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Generalization of Scientific ResultsUSA, Michigan

www.journalofresearch.us¹ 3-4, March-April 2019 [email protected] Journal of Research

AMERICANJOURNAL

OF RESEARCH¹ 3-4, March-April 2019

Social Science and Humanities

USA, Michigan

ISSN 2573-5616 (print)ISSN 2573-5624 (online)

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AMERICAN JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-3-4

1. Dr. Rubee Singh, Archana Raj, Ankita Pratap,HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR IN INDIA: CHALLENGES OF SUSTAINABILITY.............................42. Sobia Naseem, Muhammad Mohsin, Shazia SalamatIMPACT OF THE INFLATION RATE, CURRENT BALANCE ON PAKISTAN GDP...............................173. Tajiev AzizHADITH USING METHODOLOGY IN THE EARLY RELIGIOUS-POLITICAL SECTS INISLAM..............................................................................................................................................................214. Dr Hana A. Ali MohamedINTERCULTURAL INTERACTIVE PROCESSING MODEL OF READING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGNLANGUAGE SHORT FICTION IN THE LIBYAN CONTEXT......................................................................315. Fisayo Fagbemi, Toyin Joseph OlufolahanCAPITAL INFLOWS, FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND POVERTY REDUCTION INNIGERIA................................................................................................................................................................536. Chi DaojiaTHE CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF MODERN CHINESE AND UZBEK CONSONANTS.........................797. Aduralere Opeyemi, OYELADEDETERMINANTS OF CRIME IN NIGERIA FROM ECONOMIC AND SOCIOECONOMICPERSPECTIVES: A MACRO-LEVEL ANALYSIS...........................................................................................888. Musaeva FeruzaSATIRE FOR REACTIONARY MODE IN THE STORY BY A.P.CHEKHOV "THE MAN IN THECASE"..............................................................................................................................................................1069. Wilson MugiziHUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES AND ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT OFTEACHERS IN GOVERNMENT AIDED SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN WAKISO DISTRICT,UGANDA..........................................................................................................................................................109Turayev Ulugbek, Nurov Dilmurod, Isayeva Laylo, Barnayeva Munira,Shorofutdinov Humoyun, Sharopov Nurmuhammad, Ibrohimova Kumush.IMPROVEMENT OF LAND-RECLAMATION STATUS BY WATERING PHYTOMELIORATIVE PLANTSAND SAVING WATER RESOURCES.........................................................................................................12811. Davletov JamshidCONCEPT "EVERY FAMILY IS AN ENTREPRENEUR" AND INNOVATIVE IDEAS IN IT(SOCIAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS)............................................................................................13712. Khayriya BurievaTOPONYMS OF TASHKENT AS A FACTOR OF REFLECTION OF HISTORICAL PROCESSES(1917 - 1980)......................................................................................................................................................14313. Indira MirzamukhamedovaOLIGARCH CRIME AND ILLEGAL SEIZURES AS THEPERPETRATOR AND THE TOOL OFCRIMINAL BANKRUPTCIES IN THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN.....................................................15214. Dr. Chander Bhushan Nagar, Dr.Barnali Bhowmick.LANGUAGE AND CROSS BORDER FREE TRADE: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH.........16015. Massreshaw Assnakew Abebe.SOLID WASTE TRANSPORTATION PRACTICE AND CHALLENGE OF ADDIS ABABA CITY.........16916. Oybek Sadikjanovich Kasimov.TASHKENT EXCHANGE OF CUSTOMER DESIGN AND LANDSCAPE DESIGN................................18217. Eng. Fadi T. Alasasfeh.THE ROLE OF BIOCHIPS IN MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION: TERMINOLOGY ANDCOMPONENTS..............................................................................................................................................18818. Ulugmuradova Nodira Berdimurodovna.THE MECHANISM OF REGULATION OF INNOVATIVE FORMS OF SOCIAL AND LABORRELATIONS IN THE INNOVATION ECONOMY.......................................................................................19219. Zakaria Sharadgah MD, Mayada Migdadi MD,Mustafa Al-Haji MD, Hala Sweidan MD, Sondos Alharahsheh MD.PICKY EATER CHILDS, TERMINOLOGY AND HANDLING CASES....................................................20220. Eng. Aktham Ali Al-Omar.THE ROLE OF SPIROMETER IN EARLY DIAGNOSIS OF COPD.......................................................... 20721. Ilkhom Juraev.THE FUNCTIONAL-SEMANTIC AND TRANSLATING PECULIARITIES OF "AS SOON AS"INCHOATIVE PHASEME............................................................................................................................21222. Abduazimov Sabirjon.PLACE OF PHYSICAL CULTURE IN THE COMBAT TRAINING OF PERSONNEL.........................21623. Kenjaev A.L.THE ROMANTIC POEM OF A.S. PUSHKIN "BAKHCHYSARAY FONTAIN" IN THE UZBEKLANGUAGE.....................................................................................................................................................22024. Manal A. Alsharaya.CONTRIBUTION OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING IN THE HEALTHCARE FIELD.........................223

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-1

Abstract: Higher education is a powerful tool to build knowledge based society for anycountry. With growing size of higher education in field of management and technicalcourses, it has become utmost important to build a efficient database on highereducation. Higher education has witnessed tremendous changes in education system.This is the right time to build excellent system in field of education and research. Indianeeds more efficient and educated people to drive our economy forward. There are manyIndian around the corner who known for their capabilities and skills. When India canprovide skilled people to other countries then why not India must progress from developingto developed country. This paper is mainly focused on the overall performance of highereducation system in India. We try to find out the initiatives taken by the government toraise level of education system. This paper also highlighted some problems and prospectsof Indian higher education. Finally the paper discussed here is need of plans requires forcombine employers and youth need of Expectations of from various stakeholders Students,Industry, Educational Institutions, Parents and Government.

Key words: Gross Enrollment Ratio (G.E.R), Human Resource, Quality Education.

HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR IN INDIA:CHALLENGES OF SUSTAINABILITY

Dr. Rubee Singh 1stAssistant Professor in Human Resource Department of Management (MBA),

Email- [email protected] Group of Institutions, Gr. Noida India,

Archana Raj 2ndAssistant Professor in Finance & HOD

Department of Management & CommerceEmail- [email protected]

RBMI Group of Institutions, Gr. Noida India,Ankita Pratap 3rd

Assistant Professor in Human ResourceDepartment of Management (MBA)Email- [email protected]

G.L Bajaj ITM, Gr.Noida India

SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

Manuscript info:Received February 12, 2018., Accepted March 17, 2018., Published April 20, 2019.

Recommended citation: Dr. Rubee Singh, Archana Raj, Ankita Pratap. HIGHEREDUCATION SECTOR IN INDIA: CHALLENGES OF SUSTAINABILITY. 3-4. AmericanJournal of Research P. 4-16 (2019).

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INTRODUCTIONChange at the scale we will see

in the next ten years in educationin India is unprecedented in humanhistory - Prof Pankaj Chandra,Director IIM, Bangalore.

Higher Education providesopportunities to the people toreflect on the critical social,cultural, moral, economic andspiritual issues facing humanity.Higher education providesspecialized knowledge and skilledpersons for national development.Higher education being the highestpoint of education provides qualityresearchers, teachers and professorsfor better education system. In nextfew decades, India will have world'slargest set of young people. While thecorrelation between people andhigher education is not up to themark. The increasing youthpopulation can be a great asset ifpotential employability is broughtto fruition. Conversely, if we fail toprovide education and employmentthen it will open a downside gate forIndian economy.

Quality education is mandatoryfor economic growth. Highereducation system adds value to thehuman resource and providesleaders in all fields like management,business, politics.

Administration etc. Importance ofhigher education is unavoidable fordeveloping countries like India.Higher education system haswitnessed significant expansion inlast few years, both in terms of thenumber of institutions and collegesas well as the student enrollment in

various courses. India has more than600 universities and over 30,000colleges with 285.63 million studentstill end of 2013.

Some Indian institutes, such asIndian Institutes of Technology(IITs) and Indian Institute ofManagement (IIMs), have beenglobally recognized for theireducation standards. The IITs enrollnear about 8000 students annuallyand pass out students contributed toboth the growth of the private sectorand the public sectors of India.However no Indian University orcollege is known for world classeducation like Cambridge andHarvard. According to the LondonTimes Higher Education (2009)-Quacquarelli Symonds (QS) WorldUniversity rankings - There was noIndian university in Top 100universities but many other AsianUniversities were included . HongKong has three universities in top100, ranked at 24, 35 and 46;Singapore has two ranked at 30 and73; South Korea also have tworanked at 47 and 69 and Taiwan onein the 95th position. China alsomanaged to get two universitiesranked at 49 and 52. There is noIndian Institute till 200. Only theIIT, Kanpur and Madras andDelhi University got rank 237, 284and 291 respectively.

Shanghai University conducted aresearch on universit ies andinstitutes all over the world. Itsresearch shows that there is no singleindian university in top 300universities while China has sixuniversities. The first institute to

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make its appearance in top 400 isthe Indian Institute of Science,Bangalore. The IIT, Khargpur is alsocounted in top 500. India also hassome fine universities but besidesthat we also have many universitiesthose are established only formaking money. Many universities inIndia are running their own courseswithout affiliation or recognition.Students from semi-urban and ruralareas often fall prey to theseinstitutes and colleges. UGC andother Regulatory authorities havebeen trying very hard to extirpatethe menace of private universities buttill now they didn't succeed.

In 21st century, Knowledge ispower. The more knowledge powerone has, the more empowered oneis. According to the University GrantsCommission (UGC), India needsmore than 1500 universities withadequate facilities by the end of theyear 2015 in order to compete inthe global market. India lacks thecritical mass in higher education.Its GER (gross enrolment ratio) isa mere 11 per cent as compared toChina's 20 per cent, the USA has83 per cent and South Korea's is 91per cent. If we conclude this GERthen China has double the numberof students pursuing highereducation than India.

The higher education scenarioof India does not match with theglobal education quality standards.Hence, there is enough justificationfor an increased assessment of theQuality of the country's educationalinstitutions. Traditionally, theseinstitutions or universities assumed

that education quality could bedetermined by their internalresources, viz., experienced facultywith an impressive set of degrees,good and impressive records forbroacher, number of books andjournals in the library, an ultra-modern and advance campus withWIFI, and size of the endowment,etc., or by its definable andassessable outputs, viz., highlysatisfied and employable graduates,efficient use of resources, producinguniquely educated students. Thegovernmental committees andmany independent academicianshave highlighted the crisisconfronting the education system: 'increasing unrest and indiscipline onthe campuses; increasing educatedunemployment; weakening ofstudent motivation; frequent collapseof administration; deterioration ofstandards; and above all, thedemoralizing effect of the irrelevanceand purposelessness of most of whatis being done.' While the policymakers and authorities have oftenspoken about the need for radicalreconstruction of the educationsystem, what has been achieved inreality is only moderate reformism.

The universities of institutes withworld class facilities in India arelimited. Most of our Indianinstitutes, colleges and universitieslack in providing high-end researchfacilities. Lack of the grants andmoney issued in education sectormakes it very difficult to provide topquality facilities or engage incutting-edge research. This gap hasto be bridged if we want to speed

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up our path toward development.The University Grant Commissionof India is not only the lone grantgiving agency in India, but alsoresponsible for coordinating,directing, determining andmaintaining the standards ininstitutions of higher education.

OBJECTIVESTo analyze the current scenario

of higher education system in IndiaTo identify the key issues faced

by higher education system

ACCREDATION OFACEDEMIC INSTITUTIONSThere are two primary

accreditation bodies involved in theaccreditation of academics programs.

AICTE (All India Council forTechnical Education) has establisheda board National Accreditation Board(NAB). NAB was set up to conductevaluation of Technical Institutionson the basis of guidelines, Standardsand Norms specified by AICTE andto give details to AICTE or to theCommission or to the other bodies,regarding recognition or de-recognition of the institution orcollege. AICTE is the only oneauthorized body for approvingtechnical programs.

Except of UGC there are otherregulatory bodies like AICTE, Barcouncil, Medical Council etc. Belowis the full composition of all thosebodies which rums completeeducation system in India.

Formal Education Technical And Professional Education

Skill Development Vocational Training

Composition

Universities Colleges Polytechnics Institute of national importance

Engineering colleges Management school Law, Medical, Pharmacy etc.

ITSs ITCs Private skill development centers

Finishing schools English Training Air hostess training

Key Regulators

UGC State Government IGNOU

AICTE Bar Council of India ICAI Medical Council of India

DGET for ITIs & ITCs Unregulated for others

No Regulator

Accreditation Bodies

NAAC NBA None None

Key Players IITs IIMs SRCC

Universities Colleges

ITIs ITCs Private Centers

VETA Frankfinn

NAAC (The National Assessmentand Accreditation Council) is anautonomous body, which wasestablished by the University GrantsCommission (UGC) of India toassess and accredit institutions/colleges/universit ies of highereducation in the country. It was setup on recommendations of theNational Policy in Education (1986)

that laid special emphasis onupholding the quality of highereducation in India.

Many educational regulatorybodies like UGC, All India Councilfor Technical Education (AICTE),Bar Council of India (BCI),Distance Education Council(DEC), Dentist Council of India(DCI), Indian Council for

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Agriculture Research (ICAR),National Council for TeacherEducation (NCTE) RehabilitationCouncil of India (RCI), MedicalCouncil of India (MCI), PharmacyCouncil of India (PCI), IndianNursing Council (INC), CentralCouncil of Homeopathy (CCH),the Central Council of IndianMedicine (CCIM) and such otherregulatory bodies are trying to copeup with the growing population andrapidly changing trends. It is time forall those who are concerned withpolicymaking, planning, adminis-

tration and implementation ofHigher Education to revitalize thevery thinking on the subject and putit on the right track.

HIGHER EDUCATION -STASTICAL OVERVIEW

At the end of 2013, there were642 government-recognizedUniversities and 34908 colleges inIndia. But still we need more than1500 universit ies to cater thedemand. According to all india surveyon higher education India has 642colleges at the end of 2013.

No. of Institutions/Enrollment 2010-11 2011-12 Universities 621 642 (up to dec.2013) Colleges 32974 34908 Enrolment (in Lakhs) 275.00 285.63 Enrolment in Distance mode (In lakhs)

33.14 35.60

The above statstics shows that

our education system is improvingnot only in number of colleges anduniversities but also in enrollment.There were 32974 colleges in 2010-11 and this figure increased to 34908in 2011-12. The enrollment figurein distance education programmealso shows positive signs. Most ofthese universities have affiliated

colleges where undergraduatecourses are approved and taught. Butstill, if we compare this improvingstat with increasing population,then we have to rethink, is it stillimproving.

If we talk about the GrossEnrolment Ratio (GER) in highereducation then we will find positiveincrease. Below statistic support this.

2010-11 2011-12 Male 20.8 21.6 Female 17.9 18.9 Total 19.4 20.4

However gross enrolment ration

increased over past few years butstill it is not satisfactory. Grossenrolment Ratio has increased to20.4 in 2011- 12 from 19.4 in 2010-

11 showing growth of 5.15percentage point during that period.It may be seen that GER formale population is marginally higherwhich clearly indicates that women

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is also pursuing higher educationand posing a challenge to maledominated society which is overall ahealthy sign for Indian society.

In India categorization ordistribution of colleges anduniversities is also not balance. Asshown in the below figure most ofthe share is occupied by the Un-Aid private colleges. After that aidedcolleges are very less near to 14%.Even than the most of the collegesruns only undergraduatesprogramme specially the privatecolleges. The data in below Graphicalrepresentation show that highestnumbers of student are enrolled atunder graduate level followed bypost graduate and diploma.

In higher education in India,about 79 per cent of studentsenrolled at undergraduate level andonly about 11.8 per cent areenrolled at post graduate level.Surprisingly, diploma and certificatecourses has a meagre 1 per centenrolment as it is considered as anavailable provision for those who arenot able to make it in themainstream higher education.Unfortunately, for a nation aspiringto become a knowledge economy, atrivial 1 per cent enrolment inresearch study would not bepraiseworthy (UGC, 2012).

