7b – thinking, problems solving, creativity, and language
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Cognition7A – Memory
7B – Thinking, Problems Solving, Creativity, and Language
MemoryMemory - the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
Examples:
The Memory ProcessThree step process….
1.Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system.– Getting the info into the brain– Example:
2.Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.– Retaining the info– Example:
3.Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.– Getting the info back out– Example:
4 Memory Models1. Information Processing
Model2. Atkinson-Shiffrin 3
stage model3. Modified Atkinson-
Shiffrin4. Connectivism Model
Information Processing Model of Memory
• Information Processing Model –– Simplified Memory
Model• Encoding –
• Storage –
• Retrieval –
– Analogous to a computer
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s 3 Step Model of Memory
1. Sensory memory – brief recording of sensory information • Example:
2. Short-term memory – memory that holds few items briefly before info is forgotten• Example
3. Long –term memory – relatively permanent and limitless storage of memory.• Example
Sensory Memory• Sensory Memory -
A split second holding tank for ALL sensory information
• Examples:.– Iconic Memory –
– Echoic Memory –
Short Term Memory• Short –term memory –
memory that holds a few items briefly (7 digits +/-2) until it is forgotten or stored
•
Short Term Memory Activity
Long Term Memory• Long-term memory -
Unlimited storehouse of knowledge, skills and experiences.
• Examples:
Modified Atkinson – Shiffrin (3 Stage) Model
• Working Memory –conscious, active processing of auditory and visual-spatial info. and info from long term memory
• Our memory sketchpad–
• Example –
Modified Three-stage Model of Memory
Connectionism Model of Memory
• Connectionism – theory that states that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons– Many neurons may work together to process a single memory–
•
How We Encode2 Types of Encoding1. Automatically Processing
– Automatic– Parallel
2. Effortful processing – Rehearsal
Encoding - Automatic Processing
Automatic Processing - unconscious encoding of incidental information– Examples: – Time –
– space –
– Frequency –
– well learned info –
Automatic Processing• Parallel Processing – processing of
many things simultaneously
– Example:
Encoding – Effortful Processing
1. Effortful Processing –encoding that requires conscious effort and attention– Example:
• Rehearsal – conscious repetition of info to encode it for storage– Example:
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
• Ebbinghaus Curve - The amount remembered depends on the time spent learning
• Overlearning –
Effortful Processing• Spacing effect – distributed study is better for long-term
recall than massed study (cramming)– DO NOT CRAM!!!!!!!!!!!!– Example:
• Testing effect – repeated quizzing or testing improves retention– Example:
Encoding Information• Serial Positioning Effect – we
tend to remember the first and last items on a list – Primacy Effect – remember items
at the beginning of a list • Example:
– Recency Effect – remembering items at the end of a list (most recent
• Example: – Rostorff effect – remembering unique
items on a list• Example:
What We Encode…1. Visual Encoding: the encoding of
picture/visual images.Example –
2. Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words.Example:
3. Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning.Example:
Encoding Exercise
Visual Encoding– Imagery – visual images help us remember
concrete words (aided by semantic encoding)
Example:
– Rosy Retrospection – recalling high points, forgetting the worst• Example:
Encoding Exercise
Mneumonics– Mnemonic Devices – any memory aid that
uses visual images and organizational devices
• EXAMPLES:1. Peg word system – memorizing a
jingle and using imagery to associate items with the jingleExample:
2. Method of Loci – use visual information with familiar objects on a path to recall info on a list» Example:
Encoding Exercise
Mneumonics3. Hierarchies – broad
concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts
• Example: 4. Chunking - Organizing
items into familiar, manageable units (acronyms)
• Example:
Encoding Exercise
Every Good Boy Does Fine1-800-IBM-HELP
Acoustic EncodingAcoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words.
•Examples:
Semantic Encoding• Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning.
