
s pa
les
wee
vil f
eed
on th
e ro
ots
and
vect
or th
e fu
ngus
~ Th
ere
will
be
som
e de
terio
ratio
n of
the
root
s, n
ot n
eces
saril
yro
ot d
ecay
(fun
gus
is a
Deu
tero
myc
etes
)
~ D
isea
se u
sual
ly e
xist
s w
ith p
ines
that
are
30
year
s ol
d or
old
er, b
ut c
an e
xist
in p
ine
trees
muc
h yo
unge
r
~ P
ines
gen
eral
ly s
uccu
mb
to th
is d
isea
se c
ompl
ex w
ithin
2 to
3 y
ears
afte
r sho
win
g de
clin
ing
sym
ptom
s
~ C
onfir
mat
ion
of th
is d
isea
se c
ompl
ex c
an o
nly
be d
one
by la
bora
tory
ana
lysi
s
Con
trol
:
~ M
aint
ain
tree
vigo
r and
hea
lth
~ A
s a
prev
enta
tive
met
hod,
pro
per t
imin
gof
man
agem
ent a
ctiv
ities
can
redu
ce th
eris
k in
pin
e pl
anta
tions
~ If
mor
e th
an 3
0% o
f the
pin
es in
the
stan
d ar
e de
clin
ing
or d
ead,
har
vest
the
stan
d an
d re
gene
rate
the
site
with
a m
ore
resi
stan
t pin
e sp
ecie
s
SEC
ON
DA
RY
PIN
E PE
STS
Bup
rest
idae
–Fl
athe
aded
Bor
ers
(exa
mpl
e: m
etal
lic w
oodb
orer
)
Cer
amby
cida
e–
Rou
ndhe
aded
Bor
ers
(exa
mpl
e: s
outh
ern
pine
saw
yer)
OTH
ER P
INE
PLA
NTA
TIO
N P
ESTS
Pine
Aph
ids
Pin
e Sc
ales
East
ern
Gal
l Rus
t
So
uthe
rn C
one
Rus
t(C
rona
rtium
quer
cuum
f. sp
.Que
rcuu
m)
(C
rona
rtium
stro
bilin
um)
Pic
ture
s fro
m th
e U
nive
rsity
of G
eorg
ia a
nd th
e U
SD
A F
ores
t Ser
vice
, for
estry
imag
es.o
rg
REF
EREN
CES
Bar
nard
, Edw
ard
L., a
nd W
ayne
N. D
ixon
, 198
3. In
sect
s an
d D
isea
ses:
Impo
rtan
t Pro
blem
s of
Flo
rida’
s Fo
rest
and
Sha
de T
ree
Res
ourc
es.
Pric
e, T
erry
S.,
2001
. For
est H
ealth
Gui
de fo
r Geo
rgia
For
este
rs.
Uni
ted
Stat
es D
epar
tmen
t of A
gric
ultu
re, F
ores
t Ser
vice
, 198
9. F
ores
tN
urse
ry P
ests
.
Uni
ted
Stat
es D
epar
tmen
t of A
gric
ultu
re, F
ores
t Ser
vice
Sou
ther
nR
egio
n, 1
985.
Inse
cts
and
Dis
ease
s of
Tre
es in
the
Sout
h.
Uni
vers
ity o
f Geo
rgia
and
USD
A F
ores
t Ser
vice
. Bug
woo
dN
etw
ork,
ww
w.fo
rest
ryim
ages
.org
.
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