It has been observed that the shareof enrolment in traditional coursesviz., humanities, social sciences andpure/natural sciences has declinedduring the last one decade and thesame trend is likely to continue innear future. The inclination forprofessional courses and thereby

enhanced enrolment is favoured byincreased private providers andother stakeholders, who anticipatebetter job prospects. This is likely tohamper the basic research output.The contribution of India inresearch publication has increasedduring last one decade butcompared to its contemporarydeveloping nations its growth has notbeen appreciable (DST,

2012). Further the Distanceeducation accounts for 26 percent of the total students'enrolments and the remaining 74per cent is the share of classroomteaching in higher education(FICCI, 2011). Figure 1 shows amore detailed bifurcation of thefaculty-wise enrolments.

BUDGET ANALYSIS 2013-14The budget of 2013-14 proposes a

fund outflow of Rs 65,867 crore foreducation, against Rs.

61,427 crore in 2012-13. If wecompare then there is only 17%increase from the current fiscal'sestimates against 18% hike in thebudget spending that was last yearand 24 % in the year 2011-12.

The Department of HigherEducation has been allocated Rs.16,210 crore against Rs. 13,479 lastyear with increase of 20.26%. Thisamount is also includes provision forvarious higher and technicalinstitutions.

UGC has been allocated Rs5,769.00 crore, which is inclusiveof allocation for Central

Universit ies and DeemedUniversities.

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For the "National Mission forEducation through ICT", has beenprovided Rs. 400.00 crore has beenmade.

IGNOU, which has been inthe forefront of distance educationmode, has made a provision ofRs.125.00 crore

For technical education, Thereis a provision of Rs. 7,299 crore . Itincludes assistance to IITs, NITs,IIMs, etc. Out of this, Rs. 1,300.00crore for NITs, Rs. 2,400.00 crorefor IITs and Rs. 350.00 crore forIIMs - this allocation is includingnew ones. Indian Institutes ofScience Education and Research(including IIS, Bangalore) has beenprovided Rs. 859.50 crore. Apart fromthe provisions for various ongoingschemes in the TechnicalEducation sector, a provision of Rs.700 crore has been provided forPolytechnics in the States.

CHALLENGES & ISSUESSince independence we are

facing challenges to establish agood and strong education system.Various governments tried toestablish new and effectiveeducation policies in the system butthey were not sufficient for ourcountry. Still Indians are facing lotof problems in our EducationSystem. Indian governmentrecognizes that the new globalscenario poses unrivalled challengesfor the higher education system. TheUGC stated that a whole range ofskills will be demanded from thegraduates of commerce, humanities,natural sciences and social science,

as well as from the variousprofessional disciplines such ashospitality, tourism, agriculture,law, management, medicine orengineering.

There are many basic problemsfaced by higher education systemin India. These include inadequateinfrastructure and facilities, vacantseats in academic field and poorfaculty thereof, low studentenrolment rate, out dated and oldteaching methods, decliningresearch standards, unmotivatedstudents, overcrowded and smallclassrooms and widespreadgeographic, income, gender, andethnic imbalances. Apart from theseconcerns relating to deterioratingstandards and lack of facilities,there is reported exploitation ofrural area students by many privateeducation providers.

The demand-supply gap: India hasa very low rate of enrolment inhigher education (18%) ascompared China (26%) and 36% inBrazil. There is huge demand-supplygap. By 2020, the Indian governmentaims to achieve 30% gross enrolmentin higher education, which meanproviding 40 million universityplaces with an increase of 14 millionin six years.

Inadequate facil it ies andinfrastructure: In India, many ofthe universities don't have adequateinfrastructure or facilities to teachstudents. Even many privateuniversities are running courseswithout classrooms. Internet and Wi-Fi facility is still out of reach ofmany students.

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Lower level of teaching quality:Our education system is torture byissues of quality in many of itsinstitutions and universities. Manyof the issues like shortage of faculty,poor quality teaching, Traditionalteaching methods, outdated andrigid curricula and pedagogy, lack ofaccountability and quality assuranceand separation of research andteaching are raising questions onIndian education system.Researchconstraints: India has a very low levelof PhD enrolment. India does nothave enough high quality researchers.In Indian education system there isa lack of early stage researchexperience; a weak ecosystem forcreativity and innovation, and lowlevels of industry engagement.

Uneven growth and access toopportunity: In India, access tohigher education is uneven inenrolment across population groupsand geographies. This unevengrowth of higher education ismajor challenge for India. India hasthe largest number of out-of-schoolstudents in the world, more thanthe whole of sub-Saharan Africa,and also 69% of India's populationstill lives on less than 2 dollar perday. The World Bank categorisesIndia as "an extreme dual economy".

More concentrated on theories andrather than practical knowledge: Indianeducation system is more focused ontheoretical knowledge rather thanpractical knowledge. In many jobs thereis also a minimum requirement ofpercentage which is high.

Lack of involvement in and controlof educational mat ters by

Professors: Most of the professorsor higher authorities do not like totake part in education relatedactivities. They stick to their owngrowth.

Traditional methods of teaching:Professors still stick to those oldmethods of teaching like board,marker. They don't like to use audiovisual aids in teaching. Also they arenot up to date with the informationavailable and what global industrydemands.

Abroad settlement after education:Many students after doing IITs andIIM try to search opportunities inforeign countries like Australia,USA, and Canada etc. They lookforward for MNCs and get settledabroad. There must be a fix criteriathat students after higher educationhave serve his country first.

Quota system: Bringing thereservation and quota system fordifferent categories in educationlost its quality. Even deservingcandidates of general categories areignored and on quota we have toselect other person from reservedcategory even though he is notsuitable.

Qual i t y - Re f l ect i ng on :Nat iona l Asses sment andAccreditation Council gave areport in which the concern wasover the fact that two thirds(6 8%) o f t he count ry 'sun iv ers i t i es and 90% of i t scolleges are "of middling or poorquality" and that well over halfof the teaching faculty in India'sco l l ege s doe s not have t heappropriate degree qualifications.

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India can no longer continuewith these issues. Rather, it requiresmajor investment in disciplines oftourism, humanities, socialsciences, natural sciences andcommerce and provides themadequate field based experience toenhance knowledge with skills anddevelop appropriate attitudes

SUGGESTION ANDRCOMMENDATION

The syllabus or curriculum forhigher education is outdated in mostcases. Its syllabus contain mattersthat the world has moved on with.To compete with global education,you need the curriculum to beprogressive in nature. Students needto be given choices for enrolmentin multiple courses and allowed tochoose their favorite after 1st or2nd semester. The syllabus mustcontain more practical applicationsthat the theoretical part. Thecurriculum must not be examsdriven, it must be industry driven.Exams should be complimentedwith incentives for innovation andcreative works. Students should havechoice to switch to another streamif they justify some basic criteria. Butin switching stream like fromengineering to commerce, it wouldbe gifficult so for that you needyoung and dynamic faculty.

The next issue pops up in thecurriculum board, in most casesboard in filled with older peopleabove 60's or 70's. I stronglyrecommend that these boards musthave young professors and teachersto have a mix of experience and youth

in system. The younger ones aremore updated with the technologicalchanges and the new age needs ofthe students.

The quality teachers are also hardto find out, who only works for thesake of the education. The fact is thatmost of the younger professors aredoing jobs because they have nothingbetter to do. The point is very simple;they are paid much less incomparison with rest. A graduatedstudent earns more in corporateworld that what a lecturer or aAssistant Professor earn. Despite the6th pay commission the salary inteaching is much less to attractquality faculty. Once you start payingworth the caliber, you get the peoplewho actually want to teach.

This might sound like a ridiculoussuggestion but if you think about it,it might make some sense. We allknow that private colleges and manyuniversities make money and theyare run as large businesses and evenbuild up educational organisation.The solution, I feel is that makethem competitive. Make them underdirect competition rather thanindirect. Let them fight out openlyrather that doing so under thecarpet. Education has become abusiness in some form, the more wehide behind it, and the morecorruption would step in. IfEducational institutes/colleges areusing this business to improve theireducation system, then let them doit, that's how world class universitieswork and that's how we should workif we follow the colonial system. Thebest way forward is to make them

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for profit, taxable and it wouldincrease capital for them andrevenue for government as well asincrease transparency for us.

The interaction of industryplayers with the educational systemcan improve the level of education.Industries could play a major rolein changing the current educationsystem.

Companies should be seeking outfor such interactions, if they don'tagree to it, then the universitiesshould use their advantage. Whencompanies or industry players comefor placements, there should bebasic qualification criteria for theireligibility for the placements.Companies must be asking to donatemoney for university research anddevelopment. Most of the companieswould fall in line automatically sincefor them human capital is muchmore important than these meagersums of money. Many companies aregiving lakhs to recruiting agenciesthan why wouldn't they give thismoney to universities.

One of the most underratedpotentials is the power of the Alumniin Indian education system. Barringthe IIT's and few other topinstitutes, the concept of Alumninetworking is nonexistent or notused by the many institutions.Graduated alumni are earningsomewhere, alumni networks needto be very well intertwined with theuniversity affairs. Alumni are veryeager to give assistance to theirinstitutions. Once you establish acredible network which istransparent, it would give the avenue

as well as the confidence for thealumni to contribute in terms ofmoney or academic expertise. Abovepoints are just few suggestions totackle issues faced by Indian highereducation system.

In brief stop spending moneyon non performing institutions anduniversities. Reduce spending on nonvaluable projects, which don't havefuture implications. There must besome minimum guideline, whichmust be followed by each institute.Provide opportunities to ruralstudents in form of scholarships,hostels, fellowshi p andtransportation.

CONCLUSIONAfter independence, there has

been tremendous increase in highereducation institutions of learning inall disciplines. But still India is waybehind in providing world classeducation. Today, India is one of thefastest growing countries of the worldwith the annual growth rate goingabove 9%. In order to sustain thatrate of growth, there is need toincrease the number of instituteswith quality education. To achieveand reach the future requirementsthere is an urgent need to relook atthe Financial Resources, EducationPolicies, Access and Equity, QualityStandards, Relevance and at the endthe Responsiveness.

To attain and sustain internationalquality, certain components areparticularly relevant. There must becareful selection of staff andcontinuous staff development, inparticular through the promotion of

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appropriate programs for academicdevelopment, including learningmethodology or teaching. We mustfocus on mobility betweencountries, between highereducation institutions and the worldof work, as well as student mobilitywithin and between countries. Sothat they can learn about workingenvironment. Internal self-evaluation and external reviewmust be conducted openly andperiodically by independentspecialists, if possible withinternational experts.

If we are talk about India, we areproviding skilled and educatedpeople to world. Why we are unableto utilize their potential to covertour country from developing todeveloped country. We must createsome parameters, to indulgeeducated people for driving our

economy forward. We are movingtowards an era which would bedefined by the parameters ofknowledge.

We need an educational systemthat is modern/advanced, liberaland can adapt to the changingdemands of a changing society, achanging economy and a changingglobal world. Indian highereducation system and regulatorybodies must identify the key issuesand quickly make policies to removethose hurdles. Only one or twouniversit ies can't make muchdifference. If the governmentwelcomes such initiatives whichdrive our education system forward,then future will be ours. We will beable to match and compete withother countries and the dream tobe the world's greatest economywon't be difficult to achieve.

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teacher-student-ratio/articleshow/22670998.cms (September 18, 2013)Chiranjib Sen (2011). A Framework for Analyzing Demand and Supply of Faculty and

the Quality of Higher Education, IIM Bangalore, Working Paper No. 350, 1 - 34.Grace G. (1991). The state and the teachers: problems in teacher supply, retention and

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-2

Abstract: The main objective of this paper is to examine the relationship betweeninflation, Current balance,and GDP of Pakistan. Annual time series data for the period1980 to 2017 is used in this study. The OLS method is used to find out the result. Theempirical result shows that inflation rate is significant at 10% level of significance,but thecurrent balance account at 5% level of significance but the coefficients of both independentvariables are negative which shows that there is an inverse relationship between dependentand independent variables.

Key words: Inflation, GDP, OLS.

IMPACT OF THE INFLATION RATE, CURRENTBALANCE ON PAKISTAN GDP

Sobia Naseem1, Muhammad Mohsin2, Shazia Salamat3

1. Department of Optimization and Decision Making,Liaoning Technical University, China

[email protected]. College of Business Administration,Liaoning Technical University, China

[email protected]. College of Business Administration,

Liaoning Technical University, China [email protected]



Recommended citation: Sobia Naseem, Muhammad Mohsin, Shazia Salamat. IMPACTOF THE INFLATION RATE, CURRENT BALANCE ON PAKISTAN GDP. 3-4. AmericanJournal of Research P. 17-20 (2019).

IntroductionGDP (Gross domestic product)

is an important indicator to checkthe economyof a country. The GDPof Pakistan in 2017 around was304.95 billion U.S dollars. In thisstudy, we have reviewed the impactof some important economicvariables on Pakistan's GDP.

Similarly, this study is aimed atfinding the effects of somemacroeconomic factors like

inflation, interest rate and realexchange rate on Pakistan's GDPand finding its steps and measures.The government of Pakistanconsidering these factors can betaken by the Government of Indiato promote economic development(GDP). Previous studies weresupported in this regard.Blejer(2000) and Naseem et al., (2018)found that if a country has highinflation in an economy that country

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faced many difficulties to run thepolicies easily. Due to high inflation,there is always a relationship withthe change in the rising price, whichcan lead Investment plans are notsure about being profitable in thefuture. It leads to more Orthodox willsay otherwise with the investmentdecisions. This, finally, Leads tolower levels of investment andeconomic growth. Infection may alsoaffect. The balance of the economyis relatively expensive in its exports.Other than that, talk to the taxsystem to disturb inflation andbankruptcy decisions. Firms had toallocate more resources to deal withinflation. Sweidan (2004) found thatweak negative correlation is betweenGDP and inflation rate. Munir etal., (2009) found that therelationship between inflation rateand GDP is non-linear in the caseof Malaysia. Kemal et al., (2006)conclude that an increase in themoney supply becomes to create theinflation thus verifies that's quantitytheory of money. Hansen (2000)they look for an inflation value forMalaysia and confirm that therelationship between inflation andeconomic growth is nonlinear. Theestimated threshold repressionmodel estimated that 3.89 percentcompared to the interval approachof Infrastructure, in which inflationsignificantly damages the actualGDP development rate. Also, withthe level below the threshold, figuresof growth between inflation andgrowth have a significant positiverelationship.

Objectives of the Study

The major objective of thepresent study is to examine theimpact of inflation on GDP growthin Pakistan.

Data and methodologyIn this study to find the

relationship between GDP, Inflationrate and Current balance accountsecondary data is used. In a past studymany research work on this topic. Soannually data is used in this study forthe period 1980-2017. The data of thesevariables are collected from the Worlddevelopment indicator and State bankof Pakistan. To check the relationshipbetween GDP growth-inflation rateand current balance regressiontechnique were used as (Mohsin etal., 2018). The multiple regressionmodels are used to find out the impactof the inflationrate andthe currentbalance on GDB growth.

+e

Y= is dependent variable (GDBgrowth)

IN= independent variable(inflation rate)

CB= independent variable(current balance)

a=consente= error termResultTable#1 Descriptive statistics

GDP IN CB Mean 4.820386 8.605235 -2.701586 Median 4.832817 8.837937 -2.74153 Std. Dev. 2.189203 3.937775 2.527608 Skewness 0.296471 0.562481 0.201004 Kurtosis 2.639573 3.541903 4.459111 Jarque-Bera 0.662045 2.143894 3.149596 Probability 0.718189 0.342341 0.207049 Observations 33 33 33

H0= data is normally distributed

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H1= Data is not normallydistributed

In the above table shows that themean value of GDP is 4.82, IN 8.60and CB is -2.70 and the skewnessof all variables are positive. TheJaraque-Bera test is insignificantwhich means that the data arenormally distributed.

Table#2 Regression analysis

inverse relation between GDP andInflation rate and the variable CB(current balance) are significant at5% level,but the sing of thecoefficient is negative same as theinflation rate coefficient. The F-statistics is significant at 5% levelshows that the model is a good fit.