• Examples:
• Self Reference Effect – the tendency to remember information that is “relevant to me” compared to less personally relevant information
• Example:
StorageTypes of Memory1.Sensory Memory
– Iconic– Echoic
2.Working Memory/Short-term3.Long-Term Memory
– Implicit Memory/Procedural Memory• Conditioned Memories
– Explicit Memory• Episodic Memory• Semantic Memory• Flashbulb Memories• Prospective memory
Sensory Memory• Sperling’s memory experiment
– Momentary photographic memory• After flashing an image, participants had a
momentary mental image of all 9 letters• Iconic memory – photographic or picture image
memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second– – Examples:
Sensory Memory• Echoic memory – auditory memory
lasting no more than a 3-4 seconds (mind’s echo chamber)–
– Example:
Working/Short-Term Memory• Duration – Brief (30 sec or less) without
active processing– –
• Capacity - Limited
• The list of magic sevens
Long-Term Memory• Duration – • Capacity -
Types of Long Term Memory• Implicit Memory/Procedural Memory
– Conditioned Memories• Explicit Memory
– Episodic Memory– Semantic Memory– Flashbulb Memories
Types of Long-Term Memory
Implicit Memories• Implicit/Procedural Memories
– without conscious recall–
• Examples:
– Conditioned Memories – memories from conditioned learning
• Example:
Explicit Memories• Explicit Memories – memories of
facts and experiences, consciously recalled– Processed by the
•
• Example:
– Infantile amnesia – can’t remember events before age 3
•
Explicit MemoriesEpisodic Memories -
memories of autobiographical events, situations, and experiencesExample:
Semantic Memories – memory of words, meanings, and understandingsExample:
Explicit Memories• Flashbulb Memories – clear
moment of a emotionally significant event–
– – Example:
• Prospective Memory – remembering to perform a planned action– Example:
Storing MemoriesMemory trace – memory is distributed
across groups of neuronsLong Term-Potentiation – Increases
in synaptic firing potential of a neuron by increasing the number of receptors on the receiving neuron.– –
• Memory boosting drugs– CREB –
– Glutamate –
Amnesia• Amnesia – loss of memory
– Retrograde Amnesia – inability to remember past events
• Example– Anterograde Amnesia –
inability to create new memories
• • Examples:
Retrieval• Recall - you must
retrieve the information from your memory
• Example:
• Recognition - you must identify the target from possible targets
• Example:
Ways to help you retrieve info
• Relearning – learning material for the second time, saves time.– Example:
• Retrieval Cues – anchor points used to access target info for retrieval later – Example:
• Priming – unconscious activation of associations in memory– Example:
The Context Matters!!!• Mood Congruent Memory –
recalling memories consistent with current mood– Example:
• State Dependent Memory – learning that takes place in one physiological "state" is generally better remembered later in a similar physiological state – Example:
Context Matters• Context-dependent memory -
memory is more easily recalled if you are in the same setting that learning took place– Example:
• Déjà vu – eerie sense that you’ve experienced something before– Example:
Forgetting• Encoding
Failures
• Storage Decay
• Retrieval Failures
Forgetting• Schacter’s sevens sins of memory
– Sins of Forgetting
– Sins of distortion
– Sin of intrusion
Encoding Failure
Example –
What should you do to prevent an encoding failure?
Storage DecayEbbinghaus Curve
Apply the Ebbinghaus curve to Psych Class
Retrieval Failure
Retrieval Failures• Retroactive Interference: new information blocks out old information.
– Example: • Proactive Interference: old information blocks out new information.
– Example:• PORN
• Positive Transfer – old info helps you learn new info– Example:
• Tip of the tongue phenomenon -
Motivated Forgetting• Motivated Forgetting –
revising past memories
• Repression – (Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory)
• A defense mechanism that banishes painful memories from consciousness to minimize anxiety– Example:
Constructive Memory• Constructed memory (Loftus) -
a created memory, altered when encoded or retrieved.– Misinformation effect– Imagination effect– Source amnesia
Constructive Memory• Misinformation Effect – incorporating
misleading info into a memoryExample:
• Imagination Effect/Inflation – imagining nonexistent actions and events can create false memoriesExample:
• Source Amnesia – retaining the memory of an event, but not the sourceExample:
Discerning True and False Memories
• Memory studies – real vs. false
• Eye witness testimony
Children’s Eyewitness Recall
• Children’s memories of abuse–Suggestibility
Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse?
• Areas of agreement
Improving Memory Techniques
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