ConclusionTrade is soberly significant to

Pakistan economy the sum of importand export is 25% of GDP. In thisstudy analyzed the relationshi pbetween GDP, Inflation and currentbalance account. The empirical resultshows that inflation is significant at10% level,and current balanceaccount significant at 5% level butthe sing of both independentvariables are negative which meanshows the inverse relation with GDP.This studywill behelp to domestic,foreign investor as well as apolicymaker.

Ordinary Least Squares Method Sample: 1 33 Dependent Variable: Y Included observations: 33 Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. C 5.29103 0.86412 6.123028 0.000 IN -0.17519 0.093969 -1.864351 0.0721*** CB -0.383816 0.146394 -2.621798 0.0136** Adjusted R-squared 0.162455 S.D. dependent variable 2.189203 F-statistic 4.103456 Durbin-Watson statistics 1.123089 Prob(F-statistic) 0.026588

*, **, *** which mean that's significantat 1%, 5% and 10% respectability

In the above table shows the resultof ordinary least square (OLS) tofind the relationship between GDP,IN,and CB. The variable IN(inflation rate) isstatisticallysignificant at 10% level,but the singof the coefficient is a negative mean

References:

Aizenman, J., Chinn, M. D., & Ito, H. (2010). The Emerging Global FinancialArchitecture: Tracing And Evaluating New Patterns Of The Trilemma Configuration. JournalOf International Money And Finance, 615-641.

Blejer, M. (2000) Inflation Targeting in Practice: Strategic and operational issues andapplication to emerging market economies.International Monetary Fund.

Bouraoui, T., & Phisuthtiwatcharavong, A. (2015). On The Determinants Of TheTHB/USD Exchange Rate. Procedia Economics And Finance , 137 - 145.

Hasan, A. et al. (1995).What explains the Current High Rates of Inflation in Pakistan.The Pakistan Development Review, 34(4), 927-943.

Kemal, M.A. (2006).Is Inflation in Pakistan a Monetary Phenomenon? The PakistanDevelopment Review, 45(2), 213-220.

Kumar, R., & Dhawan, R. (1991). Exchange Rate Volatility And Pakistan's ExportsTo The Developed World, 1974-85. Elsevier, 1225-1240.

Munir, Q. et al. (2009). Inflation and Economic Growth in Malaysia: A ThresholdRegression Approach, ASEAN Economic Bulletin, 26(2), 180-193.

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Mohsin, M., Majeed, M. K., & Naseem, S. (2018). Impact Of Gdp, UnemploymentAnd Current Balance On Exchange Rate: A Study From Pakistan. American Journal OfResearch, 37-46.

Mohsin, M., Majeed, M. K., & Naseem, S. (2018). Impact Of Inflation Rate AndExchange Rate On Gdp: Evidence From Pakistan. American Journal Of Research, 25-30.

Naseem, S., Fu, G. L., Mohsin, M., Baig, S., & Zia-Ur-Rehman, M. (2018). TheVolatility Of Pakistan Stock Market: A Comparison Of Garch Type Models With FiveDistribution. Revista Amazonia Investiga, 486-504.

Sweidan, O. D. (2004). Does Inflation Harm Economic Growth in Jordan? AnEconometric Analysis for the Period 1970-2000. International Journal of AppliedEconometrics and QuantitativeStudies,1(2),41-66.

Senadza, B., & Diaba, D. D. (2017). Effect Of Exchange Rate Volatility On Trade InSub-Saharan Africa. Journal Of African Trade, 20-36.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-3

Abstract: This article is devoted to historical roots of the emergence of the earlyreligious-political sects in Islam dates back to the first century of Hijra. During the reign ofthe caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib (35/656-40/661), the first division into sects was occurredamong Muslims. Due to the battle Siffin in 37/657 for the throne of the caliphate betweenAli and Muawiya ibn Abu Sufyan (40/661-60/680), the early religious-political sects - theKharijites and Shiites were emerged.

Key words: sect, Kharijites, Shia, muhaddith, the science of hadith, caliph, imamate,fabricated hadith, interpretation.

HADITH USING METHODOLOGY IN THE EARLYRELIGIOUS-POLITICAL SECTS IN ISLAM

Tajiev Aziz ShavkatovichResearcher of the International Islamic Academy of Uzbekistan

Tashkent, Uzbekistan



Recommended citation: Tajiev Aziz Shavkatovich. HADITH USING METHODOLOGYIN THE EARLY RELIGIOUS-POLITICAL SECTS IN ISLAM. 3-4. American Journal ofResearch P. 21-30 (2019).

Historical roots of the emergenceof the early religious-political sectsin Islam dates back to the firstcentury of Hijra. During the reign ofthe caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib (35/656-40/661), the first division intosects was occurred among Muslims.Due to the battle Siffin in 37/657for the throne of the cali phatebetween Ali and Muawiya ibn AbuSufyan (40/661-60/680), the earlyreligious-polit ical sects - theKharijites and Shiites were emerged.

Disagreement between these sectswas mainly in the matter of a caliph.The term "caliph" (خلیفة) is an Arabic

word, and it means "deputy" and"successor" [1]. The plural of the term"caliph" is "Khulafa" (خلفاء) .

The early disagreement wasoccurred among Muslims in thematter of voting a caliph and evensome groups of people incorrectlyinterpreted this matter because ofthe Prophet (PBUH) has not leftan exact instruction that who shouldbe a cali ph after himself.Nevertheless, all Muslims thatbelonged to Ahl al-Sunna wal-Jama'afurther have hold the moderate waytightly and have kept the followinghadith in this matter.

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The early disagreement was occurred among Muslims in the matter of voting a caliph and even some groups of people incorrectly interpreted this matter because of the Prophet (PBUH) has not left an exact instruction that who should be a caliph after himself. Nevertheless, all Muslims that belonged to Ahl al-Sunna wal-Jama’a further have hold the moderate way tightly and have kept the following hadith in this matter.

ان ھذا الامر في قریش لا یعادیھم أحد الا كبھ اللھ علي وجھھ ما أقاموا الدین“Authority of ruling will remain with Quraish, and whoever bears

hostility to them, Allah will destroy him as long as they abide by the laws of the religion” [2, 436-437].

According to this hadith, Muslims have reached a consensus (اجماع) that a person who would be voted as a caliph to guarantinee the execution of the rules of Shari’a (Islamic law) as well as to rule Muslims in the religious and worldly matters must be from the tribe of Quraish. In addition, it must be met some conditions in voting a caliph that he must be fair, voted by the council of Muslims, and be sweared an oath by Muslims. Sources show that swearing an oath in the period of the companions of the Prophet (PBUH) was on basis of the companions’ free opinion and submission to a caliph was also an optional matter, but atfer the Umayyad dinasty came to the throne, swearing an oath and submission to a caliph was changed into a compulsory duty [3, 79].

Nevertheless, the above metntioned sects had special views in this matter. The Kharijites [4] (الخوارج), considering themselves as real Muslims and having a very ruthless attitude against those who had not accepted their ideas and had not followed them, fighted against Muawiya on Ali’s side firstly. They made Ali to accept tahkim [5] (تحكیم) despite of his resistance, then accusing all the companions of unbelieving, separated from Muslims with a slogan لا حكم الا للھ (judgement is only for Allah). They fighted against Ali and Muawiya at the same time. The Kharijites have used Qur`an and hadiths in order to prove that they were in the right path as well as to ground their false views on Muslim belief as the other religious-political and theological sects have done. For it, The Kharijites have accepted the external meaning of hadiths, interpreting their real meaning incorrectly and fabricating false hadiths. The beginning of the process of fabricating false hadiths by some people and groups were observed for the first time in the period of Usman ibn Affan (23/644-35/656) and it was at the peak of the development when many false hadiths were fabricated by the theological sects emerged in the end of the 1/7th century as well as by heretics and tale narrators.

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The Kharijites have developed a political view that anybody would be voted as a caliph firstly, then they have developed some special theological views as well. Blaming Ali, Usman, Amr ibn Os, Musa Ash`ari, Aisha, Talha, Zubair, and all those who have been agreed with tahkim as well as those Muslims who have committed big sins as unbelievers, allowing themselves to kill other Muslims and to rob their goods, rebelling against rulers for unsignigicant reasons, denying torture in the grave are peculiar characters to the teaching of this sect [6, 936-937].

Hadiths are considered as one of the main sources in the teaching of the Kharijites. The fact that the Kharijites have used hadiths for grounding their theological views proves the above mentioned opinion. We can notice that the Kharijites have presented some hadiths as a proof for their view on the matter of a caliph. For example, they have used the following hadiths in this respect.

لا فضل لعربي على عجمي ولا لعجمي على عربي ولا أحمر على أسود ولا أسود على أحمر الا بالتقوي

“An arabian is preferable to a foreigner, a foreigner to an arabian, red to black, and black to red only in piety” [7, 474]. عن جدتھ أم الحصین قالت سمعت رسول اللھ صلى اللھ علیھ وسلم یقول ان أمر علیكم عبد

حبشي مجدع فاسمعوا لھ وأطیعوا ما قادكم بكتاب اللھ“It was narrated from Umm Husain that she heard the Prophet

(PBUH) say: “Even if the one appointed over you is a mutilated Ethiopian slave whose nose and ears have been cut off, listen to him and obey, so long as he leads you according to the Book of Allah” [8, 101].

However, muslim scholars say that these hadiths have an another meaning in fact. In particular, a muslim scholar Ali Muhammad Sallabi has confirmed that the first hadith means that people are preferable to each other only in piety, but they are all equal in other things [9, 56]. According to the teaching of Ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jama`a, one is required to meet the above mentioned requirements besides qualities such as piety, justice and humanity in order to be voted as a caliph. The most important aspect in it is that a candidate must be from the tribe Quraish.

Muslim scholars’ opinion on the second proof of the Kharijites is that there are a lot of hadiths about the necessity of obeying and listening to an Ethiopian slave leader. Nevertheless, even the decision of these hadiths do not cancel the requirement that a caliph must be from the tribe Quraish. As Sallabi confirms, these hadiths of this sort are narrations are a bit of an exaggeration that narrated to emphasize the necessity of obeying and listening to rulers [9, 55].

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In addition, the Kharijites have blamed those Muslims who had committed big sins as unbelievers and have claimed that they would stay in the hell eternally. They have used the 81st verse of Surah Baqarah to prove their wrong view:

بلى من كسب سیئة وأحاطت بھ خطیئتھ فأولئك أصحاب النار ھم فیھا خالدون“Yes, whoever earns evil and his sin has encompassed him – those are

the companions of the Fire; they will abide therein eternally” [10, 12]. The Kharijites have given this verse as proof of that those muslims

who had committed sins would be abide in the Hell eternally. According to the teaching of the Kharijites, whoever dies committing a sin will not be worthy of Allah’s mercy. In addition, it cause him to lose his faith. The Kharijites have used the above mentioned verse from Qur`an as a proof for their wrong view on it and interpreted it incorrectly because all hadiths from the Prophet (PBUH) definitely condemn the act of blaming others as unbelievers.

Nevertheless, the Kharijites have used some hadiths as a proof besides the above mentioned verses of Qur`an. However, they have not understood the real meaning of these hadiths when they have used them and that is why they have given another meaning to them. For example, one of them is narrated by Abu Huraira and it can be an example for our opinion.

عن أبي ھریرة رضي اللھ عنھ قال قال النبي صلى اللھ علیھ وسلم لا یزني الزاني حین یزني وھو مؤمن ولایشرب الخمر حین یشرب وھو مؤمن ولا یسرق حین یسرق وھو مؤمن ولا ینتھبث

نھبة یرفع الناس الیھ فیما أبصارھم حین ینتھبھا وھو مؤمن“Narrated Abu Huraira: The Prophet (PBUH) said: “When an

adulterer commits illegal sexual intercourse, then he is not a believer at the time he is committing it, and when a drinker of an alcoholic liquor drinks it, then he is not a believer at the time of drinking it, and when a thief steals, then he is not a believer at the time of stealing, and when a robber robs, and the people look at him, then he is not a believer at the time of committing robbery” [11, 380].

However, the Kharijites have concluded wrongly that one would be an unbeliever committing the acts mentioned in the hadith. In fact, it was emphasized in sources that this hadith was narrated on the people who commit these sins considering them legally [12, 284]. One of Muslim scholars Ahmad ibn Ali ibn Hajar Asqalani (773/1371-852/1448) interpreted this hadith and confirmed that Muslim had not become an unbeliever by committing sins mentioned in it [13].

In fact, the Kharijites have used fabricated hadiths for grounding their views very rarely. There is information in sources that they have never tried to fabricate false hadiths. Nevertheless, some sources mention that they have used fabricated hadiths as well.

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For example, a Muslim scholar Muhammad Muhammad Abu Zahv says that Jamaluddin Abulfaraj Abdurahman Ali ibn Javzi (510/1116-597/1201) gives ibn Lakhià’s following opinion in the introduction of his work “Kitab al-Mavzuàt” (A book of fabricated hadiths): “I heard that one of the Kharijites had regretted and left his wrong path. He said: “Hadith is a religion. Look at one from whom you take your religion. When we wanted to do something, we used to convert it into a hadith” [14, 87]. Another Muslim scholar Abdurahman ibn Mahdi (135/752-198/813) said that the Kharijites and heretics had fabricated the hadith “If a hadith from me comes to you, compare it with Quràn. If it corresponds to Quràn, then it will be mine” [15, 99].

However, some scholars deny the fact that the Kharijites have fabricated false hadiths and say that they were not busy with this matter. In particular, one of them, Mustafa Sibaì emphasize that the Kharijires have abstained from fabricating false hadiths taking the fact into account that according to the teaching of the Kharijites committing big sins and telling a lie is a cause of becoming an unbeliever [15, 99]. In addition, a Muslim scholar Abu Zakariya Yahya ibn Main Baghdadi (159/775-233/847) denies that the Kharijites have fabricated false hadiths and says that heretics themselves have fabricated the above mentioned false hadiths [15, 100].

The information given above shows that the Kharijites almost have not used the method of fabricating false hadiths in the propaganda of their teaching. Some characters of the Kharijites make us to come to this conclusion. Firstly, telling a lie is considered as a sign of disbelief according to the teaching of the Kharijites and this reason has not allowed them to fabricate false hadiths. Secondly, the Kharijites were mainly people who were bedouins, naturally ignorant and brutal and that is why they were not ready to use the same method of the fight against their ideological opponents which was used by other sects for grounding their teaching. Thirdly, they preferred the method of fighting with a sword to the method of the ideological struggle. So, the main means used by the Kharijites in the struggles against opponents was a sword. In addition, according to them, nothing can not wash faults of the “unbelievers” who have committed big sins off except a sword. Nevertheless, there are some specific charasters in the hadith using methods used by the Kharijites. For example, they have blamed the companions of the Prophet (PBUH) as unbelievers after they had agreed with tahkim and have denied their narrations.

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However, this specific aspect in the acception of the hadiths was not peculiar to the all sects of the Kharijites. In particular, hadith books, written by the representatives of the sect Ibadiya [16] (االباضیة) which was more orthodox among the other sects of the Kharijites and existed in our days as well, show that they have accepted narrations from Ali ibn Abu Talib, Usman ibn Affan, Aishah, Abu Huraira, Anas ibn Malik and others [17, 23].

In addition, there were not literate people among those who have followed the teaching of the Kharijites at that time. Because literate people have understood that the teaching of the Kharijites was contradictory to the pure teaching of Islam and the narrations of the Prophet (PBUH). As Muhammad Abu Zahv confirms, even there were not pupils of the scholars of the companions such as Abdullah ibn Mas`ud, Umar ibn Khattab, Ali ibn Abu Talib, Aishah, Muaz ibn Jabal among the Kharijites [14, 85]. It caused the Kharijites to take only the external meanings of verses and hadiths, to interpret their real meaning wrongly, to blame other Muslims and even each other as unbelievers for insignificant reasons. Generally, the policy carried out by the Umayyads and Abbasides against the Kharijites on the one hand, and internal wars among the Kharijites themselves, blaming each other for different faults, especially for unbelief on the other hand caused the Kharijites almost to perish in the second half of the 2/8th

century. If we analyze the hadith using methods of the different sects, it is

found out that some of these sects have accepted the external meaning of hadiths and some of them have interpreted hadiths for their views. Nevertheless, Muslim scholars have various opinions on the method that used by Kharijites for this purpose. According to the scholars such as Ahmad Amin and Abu Zahra, the Kharijites have accepted the external sides of hadiths leaving their real meaning. According to the scholars such as ibn Abbas, the Kharijites have interpreted hadiths wrongly for grounding their views [18, 278-279]. The study of the history of the sects in Islam shows that some sects have not accepted ohod hadiths. Howerever, the Kharijites have accepted both mutawatir and ohod hadiths as a proof of the religion. The books written by the representatives of the Kharijites on Usul al-Fiqh [19] ( (اصول الفقھshow that they have used ohod hadiths in making decisions. In particular, one of these authors Salimi says: “There are different opinions on the acceptance of ohod hadith and qiyas. Which one is preferable to an another one? Our followers, Mutakallims and Faqihs prefer ohod hadith to qiyas. That is why the observance of ohod hadith is better than the observance of qiyas” [17, 23].

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Another religious-political sect that emerged in the early period of Islam and still existed in our days is Shia [20] (الشیعة). According to Shia teaching, imamat is considered as one of the pillars of Islam, and the faith of Muslim, who does not believe in it, will not be perfect, and his good deeds will not be accepted. The Shiites consider Ali ibn Abu Talib as a legal caliph. Also they consider the caliphs before Ali as illegal rulers because they have taken the throne from him by force according to the teaching of Shia. That is why the Shiites condemn the rulers before Ali as well as the Umayyad caliphs, and they consider that imamat is Ali’s legal right and it must be limited only to his descendants.

As it was said above, the issue of imamat is the most important aspect of the shiite theological teaching and it caused to emerge disagreement between the Shiites and Ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jama`a. The Shiites use some hadiths as a proof for grounding their view on imamat. For example, they use the following hadiths for grounding their view on that Ali is the Prophet’s legal deputy.

عن أبي سریحة أو زید بن أرقم شك شعبة عن النبي صلى اللھ علیھ وسلم من كنت مولاه فعلي مولاه

“Abu Sarihah, or Zaid ibn Arqam - Shu`ba had doubt – narrated, from the Prophet (PBUH): “For whomever I am his Mawla then Ali is his Mawala” [21, 387].

عن علي قال قال رسول اللھ صلى اللھ علیھ وسلم أنا دار الحكمة وعلي بابھا“Ali narrated that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) said: “I am the

house of wisdom, and Ali is its door” [21, 394]. عن مصعب بن سعد عن أبیھ أن رسول اللھ صلى اللھ علیھ وسلم خرج الى تبوك واستخلف علیا فقال أتخلفني في الصبیان والنساء قال ألا ترضى أن تكون مني بمنزلة ھارون من موسى الا

أنھ لیس نبي بعدي“Narrated Sa`d: Allah’s Messenger (PBUH) set out for Tabuk

appointing Ali as his deputy. Ali said: “Do you want to leave me with the children and women?”. The Prophet (PBUH) said: “Will you not be pleased that you will be to me like Harun to Musa? But there will be no Prophet after me” [22, 424].

In fact, imamat was turned into one of the most important theological issue in Shia. Even they consider that the belief in imam is a part of the belief in Allah. In particular, Sabit ibn Abu Safiya ibn Dinar [23] (died 150/767) said about it: “Ja`far said me: “Whoever knows Allah will pray to Him. Whoever does not know Allah his prayer will be an error”. I asked him: “May my life be a victim for you! How do we know Allah?”. He answered: “We know Allah confirming Allah, the Messenger and Ali and accepting imamat of Ali and other imams” [12, 360].

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The Shiites, who believe in that the caliphate is Ali’s legal right and the Umayyads have taken this right from him by force, have started to fabricate false hadiths since the second half of the 1/7th century for grounding their views. Their purpose in fabricating false hadiths was to praise the virtues of Ali and his descendants as well as to prove that the caliphate was their legal right. That is why hadiths, in which the virtues of Ali and his descendants were praised, were started to be fabricated. A muslim scholar Jalaluddin Abdurahman Suyuti (died 299/911), who studied these fabricated false hadiths, has a special chapter named as “Manaqib Ahl Bait” (The virtues of Ahl Bait) dedicated to them in his work “al-Laliù al-Masnuà fi al-Ahadith al-Mavzuà” (A Pearl Made on the Fabricated Hadiths) and collected the fabricated false hadiths on the virtues of Ahl Bait in it [24].

In addition, the Shiites have fabricated false hadiths about Muaviya and the Umayyads, and we can see a proof of it in the books of the false hadiths. For example, they have fabricated the following hadiths: “Whoever dies with hatred against Ali ibn Abu Talib in his soul, then he dies as a jew and christian”, “There will be an intrigue. If any of you will be a witness of this intrigue, then hold two things tightly. These are Allah’s Book and Ali ibn Abu Talib. Ali is my deputy after me” [14, 93].

A Muslim scholar Ibn Javzi has divided the Shiites into the three groups based on their method of fabricating false hadiths in his work “Kitab al-Mavzuàt” (The Book of the Fabricated Hadiths). The Shiites of the first group take the hadith that existed in fact and remove any phrase from it they like or add any phrase into it they like. The Shiites of the second group fabricate the hadith, which is not existed in fact, and narrate this hadith saying “Ja`far said so”, “Someone said so”. The Shiites of the third group are ignorant people and they fabricate any hadith they like [25, 338]. The hadiths, which were fabricated by the Shiites for grounding their wrong view that Ali was a prophet, were collected in the special chapter named as “Bab fi Fadhail Ali Alayhissalam” (The Chapter of Ali’s (PBUH) virtues) of the above mentioned book [25].

As it is seen in the history, the ideas of Abdullah ibn Saba`, who had spread various intrigues in the history of Islam, has caused the wrong views that Ali was a prophet or he had a divine power to be developed among the Shiites. He has spread the intrigues about the resurrection of Muhammad (PBUH) firstly, and then that Ali ibn Abu Talib was a prophet or had an divine power among Muslims. Of course, there were those who have accepted these wrong views, but they were newly embraced into Islam and have not abandoned their former belief totally. According to sources, the followers of Abdullan ibn Saba` came to Ali and said: “Are You that person?”. Ali said: “Who is that?”. They said: “Are You God?”. Then Ali ordered to kill them by throwing into the fire [26, 214].

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References:

1. Girgas F.V. Arabsko-russkiy slovar k Koranu i hadisam. - Moscow: "Dilya", 2006. -230 p.

2. Muhammad ibn Ismail Bukhari. Sahih Bukhari. - Riyadh: Maktaba Dar al-Salam,1997. V.4.

3. Muhammad Abu Zahra. Tarikh al-Mazahib al-Islamiya fil-Siyasa wal-Aqaid wa Tarikhal-Mazahib al-Fiqhiya. - Cairo: Dar al-Fikr al-Arabi, 2009.

4. Kharijites - from an Arabic word "kharaja" (???) and means "rebels" and "separators".5. Tahkim - from an Arabic word "hakkama" (???) and means to appoint a judge.

Appointing a judge by Ali and Muawiya to carry on negotiations was called as an event oftahkim in the history of Islam.

6. Ahmad ibn Abdulaziz Husain. Mavsua Maza Ta`rifu anil Firaq wal-Mazahib. - Riyadh:Dar Alam al-Kutub, 2007.

7. Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Musnad al-Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal. - Beirut: Muassasa al-Risala, 2001. V.38.

8. Muhammad ibn Yazid ibn Maja Qazvini. Sunan ibn Maja. - Riyadh: Maktaba Dar as-Salom, 2007. V.4.

9. Ali Muhammad Sallabi. Fikr al-Khawarij wa al-Shia fi Mizan Ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jamaà. - Cairo: Dar ibn Jazm, 2008.

10. The Translation and Interpretation of the Meanings of Quràn / translated andinterpreted by Abdulaziz Mansur. - Tashkent: Tashkent Islamic University, 2018.

11. Muhammad ibn Ismail Bukhari. Sahih Bukhari. - Riyadh: Maktaba Dar al-Salam,1997. V.3.

12. Ghalib ibn Ali Ivaji. Firaqun Muàsiratun Tantasibu ila al-Islam wa Bayan Mavqifal-Islam minha. - Jiddah: al-Maktaba al-asriya al-zahabiya, 2001.

13. Ahmad ibn Ali ibn Hajar Asqalani. Fath al-Bari Bisharhi Sahih al-Bukhari. - Riyadh:Dar Tayyiba, 2005. V.15. - 512 p.

14. Muhammad Muhammad Abu Zahv. Al-Hadith wa al-Muhaddithuna. - Riyadh,1984. - 87 p.

15. Mustafa Sibaì. al-Sunna wa Makanatuha fi al-Tashri al-Islami. - Beirut: Dar al-Varraq, 2000.

As conclusion it may be said that the early religious-political sects that emerged in Islam have used the verses of Quràn and hadiths, and have interpreted their real meaning wrongly for grounding their false view, even have fabricated the false hadiths in this way much times notwithstanding they they have mainly use the philosophical proofs for grounding their views. Of course, these sects have not followed the rules of giving proofs set by Muslim scholars and have used various narrations, false hadiths and myths which were not existed in fact. They have developed the special methods of using hadiths for grounding their wrong views and have not followed the method of the companions of the Prophet (PBUH), successors and Muslim scholars in the interpretation of the verses and hadiths, but they have used any method they like.

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16. Ibadiya - one of the sects of the Kharijites, it was named after its founder Abdullahibn Ibad (died 89/708).

17. Muhammad Mustafa A`zami. Dirasatun fi al-Hadith al-Nabavi wa Tarikh Tadwinihi.- Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islami, 1980.

18. Ghalib ibn Ali Ivaji. Firaqun Muàsiratun Tantasibu ila al-Islam wa Bayan Mavqifal-Islam minha. - Jiddah: al-Maktaba al-asriya al-zahabiya, 2001.

19. Usul al-Fiqh - a theoretical field of Islamic law that studies the sources of makingdecisions.

20. Shia - an Arabic word and means "follower" and "adherent".21. Abu Isa Muhammad ibn Isa Tirmizi. Jame` al-Tirmizi. - Riyadh: Maktaba Dar al-

Salom, 2007. V.6.22. Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ismail Bukhari. Sahih al-Bukhari. - Riyadh: Maktaba

Dar al-Salom, 1997. V.5.23. He was born in Kufa and famous as a Shiite scholar, mufassir and muhaddith

under the nickname of Abu Hamza. He was an author of the books such as "al-Nawadir","al-Zuhd", "Tafsir Abi Hamza".

24. See: Jalaluddin Abdurahman Suyuti. al-Laliù al-Masnuà fi al-Ahadith al-Mavzuà.- Beirut: Dar al-Ma`rifa, 1975.

25. Abulfaraj Abdurahman ibn Ali ibn Javzi. Kitab al-Mavzuàt. - Medina: Maktaba al-Salafiya, 1966. - 338 p.

26. Abulqadir Shaibatul Hamd. Al-Adyan wa al-Firaq wa al-Mazahib al-Muasira. - Riyadh:Maktaba Fahd al-Wataniya, 2012. - 214 p.

27. John A. Haywood. Divine Word and Prophetic Word in Early Islam-a Reconsiderationof the Sources, with Special Reference to the Divine Saying of Had?th quds? // Religion,Volume 11, Issue 2, April 1981. - 196 p.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-4

Abstract: Using literary texts in the classroom has been widely practiced in the field ofEFL teaching and learning. Many scholars ascertain that English literary texts providelanguage learners with a kind of authentic language used by native speakers in real contexts.Research studies in the EFL field illustrate that EFL learners' problems in reading Englishliterary texts are due to two main reasons. Firstly, the complex structure of literary texts.Secondly, lack of familiarity with the cultural content of English literary texts. However,the present study sets out to suggest that collaborative work in the classroom can bridgelearners' difficulties in constructing the meaning of literary texts. The research suggests anew model to improve the teaching of literary short fiction in one of the English departmentsin Libyan universities.The suggested model emphasizes three main tenets:

1. The role of background knowledge in processing literary short fiction. The backgroundknowledge includes not only knowledge of English language but also familiarity withcultural content of the literary text as well as the formal organization of the literary texts.

2. Since language and culture are intertwined, the approach focuses on developingLibyan learners' cultural and intercultural awareness.

3. The approach suggests the use of Learning Conversations as a scaffolding procedurethat allows more interaction and negotiation for co-constructing the meaning of the text.

The study adopts a qualitative research approach. The investigation is carried out acrossthree phases. Phase 1 focuses on the assessment of the Libyan EFL participant problemsin reading literary texts by interviewing the ten participants and using a diagnostic test. Thesecond phase is interventional. It seeks to investigate learners' development in constructingthe meaning of literary text through the suggested scaffolding procedure (i.e. LearningConversations). The third phase of the investigation explores learners' reflections on theeffectiveness of interactive work in reading literature. The study aims at providing evidenceof Libyan EFL learners' perspective of the new model and the development of theirunderstanding.

Key words: Learning Conversations, English as a foreign language (EFL), dialogicexchanges

INTERCULTURAL INTERACTIVE PROCESSINGMODEL OF READING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGNLANGUAGE SHORT FICTION IN THE LIBYAN

CONTEXTDr Hana A. Ali Mohamed

P HD University of Aberdeen, United KingdomLecturer, Benghazi University



Recommended citation: Dr Hana A. Ali Mohamed. INTERCULTURAL INTERACTIVEPROCESSING MODEL OF READING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE SHORTFICTION IN THE LIBYAN CONTEXT. 3-4. American Journal of Research P. 31-52 (2019).

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IntroductionResearch studies in English

language learning and teaching havebeen seeking to find ways in whichEFL/ESL learners can improvetheir reading comprehension.Different reading models have beensuggested in order to provideinsights into the strategies ofproficient comprehension. Suchmodels range from text decoding:bottom-up processing, whichinvolves decoding the text words,phrases and sentences forconstructing meaning (LaBerge &Samuels, 1974), to prior knowledgeactivation: top-down processingwhich assumes that readers use theirbackground knowledge of thelanguage, the text and the world toconstruct the meaning of texts(Carrell, 1987). In addition, a focuson the employment of these twoprocesses simultaneously has beenstressed in the context of EFL/ESLreading comprehension (Rumelhart,1977). Recent research, however,emphasizes the role of socialinteraction to enhance thecomprehension of different text typesincluding literary and non-literarytexts (Applebee, Langer, Nystrand,&Gamoran, 2003). That is,interaction between learners aboutthe text content enables readers toshare knowledge and appropriatestrategies (Goldman, 1997).

During the past decade, therehave been limited number ofresearch studies conducted in Libyain relation to the teaching ofliterature as an authentic text (e.g.El-Naili, 2006; Elbadri, 2009; Abu-

baker, 2012; Pathan, 2013).However, unsystematic observationby the researcher over a number ofyears' teaching in the university levelteaching literature in Libya supportedby anecdotal evidence fromforegoing research suggest thatpedagogical approaches to teachingreading comprehension in Libya arestill committed to teacher-centredapproaches, which have led tounsatisfactory results with respect toboth academic achievement andlanguage learning. For this reason,there is an urgent need for moreresearch on alternative teaching andlearning approaches, which provideinsights into improving the learningof future generations. An interactivelearning approach is a relatively newstudent-centred approach thatappears not to have been practisedin Libya to date. Therefore, thisresearch is an attempt tocompensate for this lack in theLibyan EFL learning context andstimulate future research into thefield of interactive learning in theLibyan context. In addition, aslanguage and culture are closelyrelated, the study maintains the roleof culture in comprehending literarytexts. Therefore, the study considersthe development of learners' culturaland intercultural awareness fordeeper understanding of literarytexts through collaborativeinteraction.

Thus, the rationale of the studyarises from the need to explore analternative approach for teachingEnglish literature after perceivingthe inadequacies of the current

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approaches in the field. The newapproach focuses on the co-construction of meaning for deepunderstanding which brought aboutby the active role of learners withthe teacher guidance. Morespecifically, the study investigateswhether or not an interactivelearning approach holds thepotential to make reading literaturemore effective in the EFL Libyansetting. Therefore, the role ofinteraction for learning isinvestigated.

Literature reviewCognitive processing in the 1970s

was characterized by the constructof background knowledge based onKant's philosophy, which stressesthe role of previous experiences inprocessing new learning. Researchersinvestigated human language in thelight of the interaction between asymbol system and the human mind.Readers' knowledge is considered as'powerful, pervasive, individualistic,and modifiable' (Alexander & Fox,2004, p. 42). Schema theory thereforeemerged as one of the mostimportant constructs of this era.

Schema theory conceptualizes therole of background knowledge forreading comprehension (Hedge,2001). Nassaji (2002) proposes thatschema theory deals with previousknowledge that readers alreadypossess. According to this theory,reading comprehension is 'a processof mapping the information from thetext onto these pre-existingknowledge structures, and thatknowledge-based processes are

predictive and reader-driven'(Nassaji, 2002, p. 444). To put itsimply, schema theory holds thatdifferent types of written texts aremeaningless to readers, unlessreaders relate their previouslyacquired background knowledge tothe text content (Alderson, 2000;Alptekin, 2006; Anderson & Cheng,1999; Carrell, 1983;Carrell&Eisterhold, 1983; Grabe&Stoller, 2002; Johnson, 1981, 1982;Ketchum, 2006; McKay, 1987). Theessential stored information requiredfor interpreting texts is known as'text schemata', whereas the priorknowledge is known as 'the reader'sbackground knowledge' (An, 2013,p. 1).

Background knowledge thatreaders make use of during theirengagement with reading texts is ofdifferent types (Carrell&Eisterhold,1983; Nassaji, 2002; Oller, 1995).The most frequently referred to anddiscussed are content schema,cultural schema and formal schema.Content schema involves knowledgeof the content (Carrell, 1983) andincludes background knowledge andsubject matter knowledge.Background knowledge refers tolearners previously acquiredinformation that is not necessarilyincluded in the text content. Subjectmatter knowledge refers to theknowledge that is explicitly includedin the reading text content(Alderson, 2000). Ketchum (2006)further suggests cultural schema asone type of content schema.

Cultural schema represents thefamiliarity of readers with the

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cultural content of the text. Ketchum(2006) stresses the importance ofcultural familiarity for fullunderstanding of the text meaningintended by the writer (see section2.2.4). As discussed earlier in thischapter, if the cultural content ofthe text is different from the readers'own cultural background, textprocessing can result in a differentinterpretation from that intended bythe writer (Erten&Razi, 2009;Ketchum, 2006). Since some texts,like short stories, impose theinclusion of readers with 'realmaterial persons, events, places,and socio-cultural relations' (Oller,1995, p. 299), readers' familiaritywith the cultural content of thereading text contributes to an overallunderstanding of the writer'sintention (Oller, 1995; Ketchum,2006).

The other type of backgroundknowledge includes formal ortextual schema. Formal schema refersto the familiarity with the languagesystem. Additionally, it involvesknowledge of text organization andthe differences between one textgenre and others (Erten&Razi,2009). Formal schema embodies'background knowledge of theformal, rhetorical organizationalstructures of different types of texts'(Carrel &Eisterhold, 1983, p. 79).Different text types such asinformative articles, short stories, orpoems present informationdistinctively. Readers' unfamiliaritywith the formal organizations oftexts result in difficulties for textprocessing and understanding

(Carrel &Eisterhold, 1983; An,2013; Carrell, 1987; Alderson, 2000).

The focus of schema theory on therole of background knowledge viewsreading comprehension as acombination of sources to supporttext comprehension. This view ofreading comprehension is thoughtof as essentially relevant to EFL/ESL reading contexts (Nassaji, 2002;Rumelhart, 1977; Stanovich, 1980;Grabe&Stoller, 2002).

Studies investigating the role ofbackground knowledge promote therole of schema in readingcomprehension.They imply the needfor readers or learners in the ESL/EFL contexts to construct meaningi.e. learn how to learn. Since the mid-1980s, second language acquisitionresearch SLA stresses the use oflanguage in real life situations forlearning.By the mid-1990s, SLAresearch applied socializationapproaches to adult learners insecond language learning contexts(Duff, 1995; Harklau, 1994).Research studies revealed howlearners can be enabled to becomeculturally and socially competent inthe communicative contexts. Such afocus indicates a shift from thecognitivist paradigm to the role ofsocialization.

Being inspired by the socialconstructivist paradigm, the role ofsocial interaction has been the focusof many of ESL studies (Slavin,1991; Anton, 1999; Stortch, 1999,2005; Van Lier, 2014).Researchfocuses on having students workingtogether to share their ideas, views,understanding and negotiate each

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other's perspectives. Thus, the roleof learners is not a passive recipientbut an active participant in whichlearners are part of their ownlearning (Jones & Brader, 2002).Such views gave reading research amore holistic perspective. The goalof learning is no longer theknowledge held by individuals ratherthe intention is on meaning makingarising from individuals' interactionwith each other and the teacher

Social interaction in theclassroom takes the forms of 'dialogicexchanges' and 'negotiation ofmeaning' for learning. Socialconstructivism assumes thatknowledge development is notseparately embodied withinindividuals (Tobin &Tippin, 1993);instead, it happens as a result ofbeing engaged with others in asocial interactive environment(Palincsar, 1998).

It is assumed that learners haveto construct their own knowledgeindividually and collectively. Eachlearner has a tool kit of concepts andskills with which he or she mustconstruct knowledge to solveproblems presented by theenvironment. The role of thecommunity - other learners andteacher - is to provide the setting,pose the challenges, and offer thesupport (Davis, Maher, &Noddings1990, p. 3)

Vygotsky gives prominence to therole of social interaction forindividual's learning anddevelopment. Mental activitiesdevelop into higher functionsthrough social interaction

(Lantolf&Appel, 1994). Therefore,cognitive development is not only amatter of a systematic internalprocessing; rather individualcognitive development is a result ofsocially meaningful engagements(Lantolf&Appel, 1994). Newconcepts are acquired through socialinteractions. Accordingly, theVygotskyan perspective emphasizessocial and cognitive development. Inthis respect, it is similar totraditional cognitive approachesdiscussed in the previous section.However, its distinctiveness lies instressing the social dimension.Vygotsky (1979) states 'The socialdimension of consciousness [i.e. allmental processes] is primary in timeand fact. The individual dimensionof consciousness is derivative andsecondary' (p. 30). Socioculturaltheory does not deny the innatebiological capacities. Lantolf andPavlenko (1995) state

Development does not proceed asthe unfolding of inborn capacities,but as the transformation of innatecapacities once they intertwine withsocioculturally constructedmediational means (p. 109 cited inZuengler& Miller, 2006, p. 39).

A number of EFL researchstudies have investigated theinfluence of interactive work onlearners' development of textunderstanding. Chang (1995)compared the traditional method ofwhole-class teaching and aninteractive reading approach in anEnglish reading class. The resultsrevealed that the average scores ofthe participants in the experimental

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group that had been taughtinteractively were significantly betterthan that of the students in thecontrol traditional teacher-centredclass. Stevens, Slavin, and Farnish.(1991), Wang (2008), and Andersonand Roit (1993) drew the sameconclusions of their experimentalapproach.

In investigating the role ofso ci al in ter ac t ion in tex tcomprehension, Wang (2008),ex amined t he ef fec t o fcollaborative strategic reading(CSR) on the r eadingcomprehension of sixthgradelearners. CSR involves learners'engagement in a dialogue forshared understanding. Sixty-twopupils were divided in to twogroups. A control group receiveda t rad it ional teacherd irectedread ing inst ru ct ion and anexperimental group taught withCSR inst ruct ion using storyretelling strategy for fifteen weeks.The study used mult i p lemeasures: a questionnaire ofEnglish learning background andpre-tests and post-tests of readingcomprehension. Based on theresults, the researcher concludedthat learner interaction throughthe use o f CSR improvedpart ici pan t ove ra l l readingcomprehension.

Huang's study was different(2004, cited in ZainolAbidin,&Riswanto, 2012). The studyfocu sed on developing hi ghschool students' strategic readingand critical thinking ability duringcl as sroom in te rac t ion . The

conclusions showed that thegroup, which wo rk edinteractively, did not outperformthe cont rol group. However,qual i ta t i ve anal ysi s onpo st readin g wri t ing samplesrevealed that interaction amongpartici pants assisted their criticalthinking and idea exploration. Inaddi t ion, a major i ty of t hepartici pants' reflections from thepost-intervention questionnairevi ewed CSR as an ef fec t i veteaching strategy that encouragedtheir autonomous learning skills.The somewhat cont radictoryresults of this study propose amore in-depth investigation tosc ru t in iz e l ea rn ers ' readingdevelopmental progress duringinteraction with other learnersand the teacher in a language-learning context.

Drawing on the literature, thisstudy is based on the premise thatrooted in a social constructivistparadigm, learner in teractioncan suppor t ind iv idualconstruction of meaning throughscaffolding techniques. The studyfocuses on investigating the roleof Learn ing Conve rsat ion s.Learners will be encouraged tointeract collaboratively to co-construct meaning during theirgroup work . The t eache r/re sea rcher wil l med iat e andscaffold in areas where learnersseem unable to construct themeanin g. A t th is poin t , t heteacher mediates learners' currentlevel to develop understanding.

Learning Conversations in the

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classroom involve dialogic-basedinstruction to move learning andunderstanding to a higher level.They stress the role of teachersfor mediating learning. Teachersmediate the learning process toconduct the conversations andguide the talk at an appropriatelevel in order to activate learners'ex is t in g knowledge ( schemaactivation; see section 2.3.1) anddevelop new underst andings(Harnet t , 2 008 ) . Learn ingConversations give rise to morethought fu l que st ion s thatelaborate the relation betweenlearners' existing schema and thecorrection of misunderstandingrather than merely select ingcorrect answers from the learners(Rohler&Cantlon, 1997). Suchprocess of elaborating the relationbe tween n ew lea rn ing andlearners' existing knowledge is atthe core of social constructivism.

Wells and Arauz (2006) arguethat the ord ina ry clas sroomactivity of asking and answeringques t ions does no t pro videlearners with the opportunity ford i scuss in g the ir id ea s orcommenting on other learners'responses. Such activities typicallyinvolve the teacher ask ing aquestion followed by a learneranswer and the teacher evaluatesthe response, in it i at ion-response-evaluation (IRE). Thethree processes tend to closedialogue with few opportunitiesfor further thoughtful questions.Researchers stress the role ofother types of interaction besides

the IRE procedure for achievingdeeper l earn ing and mak inglearning settings more dialogic(Mercer, 1995; Gibbons, 2015).

Learning Conversations requireteachers to encourage learner'sactive participation in extendeddial ogue to enabl e them toar t icu lat e, ref l ect upon andmodi fy their unde rs tanding(Mercer , 20 00) what Swa in(2009) refers to as languaging.During Learning Conversations,teachers encourage interactive talkto develop gradually. Dialogicin te rac t ion cont r ibute s tomean ing making and ass is t slearners in deeper understandingand reflection (Myhill , 2006;Aljaafreh&Lantolf, 1994). It is aprer equ is i t e for ef fec t i vein ter ven t ion t o iden t i f y t helearners' needs which in turnguide the nature of the dialoguesto emerge: 'no language teachingprogram should be des ignedwithout a thorough needs analysis'(Long, 2005, p. 1). At this point,it must be stressed that suchinterventional meditat ion forlearning is not restricted to aspecific age group or particularlearning contexts.

Research QuestionsThe discussion of the role of

background knowledge incomprehending texts and identifyingthe role of social interaction forlearning led to the emergence of thefollowing research questions with anoverall aim of investigating the effectof both types of interaction-social and

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psycholinguistic- in enhancing EFLLibyan students' comprehension ofshort fiction:

1. What are the perceivedproblems of EFL Libyan learners inreading short stories?

2. How effective is schematicactivation including textorganization and text culturalcontent in supporting EFL Libyanlearners' understanding of shortstories?

3. How is learners' constructionof meaning supported throughLearning Conversations?

4. What are the perceptions ofLibyan students of using LearningConversations in an interactive on-line VLE in relation to support theircomprehension of short stories?

Theoretical FrameworkThe present research focuses on

the role of two different kinds ofinteraction for the reading of literarytexts at the university level in Libya.The first is psycholinguisticinteraction between the reader andthe text and the second interactionis collaborative interaction forlearning through VLEs. These twodifferent types of interaction haveled to the design of the study, whichexplores learner-centred virtuallearning environments (VLEs) inthe Libyan context. In this study,there is an emphasis on the role ofthe teacher in providing learnerswith the relevant backgroundknowledge to notice, develop andextend their cultural andintercultural awareness of the textthey are going to read

(Psycholinguistic interaction). Inaddition, the study focuses on therole of the teacher in mediating thelearning process using LearningConversations as a scaffoldingprocedure for mutual understanding.In line with this study, Sinclair(2008) emphasizes that teacher'smediation can foster learners'awareness of the learning processand the subject of learning.Accordingly, the teacher needs toidentify, prior to and during thereading process, the degree and levelof scaffolding offered to learnersthrough the Learning Conversations.Learners will engage activelythrough dialogues with otherlearners and with the teacher tonegotiate the meaning of texts.

Teacher intervention throughLearning Conversations raisesawareness of the learner's needs andidentifies any further problems insetting learning goals. Activities priorto the reading process focuses onthe problematic areas identified byeach learner in reading literary texts.The purpose of this is to buildrelevant language and culturalknowledge and to encourage learnersto reflect on their problems andcognitive processes while reading. Inother words, LearningConversations as a scaffoldingprocedure are used to engage thelearners in discussions fornegotiating the meaning with thehelp of their teacher to guide thelearners to deeper levels ofunderstanding and provide learningopportunities. Learners, therefore,are not 'the processors of input or

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producers of output' (Gibbons,2003, p. 248). Rather, LearningConversations, as employed in thisstudy, create opportunities formediating learning in order toappropriate the scaffolding level andhelp learners negotiate for meaning.

Figure 1 Stages of InterculturalInteractive Processing Model ofReading EFL short fiction

semesters 2 and 4 or very advancedlearners of semesters 6 and 7. Theparticipants range in age from 20to 22. They are all Libyans and Arabicis their mother tongue. The studentsinvolved in the study have notexperienced a dialogic interactiveapproach to learning due to themore traditional Libyan teachingapproach, which is primarilylecture-based. Therefore, theparticipants fit the purpose of thepresent study because they are alllearners of EFL and have beenexposed to English literary materials.In the analysis of the data, theparticipants were given numbersfrom 1 to 10 instead of using theirnames for ethical considerations.

The texts used in the studyThe online learning sessions

founded on four literary texts ranacross five reading sessions. Theywere all English short stories, whichare included in the universitycurriculum and taught in theDepartment of English Languageand Linguistics in BenghaziUniversity. The stories were ofdifferent length: two short stories andtwo longer ones to investigate ifthere would be any influence of thetext length on the learners' interestor their reading ability while readingthe stories. The original forms of thetexts were used with no changes ormodifications to the text. Theresearcher's work was on setting thepre-reading activit ies, whichintended to provide the learners withsome background information andactivate their schema. The

Participants of the studyConsidering the research focus,

the researcher has employed apurposeful sampling strategy. Thesample of the current studycomprises a group of 10 upper-intermediate Libyan EFL learnerswho volunteered to participate. Theparticipants all specialize in Englishlanguage and linguistics. They studyEnglish literature as a compulsoryuniversity course. The participantsare registered in semester 5 inBenghazi University, which is oneof the oldest and the largestuniversities in Libya. The purpose ofselecting semester 5 Libyan EFLlearners is to avoid beginners ofreading English short fiction in

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researcher's work also involvedsetting comprehension questions thatfocus on learners' ability to constructthe meaning as well as to considerthe text cultural content whilereading.

The four stories included in thesessions were:

Session 1: The Cask ofAmontillado by Edgar Allan Poe

The Cask of Amontillado is a shortstory written by Edgar Allan Poe. Itwas first published in in 1846. Thestory is set in an undergroundcatacomb in Italy, during Carnival.The events of the story are abouttwo friends: Montresor andFortunato. Montresor decides to takerevenge on Fortunato for an insult,which remains unstated in the story.Fortunato has a passion for wineused by Montresor to bringFortunato to his death.

Session 2: The Ambitious Guestby Nathaniel Hawthorne

The Ambitious Guest is a shortstory about a young man who visits afamily living in a dangerous area ofCrawford Notch, which is locatedthrough the White Mountains ofNew Hampshire. The family built ashelter to save themselves from thefrequent rock fall from the mountain.On arrival, the guest shared hisambitions and dreams with thefamily. However, they all perishedbecause of the bad weather in theshelter which they thought will savethem.

Session 3: The story of an hourby Kate Chopin

The story was written in 1894. Itwas about Mrs. Mallard, who has a

heart problem. She received bad newsof her husband's death in anaccident. Her reaction to the newsincluded sadness and happiness dueto the life she had with him.However, the 'news' turned out tobe a joke that led to the subsequentdeath of Mrs. Mallard.

Chopin in The Story of an Houraddresses the societal tradition ofthat period in which women weresubordinate to men. Someinformation about the issue waspresented to learners prior toreading. Constructing the meaningof the text involves a considerationof the cultural content of the period.

Sessions 4-5: Young GoodmanBrown by Nathaniel Hawthorne

This story is the longest one. Itwas presented through two learningsessions. The events of the story tookplace in 17th century Puritan NewEngland. Hawthorne addresses thePuritan belief that all of humanityexists in a state of corruption. Thesymbolic manner of the story showshow Young Goodman Brown takesa journey in the forest during a darkevening for self-investigation. Afterhis return, he lost belief in thepeople of his village including hiswife.

Methods of data collectionIn accordance with ethical

guidelines of the University ofAberdeen, the researcher wasgranted an ethical approval.Following the ethical approval, thedesign of the study in terms of thedata collection methods and theactivit ies to be used with the

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participants in the online learningsessionswas directed by the researchquestions.The study is organized intothree phases to consider thepotential learning problems ofreading and understanding EFLliterature, an assessment of thelearners' needs is essential to guidethe design of the intervention. Aninitial assessment of learners' needsis assigned. This phase is referred toas the Assessment Phase.Subsequently, the study examinesthe effect of the interventionalscaffolding of the dialogic exchangesthrough the Learning Conversationswhich involve a closer investigationof the joint work of the teacher(researcher) and the learners in co-constructing the text meaning.Accordingly, collecting data from theLearning Conversations in eachsession is fundamental. This stage isreferred to as the InterventionalPhase. Following the InterventionalPhase, participants have to reflecton the effectiveness of theinterventional classes on developingtheir construction of the textmeaning. This phase is labelled theReflection Phase.

Stages of the data collection

Data analysisFollowing the data collection

process, two different types ofanalysis were applied to thetranscribed data. Content analysiswas used with the initial interviewsand the post interviews as well asthe self-assessment forms of thelearnersto interpret the findings bycoding the data into meaningfulcategories.Discourse analysishowever was applied to the LearningConversations of the online learningsession in an effort to scrutinize thelearners' talk during the onlinedialogic interaction of the LearningConversations.

Analysis of the assessment phaseInitial interview dataanalysisDuring the initial interviews, the

partici pants raised importantpedagogical issues related to readingEnglish literature in the Libyancontext. Such issues represent theteaching and learning practicescommon in the Libyan learningsetting. They can be summarized inthe following in the following points:

1. Learner overreliance onmemorization

The first issue concerns the roleof memorization, which was stressedby three of the participants. Student5 pointed out that in literaturecourses they are required tomemorize information introduced bythe teachers and to reproduce theinformation in the exams.

S 5 Not only to read it. There isteachers who read the story andwants us to memorize someimportant points, which will theywill come in the exams.

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As the teachers require studentsto learn some textual features,learners over-rely on memorization,which they find difficult. One of thestudents explained that memorizingthe formal features of the literarytexts for the exams is very difficultas they study a considerable numberof texts.

S 9 It is not only aboutmemorizing staff - memorizing thisand so. We take a lot of stories, so(masaletalhafedsatakonsaaba fielemtehan, ahyanannansamathlan alpoint of view men kesa le kesa)memorization for the exam will bedifficult. Sometimes I can'tremember, for example, the pointof view of one story to another.

The data holds that the traditionalteaching practices applied in theLibyan university limit the active roleof the learners. The data indicate thatlearners rely on the information fromthe teachers without thinking ormaking sense of the text from theirown point of view. Teachers transmitsome formal features of the text andthe learners are required tomemorize them. Such practiceconsiders education as a process ofstoring information to be recalledlater for the exams. In other words,learners memorize some features ofthe stories for passing their examswithout necessarily an understandingof underpinning principles.

2. Learner engagement/Preparation

Another pedagogical factor thatemerged from the coding of theinitial interview is related to thelearner engagement in the reading

process. Learners expressed theirneeds in the EFL literature classstating that they need to prepare theliterary text before class. Four of thepartici pants indicated thatpreparation would helpunderstanding the content of the text.

S 8 I think, I need some time toread the story before the class. Ithink, this will help me understandmore (translation).

In respect of the above data, thepartici pants pointed out somepractices for their engagement inthe reading process involvinglearners' schematic familiarity withthe text content. The participantsexplained that reading the storybefore class would help theirunderstanding. Moreover, the datareveal that learners needed somekind of knowledge of the text inorder to engage in the readingprocess. Teacher transmission ofsome formal information about thetext without learners' awareness ofthe text content leads them to lackinterest and engagement as they donot possess the essential schema thatengage them in the reading process

3.Opportunities for learnerdiscussion

Another pedagogical issue thatfour of the participants proposedduring the initial interview is the roleof discussion. In spite of thedominance of the traditional (i.e.teacher-centred) classroom in theLibyan education, Libyan learnersare aware of the importance ofdiscussion in terms of deepeningtheir understanding.Student 5 alsoexplained that discussion can

43



highlight some important points thatthe learner might not be aware of.

S 5 Also I want to see otherstudents a point of view about thestories because sometimes the storythat has more than one idea. Maybe a student see it from aside andanother see it from another side.

4. Difficulties in understanding thetext

The coding process of the initialinterviews also indicated that LibyanEFL learners in the Department ofEnglish language and Linguisticshave many different problems withthe literary text itself. These problemsrange from the lexical level (e.g.understanding individual words fromthe text) to textual (e.g. followingthe development of the story).Thedata reveal that the learners lack thelexical knowledge that make itpossible for them to read shortfiction without support. However,the learners are more aware of thereasons why the words in literarytexts are difficult on the basis of theirexperiences of reading EFL literarytexts. The participants emphasizedthe different reasons for thedifficulty of vocabulary in literarytexts. Firstly, two students explainedthat there are some words that theirmeanings cannot be found in thedictionaries. Some of these words areeither non-English words or theyare old English words such as 'thee'and 'thou'.

Additionally, student 5 explainedthat the dictionary meaning of somewords does not fit in the text. Thedata indicate that as some words areused in an indirect or figurative way

for specific meanings the literarywriter intends to convey therefore,the denotative (i.e. dictionary)meaning does not fit in the text.Accordingly, based on theirexperiences, the learners find itdifficult to relate the denotativemeaning of the word to the contextin which it is used.

S 5 It was also difficult for me tounderstand it because when I searchit in dictionaries sometimes I do notfind the meaning for the word orsometimes I don't found the wordever. Also, I find the meaning butnot suitable to the story. Its meaning.

Difficulties experienced inunderstanding vocabulary in literarytexts discussed in the previoussection have the effect of preventingLibyan EFL learners' understandingof the story development.Inaddition, comprehension difficultiesare usually related to the specificorganization of literary texts (. i.e. theformal organization of the text) andstructure designed by the writer.Libyan EFL learners usually find itdifficult to follow the developmentof the story as they lack familiaritywith organization of the text.

5.Lack of awareness of culturalreference in the text

Cultural references are anotherdifficulty that learners explained inthe initial interviews. The data revealthat different cultures or differentperiods of history presented inliterature do not correspond tofamiliarity of learners' own views orbeliefs. Therefore, lack of awarenesswith the cultural content in the

44



literary text impedes theirunderstanding.The learners raised animportant point regarding the culturalcontent of literature. They indicatedthat they need to be made more awareof the cultural norms in the text.Student 3 below stressed the role ofthe teacher for providing the learnerswith information of the culturalinformation involved in literature.

According to the initial semi-structured interview data, LibyanEFL learners' difficulties in learningEnglish literature are not onlyrelated to the nature of Englishliterary texts such as the lexicon ofthe text, the cultural reference, andcomprehending the development ofthe events, but also to traditionalteaching practices and deficienciesin educational resources.

In spite of the traditionalapproaches that dominate teachingpractices in Libya, learners are awareof the importance of their active rolein the learning process. During theinitial interviews, learners stressedthat there should be more questioningand discussion in the class. Therefore,there should be a further explorationof the effectiveness of involving themin the process of reading literature.

Another important concern is thedeficiency of the resources thatcontribute to develop the LibyanEFL learners' reading habits. Thereis a scarcity in the reading materialsand learners do not usually engagein reading activities that wouldcontribute to developing theirreading skill in general and readingEFL literature in particular. Inaddition, there is poverty of

technological tools such as the useof classroom computers and internetconnection that might contribute toencourage learners' reading anddiscovery. However, it must bestressed that the learners are awareof the importance of reading andefforts are made to provide materialsfor developing reading.

Analysis of the diagnostic testThe initial interview data was

triangulated with the diagnostic testto investigate learners' difficulties inunderstanding the meaning ofliterary texts. Two questionsconstituted the diagnostic test. Thefirst question included ten open-ended questions. The secondquestion was a multi ple-choicequestion including 6 items. In orderto classify the learners' responses ofthe diagnostic test into differentcategories, the responses wereclassified manually for the collationof the results. These results are thenlisted in tables.In order to identifywhich category was moreproblematic, the frequency of errorsis summarized below.

Frequency and percentages ofincorrect responses

Percentages Frequency of

errors

Error type

70% 14 Literary

devices

85% 17 Ironic language

45% 9 Direct language

74% 37 Text

development

55% 11 Cultural

content

63.3% 19 Text meaning

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The analysis of the PreparationPhase identified some of thedifficulties that this group of LibyanEFL learners have in reading shortfiction written in English. Thefindings suggest that a number ofchallenges hindered theunderstanding of the text meaning.The discussion has elaborated thecategorized problems by analysingthe initial semi-structured interviewsand the diagnostic test. Theinterviews demonstrated a significantidentification of the participants'problems and their needs. Thediagnostic test data alone would nothave effectively demonstrated andjustified the difficulties.

On the basis of the categorizedproblems that have been identifiedthrough the initial interviews and thediagnostic test, the LearningConversations were designed toscaffold the learners' requirementsand difficulties. It is assumed thatproviding learners with the formaland cultural schema of the text,presenting a glossary of the text andallowing more collaboration amongthe learners will lead them toconstruct the meaning of the textand better understand its literarydevices such as irony, which \wasidentified as the most problematicin the diagnostic test.

Analysis of the Intervention PhaseFindings on the role of the pre-

reading informationIn the Intervention Phase,

learners' questioning in theprereading activities also confirmstheir lack of familiarity with thecultural content of the stories. In The

Cask of Amontillado, for instance,the learners did not have priorknowledge about the season ofCarnival and asked questions duringthe pre-reading discussion. The dataextract below is a part of the learners'discussion:

T The story was set in carnival.S 10 Carnival for celebration.S 2 Celebration for what?S 10 I think it is Halloween.S 3 Carnival is festival after fasting

for 40 days for Christian peopleafterfasting.

S 3 Carnival was in Rome.In order to compensate their lack

of familiarity with the text content,the learners responded differently tothe reading text. First of all, thelearners sometimes providedpersonal and individual responses tothe pre-reading activities, whichintended to build their schema inrelation to the text content.Furthermore, the learners relatedunfamiliar concepts to religious,cultural and personal perspectives oftheir own familiarity. For example,in The Cask of Amontillado, thelearners related the use of the casksto an earlier experience of usingcasks for storing milk rather thanfor wine as the latter contradictstheir cultural and religious beliefs.

S 2 Nice wooden box.S 9 It is similar to cartoon where

they save milk.S 3 oh yes, Katolihhhhh.However, by presenting the

cultural context of the stories in thisstudy prior to reading, it can bepostulated that 'learned' culturalbackground knowledge contributed

46



to the learners' construction of thetext meaning. In The Story of AnHour, the learners justified thejoyfulness of Mrs. Mallard's reactionwhen she heard the news of herhusband's death in the light of thecultural background of the story.Learners' familiarity with the kindof life that women had at the periodled them to understand thecharacter's reaction. Anotherexample is in The Cask ofAmontillado. Learners'understanding of the nature ofCarnival and the manner ofcelebrating it led them to justifyMontresor's choice of the setting forhis crime. This finding confirmsKetchum's claim (2006) who arguesthat non-native speakers lack thecultural competence that enablesthem to construct the meaning ofthe texts without support.

In line with schema theory andthe role of background knowledgein reading texts, it can be arguedthat the pre-reading informationcompensated the learners' lack offamiliarity with the cultural contentof the text. In this respect, the presentstudy is in line with earlier researchfindings (Alptekin, 2006;Erten&Razi, 2009; Sasaki, 2000).These studies support the claim thatnativizing texts into the learners'cultural schema develops learners'understanding of the texts as itreplaces the foreign cultural contentof the text with the learners' nativecultural familiarity. However,familiarizing learners with thecultural content of the literary text,rather than nativizing stories, to

enable them to construct themeaning in the light of the writer'sintention and the cultural contextof the literary text itself,distinguished the present research.Furthermore, the cultural contentof the English reading storiesenabled the learners to developtheir cultural and interculturalawareness of the stories.

The cultural information had aneffective role during the readingprocess more than the informationof the formal organization of the text.This finding concurs with the findingof Floyd and Carrell (1987) whoconcluded that the culturalinformation affected the process ofreading comprehension more thanthe formal organization of the text.It also confirms the findings ofJohnson (1981) whose resultsemphasize that the role of thecultural origin of the reading textsis more important for understandingthe text than the semantic andsyntactic complexity of the texts. Itshould be emphasized here that inthe present study the introductionof the formal organization of thestories contained limited informationincluding what, where and when.The learners did not appear to relyvery often on formal information.This was confirmed through thelearners' reflection when theystressed that the diagram, whichpresents the formal information,should include more information. Itwas also emphasized in theIntervention Phase when thelearners needed more informationabout the formal organization for

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Young Goodman Brown. Althoughthe learners were presented withsome information of the formalorganization, it was difficult forthem to understand the organizationof the text. They needed moreinformation, which indicated whichpart of the text was real and whichwas a dream.

Findings on the role of the dialogicexchanges

It was revealed through theanalysis of the LearningConversations that the learnersinternalized the pre-readinginformation through discussion andnegotiation. This information wasused later in constructing textmeaning. This is in line withVygotskian principles concerningthe dialogic nature of cognitivedevelopment, which is sociallyconstructed. Accordingly, the socialcontext is central for thedevelopment of cognition (Thorne,2005; Johnson, 2009; Lantolf, 2000).The data below show the dialogicexchanges between the teacher andthe learner:

T So, why do you think thecharacter chose such time and place?

S 2 He is dangerous, many are busyin having fun, eating foods anddancing

In addition to the role of pre-reading information in the readingprocess, it should be noted that theanalysis of the LearningConversations reveals that dialogicexchanges were useful for both lessand more confident students. It canbe argued therefore that collaborativereading contributed to improving the

range of learners' readingcomprehension in the presentinvestigation. From a socialconstructivist perspective, thescaffolding provided by moreconfident readers contributed to thedevelopment of the learning of lessconfident readers. For example,more confident readers used someof the cognitive concepts such as thedefinitions of some literary terms aswell as the pre-reading information,which benefited low performancelearners during the discussion byrelating them to the reading texts. Inother words, more confident readersused their linguistic knowledge aswell as the pre-reading informationto achieve comprehension of thetexts during collaborative reading.

The analysis of the LearningConversations also revealed thatlearners engaged effectively to helpeach other for developingunderstanding. The learnersscaffolded each other many timesin the learning process. Sometimes,they clarified the text language intheir own words, explained themeaning of unfamiliar vocabulary,corrected other learners' ideas aboutthe text, or summarized what hadbeen already discussed to otherlearners who were in the process ofdeveloping understanding. In TheAmbitious Guest, for instance,student 2 did not take a turn in thediscussion for constructing themeaning of the metaphor used inthe text. However, the learnerdeveloped understanding throughother learners' discussion. The databelow show that student 2 later in

48



the discussion scaffolding student 10using the knowledge that hedeveloped through the otherlearners' discussion.

S 10 Still not understand. S 2 (...)S 10, the writer used word roar that

refers to a lion when it cried out, thesound is like that the storm, done.

As learners may have differentperspectives, beliefs and backgroundinformation, the present studyconcluded that different views sharedthrough discussion, bridged the gapsin the learners' understanding andcontributed to the construction oftext meaning. For instance, some ofthe learners reflected in the post-interviews that they developed moreunderstanding during the discussionbecause they always 'discover moreideas' and 'more points of view'through the discussion. Othersexplained that their understandingwas 'corrected' when 'discussed' withothers. In the words of one student 'alot of thing was wrong and I correctit when I work with the class.'

The data revealed that exploratorytalk through questioning includedcomplementary turns among thelearners during the discussion wherethey could share different ideas andinterpretations of the text drawingon prior knowledge as well as theirunderstanding of the texts. Thecomplementary nature of thediscussion was confirmed in thepresent study through thetriangulation of the data. It is stressedby student 5 in the Preparation Phaseconsidering the different views whichcould emerge stating 'May be astudent see it from a side and another

see it from side'. The complementaryrole of the discussion was alsorevealed through the analysis of theLearning Conversation. In TheAmbitious Guest, for instance,understanding the text involvedmore interaction between the readersand the text itself, rather thanrelying on the pre-readinginformation. The learners' discussionof the story shows that they hadcomplementary discussion relyingon the learners' understanding of thestory. In other words, every learnerunderstood and remembered adifferent piece of information aboutthe text. This led them tocomplement one another during thediscussion for meaning making ofthe text. This was confirmed by thelearners' reflection in the postinterviews when student 9, forexample, stated 'everyone had a pointand I can understand more throughthese point'.

Despite the benefits of thediscussion for meaning-making ofthe texts, it was confusing for somelearners. The different views includedin the discussion made some learnersfeel confused about the meaning. Forinstance, in The Cask ofAmontillado, student 3 stated 'ReallyI feel lost after the idea of revenge'.Student 6 in the post interviews alsoconfirmed the confusion of ideasincluded in the discussion when thestudent indicated 'Ok - but in othertimes I said a lot of views made melose my focus'. This was addressed inthe present study through the directintervention of the teacher toindicate which responses provided by

49



the learners were related to themeaning as illustrated in the analysisof the Learning Conversations,increasing the learners' concentrationon the relevant answers.

It should be stressed here that thediscussion in the present study alsoinvolved focusing on learners'background knowledge and priorlearning for meaning making of thetexts. However, throughout thesessions some learners found itdifficult to understand independentlywithout scaffolding including onlineinformation as well as teacherintervention. For instance, in theanalysis of the LearningConversations student 2 has a goodbackground knowledge of someliterary terms. The learner was ableto define the linguistic features ofsymbols and personifications.However, he was not able toconstruct the meaning of thesedevices within the literary text itselfwithout scaffolding. Teacherintervention through providing thelearners with examples ofpersonification was effective inleading them to finding their ownexamples as shown in the data below.

T Give me examples ofpersonification

S 2 Personification is a figure ofspeechwhere human

qualities are givento animals,objects or ideas.

It means representing a non-humanthing as if it were human.

T Ok. See this example Time ranyesterday.

S 2 Oh yes, the flame of the candledanced in the dark.

This is example of personificationbut in the story the traveller,

the guest are words used torepresent death.

S 5 Mrs. Hana I can give anexample of personification, which Ihave found it while I was reading thestory?

T Yes please.S 5 This sentence was told by the

father when the stranger came andthe sound of graves were strong andhorrible. the old mountain has throwna stone at us, for fear we should forgethim'. The sentence is in the first pageat the end of the page.

Although the online informationfacilitated the learners' role ofconstructing the meaning, teacherscaffolding was crucial. The role ofthe teacher in the present researchis validated in the analysis of thedialogic exchanges of thecollaborative reading process.Accordingly, the use of the LearningConversations emphasizes the roleof the teacher which includes theroles of a facilitator as well as a directinstructor as it will be revealed inthe following sections.

ConclusionsThe underlying aim of the present

study was placed on exploring theeffectiveness of learners' familiaritywith the structure and the culturalcontent of EFL literary texts in acollaborative learning setting. Earlierstudies that emphasized the role oflearners' prior knowledge in theprocess of reading comprehensionwere very rich but very limitedinvestigation concentrated on

50



investigating the role of priorknowledge in a collaborative learningsetting. Learners' prior learning andbackground experiences are criticalin the present investigation foreffective mutual understanding.

Through the analysis of the data,it was clear that Libyan EFLlearners did not rely only on theprior learning for constructing themeaning of the texts. Their everydayexperiences and their cultural andreligious perspectives provided anintegral part of their responses tothe texts. This suggests that learnersas social beings are influenced bythe social and cultural contexts inwhich they live. The effectiveness ofusing the learners' culturalbackground was clearly revealedthrough the dialogic activities inwhich the learners were engagedduring the reading process.

Hence, an excessive emphasis onthe learners' native culturalbackground as stressed by earlierresearch might be misleading.Aspects of the cultural content ofthe reading texts in the socio-cognitive reading context introducedin this study would have the LibyanEFL learners as knowledge producers.Accordingly, the present investigationreveals that a consideration of boththe cultural content of the text andlearners' native culture has thepotential of engaging the learners in

a process of developing theirintercultural awareness withoutexcluding their cultural values.

Accordingly, the InterculturalInteractive Processing model of thepresent study demanded learners'involvement in their own learningwith teacher guidance. It includedthe use of several tools such as theteacher's input and scaffolding,Learning Conversations and learners'reflections through the self-assessment forms. A consideration ofthe learners' use of the self-assessment forms was constantlyincorporated in the designing of thesubsequent learning sessions. Thus,the active role of the learners in thepresent research views learning as adynamic process which fosterslearners' responsibility through theuse of Learning Conversations andself-assessment tools in the VLE. Theanalysis of such tools developed theteacher's awareness of the learners'needs as shown in the analysis ofthe Learning Conversations and theself-assessment forms. These toolsenabled the teacher to provide thelearners with materials (e.g. pre-reading input) and scaffolding (e.g.while reading examples) whichrespond more closely to their needs.The collaborative learning processof the teacher and the learners ledto a progressive framework, whichsupports learners' development.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-5

Abstract: This paper examines the joint effect of capital inflows and financialdevelopment on poverty reduction in Nigeria between 1980 and 2017 using ARDL boundtest and Granger causality test based on Vector Error Correction Model (VECM). Ascapital inflows involved three subcategories (FDI, portfolio investment and remittances),the paper assesses all three in turn. The empirical findings indicate that the interactionterm of capital inflows and financial development reflects a significant substantial decreasein poverty headcount in the long run as well as in theshort run, underlining that theindirect role of both capital inflows and financial deepening in poverty reducing channelis substantial and increasingly vital. This evidence underscores the view that capital inflowsand financial development could jointly strengthen the means to reinforce incentive andinclusive structures for the extension of credit to innovative small enterprises or individuals,and thereby accentuating poverty-reducing effect. Further evidence reveals that the causaldirection between capital inflows, financial development and poverty alleviation isunidirectional, which runs from both foreign capital inflows and financial deepening topoverty level. Hence, the study suggests thatensuring that financial sector developmentcoincides with rising inclusiveness and rates of capital inflows is critical for improvedperformance and poverty alleviation drive in Nigeria.

Key words: Capital Inflows, Financial Development, Poverty Reduction, ARDL,Nigeria

CAPITAL INFLOWS, FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENT ANDPOVERTY REDUCTION IN NIGERIA

Fisayo Fagbemi*&Toyin Joseph OlufolahanObafemi Awolowo University, Ile -Ife, Nigeria

*E-mail: [email protected]



Recommended citation: Fisayo Fagbemi*&Toyin Joseph Olufolahan. CAPITAL INFLOWS,FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND POVERTY REDUCTION IN NIGERIA. 3-4. AmericanJournal of Research P. 53-78 (2019).

1.0 IntroductionThe mainstream conjecture that

investmentthrough capital inflowswill have positive and crucialdevelopment paybackspredicatedefforts geared towards inducingforeign capital inflows acrossdeveloping economies. Thecontemporary policy trend in

developing countriesis a reflection ofthis plausible assertion. It has beenadvocated in the empirical literaturethat these flows of capital arebeneficial to developing economiesowing to their potential salutaryeffect on economic performance(Adams, 2009; Goldberg, 2004).Although, few studies have

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questioned and negated the growthand development gains linked withsuch flows anchored on the premisethat foreign investment rates are verypoorly associated with job creationand poverty reduction (UNCTAD,2005;Rodrik and Subramaniam,2008;Bhinda and Martin, 2009), thedominant view has been theproductivity - enhancing impact. Theoptimistic side views foreign capitalinflows as a path that offers theframework for increasing total factorproductivity and, in general, theefficient utilisation of resources inthe recipient economy (OECD,2002; Chor et al., 2008). Inaddition, in the literature,economicdevelopment is engendered byrisingaccess to financial instruments(financial inclusion) which inducessavings,productive investment andeases the transfer of capital (funds)from abroad, and thus lead toreduced poverty, fall in the level ofinequality and improved privateinvestment (Beck, et al., 2007;Demirg??-Kunt et al., 2011).Accordingly, capital inflows andfinancial deepeningstrengthen themeans to reinforce structuraleconomic transformation andeffective industrial structure forbroad - based growth and povertyalleviation.

Considering the preceding salientinsights, developing countries, inparticular Nigeria, appear to sustainand revitalize global developmentinitiatives for attracting foreigncapital inflows and engenderingimproved access to financialservicesto alleviating poverty.

Withefforts made to boost domesticinvestment and enhance financialsector development in Nigeria,which began in the 1980s with theintroduction of structural adjustmentprogrammes (SAPs), the recentstatistical report reflects arise in thelevel of foreign investment in thecountry.According to UNCTAD2018 World Investment Report, FDIInward Flows (million USD) toNigeria were put at 3.06 and4.45 in2015 and 2016 respectively. Withrespect to policy measures forenhancing access to financialcredit,since 2001, a persistentincrease in microfinance credit hasaccompanied the establishment ofmicrofinance banks mostly at thelocal level, although only 36% outof the total population has an onlinebank account (World Bank, 2017).In spite of these multidimensionalapproach and policy interventionstrategies (the launching of aconsortium of poverty alleviationschemes), the rate of poverty inNigeria is quite alarming as thecountry seems to be "the povertycapital of the world" based on thecurrent world poverty statistics(Brookings Institution, 2018).

Given persistent mass extremepoverty in Nigeria, the assessmentof the foremost goal of theMillennium Declaration (i.e. toeradicate extreme hunger andpoverty) remains crucial. Withextreme poverty in Nigeria rising bysix people every minute, comparedto India's 73 million, Nigeria has thehighest rate of extreme poverty inthe world with about 87 million

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extreme poor people (BrookingsInstitution, 2018). In economic andsocial terms, the country could beregarded as one of the leadingretrogressive developing states of theworld. As a consequence, attainingthe first goal of the United Nations'Sustainable Development Goal(SDG), which is ending extremepoverty, appears to be somewhatdifficult. Indeed, Nigeria's case ispulling in massive agitation anddebate.

The contribution of capitalinflows and financial deepening topoverty reduction may not be assignificant and positive as expectedin developing countries owing tosome certain reasons. For instance,these economies tend to over relyon highly unstable private capitalinflows (unpredictable investmentsources), it has been advocatedthatthrough various channels, poorhouseholds could suffer more fromsuch a high level of vulnerability thanthe non - poor households (Calvoet al., 1994; Son and Kakwani,2006). Another line of argument,given the set of earlier empiricalstudies collected by Hulme andMosley (1996), is that poorhouseholds do not often benefit fromfinancial credit expansion; it is onlynon-poor people usually withincome above poverty line (i.e. non- poor borrowers) who can dobetter with financial credit (mostlymicro - loans) would enjoy amplepositive impacts. Although fewstudies on Nigeria corroborate theassertion that inflows of foreigncapital do not have a significant effect

on welfare (Akinmulegun, 2012;Ogunniyi and Igberi, 2014), manystudies on developing countriesincluding country - specific studiescontradict this proposition.Magombeyi and Odhiambo (2017);Soumare (2015); Fowowe andShuaibu (2014); Gohou andSoumare (2012) provideevidencethat between net FDI inflows andimproved welfare there exists a strongand positive relationship. Also, inexploring the extent to whichmicrofinance institutions aid thealleviation of poverty, Okpara (2010)posits that the persistent rise inmicrofinance credit causes a drasticreduction in poverty index. However,no known study explores the jointeffect of capital inflows and financialdevelopment on poverty reductionin Nigeria. With alarming povertyrate in Nigeria and ever - increasingwant of consensus amongresearchers, few cardinal questionsthat seem to be inadequatelyaddressedare: a)What is the centralcause of escalating poverty level inNigeria? b) What is the significantwelfare benefit arising from foreigncapital inflows and improvedfinancial access in Nigeria? c) Whatis the joint effect of capital inflowsand financial development onpoverty reduction?

Looking at the divergence in theliterature, furthering ourunderstanding of the relationshipbetween capital inflows, financialdevelopment and poverty reductionis, thus, fundamental. And as theinteraction effect of capital inflowsand financial deepening on poverty

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reduction is largely under -researched, based on the authors'best knowledge, the paper is the firstempirical study to assessthisexclusively on Nigeria. Hence thekey objective of this study is toinvestigate the short run, long runand causal relationship between theinteraction term - capital inflows andfinancial development - andpovertyreduction in Nigeria. The use ofARDL bound test and Grangercausality test based on Vector ErrorCorrection Model (VECM)is yetanother significant novelty that thepresent study develops on the capitalinflows - financial development -poverty debate in Nigeria. Whileknown no study has applied thisapproach regarding the topical issuefor Nigeria, it is expected that thetechnique will aid the elimination ofthe problem often related with shorttime series data.Since economicpolicy-making is instrumental infacilitating positive developmentoutcomes and poverty alleviation, thestudy sets out to offer guidance forpolicymakers in championing optimalinvestment measures and improvedfinancial access for reducing poverty.

The remainder of the study isstructured as follows. The immediatesection covers the review of theliterature. Section 3 describes the setof data and elucidates themethodological approach. Section 4contains the presentation of resultsand discussion, and the last sectiongives concluding remarks.

2.1 Theoretical review2.1.1 Capital inflows - poverty

reduction nexus

The theoretical link betweencapital inflows and poverty reductionhas been surrounded with muchdivergent views as conflictingpropositions continue to gainprominence in the literature. In aneffort to elucidate the possibleimpact of capital inflows (mostlyFDI inflows) on poverty reduction,two categories of scholars havepredominantly emerged, whichinclude the optimist and pessimist.The optimistic group supports thepositive contribution of FDI topoverty reduction. This group is ofthe view that the benefits of capitalinflows could be attained throughspillover effects, an increase ininvestment capital, and employmentcreation (Meyer 2004; Gorg andGreenaway 2004). On the otherhand, the pessimistic view anchorstheir argument on the dependencytheory which covers a negative orinsignificant effect of FDI on povertyreduction (Dutt, 1997; Eller, Haissand Steiner, 2005). Thistheoryexplains the underdevelopednature of developing countries andhow the state of their developmentresults in rising poverty. Thepessimists buttress their propositionwith the notion that in the countrythat makes investment climateovercrowded, FDI may beunnecessarily overflow investment,and thus results to inflation in therecipient country's interest rate.

In the literature,nonetheless,spillover effects aredivided into two; namely horizontaland vertical spillover effects.Horizontal spillover effects result

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from nonmarket and non-contractual transactions, in whichexternal parties (i.e. domestic firms)benefit from the foreign firms'resources (Meyer, 2004).Thesespillover effects are regarded asexternalit ies which arepredominantly occur in an intra-industry setup (Meyer, 2004). Thisprocess takes place through thetechnology transfer from foreignfirms to local firms in the same levelor lineof operation but with theirtechnological sophisticationoperating level differs (Falore andWinkler, 2012). Such Knowledgespillover emanates from labourmovement and demonstrationeffects - arising from local firms thatadopt or imitate the innovativeapproach of foreign firms (Wang andBlomstrom, 1992; Gorg andGreenaway, 2004; Meyer, 2004).Incontrast, where inter-industryrelations are established and takingplace, vertical spillover effectsresultfrom product and consumer surplus(Meyer, 2004). Through theinteraction between the foreignsubsidiary and local economic agentsin the recipient country, verticalspillovereffect are realised. Verticalspillover is comprised of backwardand forward linkages (Sumner,2005; Liu et al., 2009). Overall, theseprocesses could lead to an increasein investment capital andemployment creation, and thusinduce poverty reduction.

2.1.2 Financial development -poverty reduction nexus

The nexus between financialdevelopment and poverty reduction

has been anchored on certaintheoretical premise and conjecture,specifically regarding developingcountries. It is of common knowledgethat in developing countries, accessto formal financial services by thepoor is fraught with difficulties. Thisoftenforces them to depend insteadon a narrow range of usuallyunconducive and more expensiveand risky informal financial services,which constrain them from fullyparticipating in market activities andcontributing to economicdevelopment.

The pioneer work of Keynes(1937) based on the "motive offinance" for money demand hasbeen linked to the channels throughwhich the poor benefit from formalfinancial intermediation (services). In1973 when McKinnonpresented the"conduit effect", this theoreticalassertion was revisited. It is built onthe assumption that the poor whoengage in self - financing investmentenhance savings through theprovision of profitable financialopportunitiesdespite the fact thatfinancial institutions fail to offerthem credit. The discussion on theimpact of financial sector on theeconomyis further raised by bothMcKinnon (1973) and Shaw (1973)as both theories emphasis on relatedimplications and influence offinancial sector development.Nonetheless, in the models on thenature of money, their assumptionsdiffer. Premising on the financialliberalisation theory, they are of theview that financial repression, whichmeans the distortion of financial

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prices. This distortion involvesthe realsize of the financial system reducesby interest rates in relation to non-financial system, which in turnretards real rate of economic growth(McKinnon,1973; Shaw, 1973).Fundamentally, their proposition isrest on the conjecture that thereexists a positive relationship betweeninterest rates and economic growth,and growth tends to be retarded bylow interest rates. At early stage ofrepression, the nominal interestrate, in terms of administration,fixed and hence the real rate is beingkept below the equilibrium level. Thisargument is anchored on thecommon notion that developingcountries often face with financialrepression. They posit that theliberation of these economies fromtheir repressive states wouldenhance savings, investment andgrowth, and thus positively affectpoverty reduction.

Moreover, give the muchelaborative analysis on the channels(credit or money) termed as the"conduit effect" - the mediumthrough which the poor gain fromformal financial services, as aconsequence, in view of theinstrumentality of financialdeepening, the McKinnon-Shawhypothesis is seen as the basis andfoundation for poverty reduction.However, Wijnbergen (1983) modelfaults their conclusion. In negatingtheir assertion, Wijnbergen (1983)stresses that, in the short run, raisinginterest rate may not induceincreased investment andproductivity neither decrease

inflation. Giovannini (1983) andSikorsky (1996) further challengedthe tenability of McKinnon (1973)and Shaw (1973) proposition as theyseem not to have given elaborateview on the workings and operationsof the banking systems acrossdeveloping countries.

2.2 Empirical reviewThe empirical evidence on the

influence of capital inflows andfinancial inclusion on povertyreduction in developing economiesmostly points to divergent views asthe results are mixed. The few studieson this central subject have resultedto diverse conclusions. While somestudies stress that both capitalinflows and financial inclusion arefound to worsen poverty, othersconclude that they reduce poverty,and yet others posit that capitalinflows and financial inclusion haveinsignificant impact on the level ofpoverty in most countries. Hence,these form and shape the discussionof this section.

2.2.1 Capital inflows (FDI,portfo lio investment andremittances) and poverty reduction

Beginning with studies on theimpact of FDI on poverty reduction,in view of a survey of literature,Magombeyi and Odhiambo(2017)focus on the direct impact of FDIon poverty reduction. Theyoverwhelmingly support the notionthat FDI have a positive impact onpoverty reduction, while from onesample to another, there are varymagnitudesof the effect. In anotherstudy, using pooled data from 1981-2011, Fowowe and Shuaibu (2014)

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examine the effect of FDI on thepoor in a sample of 30 Africancountries. Based on the GeneralisedMethods of Moments (GMM) andwith World Bank poverty headcountused as a proxy for poverty. Theyconclude that FDI is good for thepoor. In addition, poor countrieswith a high case of poverty, positiveimpact of FDI on poverty reductiontends to be high. These findings isalso in consonance with the workofGohou and Soumare(2012)conducted on a sample of 52 Africancountries between 1990 and 2007in addressing the same topicalsubject. Regarding developingcountries in particular, usingunbalanced panel analysis over theperiod of 1990 - 2009 and with asample of 26 developing countries,Ucal (2014) assesses the impact ofFDI on poverty. The author alsoconfirms the rising notion that FDIleads to reduced poverty in selectedcountries, thus underscoring thatFDI plays a crucial role in decreasingpoverty in these countries. Bharadwaj(2014)using a panel regressionanalyses the effect of FDI on povertyin 35 developing countries (1990 -2004). In the study, FDI representsglobalisation, while poverty wasmeasured using the headcount ratioand poverty gap. The author'sfindings indicate that FDI isinverselyrelated to the headcountratio, underlining the beneficialimpact of FDI on poverty reduction.

In studies exclusively based onNigeria, using time series data,Israel (2014) examines the impactof FDI on poverty reduction in

Nigeria, and with the use of povertyheadcountas a proxy for povertyreduction between 1980 and 2009.The author posits that FDIpositively impacts poverty reduction.Analogously, Omorogbe et al(2007) employing ordinary leastsquares technique assess the impactof FDI on poverty reduction inNigeria. With per capita GDP servesas poverty proxy, their findingsindicate that FDI positively inducesper capita GDP in Nigeria. Incontrast,based on VectorAutoregression over the period of1986 - 2009, Akinmulegun (2012)analyses the effect of FDI on welfarein Nigeria. The study offers evidencethat FDI does not have a significanteffect on welfare. Also in line withthis empirical claim, while usingOrdinary Least Squares approachand per capita GDP as a proxy forpoverty, Ogunniyi and Igberi (2014)show that between 1980 and 2012in Nigeria there exists an insignificantrelationshi p between povertyreduction and FDI.

A number of studies have alsobeen conducted in some countriesother than Nigeria. For instance,choosing HDI and GDP per capitaas proxies for welfare,Soumare(2015) using dynamic panel dataregression and Granger-causalityinvestigates the relationshi pbetween FDI and welfare inNorthern Africa between 1990 and2011. The author stresses thatbetween net FDI inflows andimproved welfare there exists a strongand positive relationship.Zaman etal. (2012) using the Ordinary Least

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Squares (OLS) examine therelationshi p between FDI andpoverty in Pakistan over the periodof 1985 - 2011. Adopting headcountas a proxy for poverty, they concludethat FDI positively influencespoverty reduction at the national,urban and rural levels. In a similarstudy, while applying anAutoregressive Distributed Lag(ARDL) approach as povertyheadcount serves as a proxy forpoverty, Mahmood and Chaudhary(2012) study the contribution ofFDI to poverty reduction in Pakistan(1973 - 2003).They also validate thegrowing view that FDI leads toreduced poverty in Pakistan. Otherstudies such as Shamim et al. (2014)for Pakistan (1973 - 2011), Uttama(2015) forASEAN countries (1995- 2011) andCalvo and Hernandez(2006) for Latin America (1984 -1998) similarly corroborate thedecreasing effect of FDI on poverty.On the other hand, Huang et al.(2010) for 12 East and LatinAmerican countries (1970 - 2005)and Ali and Nishat (2010) forPakistan (1973 - 2008) posit thatFDI does not in any way reducepoverty. Regarding the effect ofportfolio investment on povertyreduction, according to OECD(2012), in a highly uncertaineconomic climate (region) likeAfrica, portfolio investment seemsto have minimal impact on povertyreduction.

In ascertaining the role ofremittances in poverty reductionmeasures, a number of empiricalstudies observe that remittances - led

poverty reduction. A study by Adamsand Page (2005) conducted on 71developing countries with the useof panel data analysis revealed thatremittances and migration serve ascritical element and mechanism foralleviating the level, severity anddepth of poverty. In another way,Gupta et al. (2009), in their study,observe that remittances, in form ofa private transfer nature and whichare stable, influence povertyreduction in sub - Saharan African(SSA) countries. This empirical viewis also in line with Anyanwu andErhijakpor (2010) study on 33African countries.Further study byMcKay and Deshingkar (2014)using secondary data extracted fromhousehold surveys examine the effectof internal remittances on povertyin 4 African (South Africa, Rwanda,Nigeria and Uganda) and two Asian(Vietnam and Bangladesh) countries.The authors corroborateremittances?led poverty reductionhypothesis. Similarly, from theUnited States and in view of datafrom a nationally representativehousehold survey, Adams (2004)with a focus on internal andinternational remittances on povertyin Guatemala asserts that remittancesinflows better influence the severityof poverty reduction compared tothe poverty level inGuatemala.Using another approachbased on literature review, whilegiving attention to developingcountries, Adams (2011) alsoobserved that internationalremittances significantly lead topoverty alleviation and improved

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health levels in these countries.However, negating theoreticalpropositions, the study indicates thatinternational remittances adverselyaffect education, economic growthand labour supply in developingcountries.

Also, on developingcountries,Serino and Kim (2011)using quantile regression analysisbased on panel data between 1981and 2005 investigate the influenceof international remittances onpoverty. Accordingly, internationalremittances are found to inducepoverty reduction in developingcountries, while among the worst offgroups the effect is viewed to bemore pronounced. In more recentwork, Azam et al. (2016) assess therole of foreign remittances in povertyalleviation focusing on 39 high,middle and lower income countriesemploying the panel fully modifiedordinary least squares (FMOLS)between 1990 and 2014.Althoughacross all countries studied,foreign remittances are noted toinduce poverty reduction, thepositive influence of foreignremittances on poverty reduction isonly found to be statisticallysignificant in high?income countries.In somewhat related argument,Chakra and Leon?Gonzalez (2012)stress that the effect of remittanceson inequality and poverty dependson certain prevailing conditions.

In light of country - specificstudies,following the study ofWaheed et al. (2013), the severityand level of poverty in rural areasof Nigeria are observed to be

decreased by both domestic andforeign remittances. Furtherevidence noted that, compared toforeign remittances, domesticremittances contribute more towardsreducing poverty in rural areas ofNigeria. In line with this evidence,Odozi et al. (2010) using livingstandard survey data explore theeffect of remittances on inequalityand poverty in Nigeria. During theperiod under study, they found thatremittances induce inequality andpoverty reduction in Nigeria. InGhana, Adams JR and Cuecuecha(2013) assess the effect of internaland international remittances oninvestment and poverty. Theirfindings confirm growing assertionthat remittances could inducedecreased poverty and facilitateinvestment across levels indeveloping countries. In addition,Antwi, Mills and Zhao (2013)examine the effect of workers'remittances on poverty reductionand discover that, via rising income,soothing capital bonds andfacilitating consumption of the poor,positive effect of such remittanceson poverty reduction. Studies thatalso support the positive effect ofremittances on poverty reduction inother countries include; Wouterse(2010) based on four villages ofBurkina Faso with use of Gini andconcentration co?efficientdecomposition approach, Beyene(2014) for Ethiopiausing urbanhousehold survey data, Qayyum etal. (2008) for Pakistan (1973- 2007)employing AutoregressiveDistributive Lag (ARDL) and

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Hatemi-J and Salah Uddin (2014)for Bangladesh using grangercausality test.

2.2.2 Financial developmentand poverty reduction

In the quest to alleviate poverty,many studies explore the role offinancial development in povertyreduction. Beginning with the workof Honohan (2004), evidenceindicates that financial depth isadversely associated with headcountpoverty. The causal conditionof thisrelationshi p was examined byPerez-Moreno (2011) who stressesthat headcount poverty may bereduced by financial development,although in view of certain caveatsresulting from the findings. Forinstance, the type of the financialdevelopment indicator employedmostly determines the results and thesensitivity of results to time periodsunder studied. Accordingly theauthor reveals that there is moresupportive evidence that financeinduces poverty reduction whenliquid liabilities to GDP is used asan indicator of financial deepeningthan when credit to the privatesector is employed.Similarly, Becket al. (2004), using panel data for 58developing countries between 1980and 2000, assert that financialdevelopment reduces poverty morethan its impact on aggregate growth.By disproportionately enhancing theincome of the poor, the authorsconfirm that countries with well-developed financial intermediariesexperience faster reduction in bothincome inequality and poverty. Inanother study centers on financial

access conducted by Mookerjee andKalipioni (2010), the link betweenfinancial access and incomeinequality is examined. In the study,findings show a negative andsignificant relationship betweenbank branch expansion and the Ginicoefficient.

With a plethora of povertymeasuresrepresenting dependentvariables, Donou-Adonsou andSylwester (2016) offer evidencethat poverty could be reduced byfinancial sector development in viewof both depth measures of informaland formal financial sector variables.Although both measures contributeto poverty decline, the impact of theinformal sector is weak comparedto formal banking sector. Perhapsowing to data availability, incomparison with those on financialdeepening, studies assessing theeffect of financial access on the poorare quite few. In a more recent study,Rewilak (2017) examines whetherfinancial development brings aboutpoverty reduction using privatecredit and broad money as measuresof financial development andseparate it into four categories. Withthe emphasis on Eastern Europeaneconomies, Latin American andsub-Saharan African countries (2004- 2015), the author posits that bothgreater physical access and financialdeepening are beneficial andconducive for the reduction in theproportion ofpeople below thepoverty line.Using panel data for asample of developing countries (1966- 2000), Jeanneney and Kpodar(2011) analyse how financial

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development aids poverty reductionindirectly through economic growthand directly through the McKinnonconduit effect. Their findings confirmthat the poor gain from havingaccess to financial intermediaryservices, although the gain may belimited by financial instability.However, overall, the benefit ofincreased access to financial servicesusually outweigh the cost. Fowoweand Abidoye (2011) assess the effectof financial development (asmeasured by private credit) on thegrowth of inequality and poverty insub-Saharan African countries. Theauthors confirm that private creditdoes not significantly influencepoverty reduction in the region.

In country - specific studies,based on India, Burgess and Pande(2005) offer a comprehensive study.The authors explore the effect of theIndian Social Banking Experiment,for every bank branch opened upin a previously served area, the Bankof India decreed that an institutionhad to open four branches inpresently unserved areas. The effecton poverty seemed to be dramaticas the rural headcount decreasing by14-17 percentage points. Thus, ruralsavings accounts, in particular,increased by over 100 million andnotably rural loan accounts by 25million. On whether access tobanking services can reduce poverty,through a State-wise Assessment inIndia, Bhandari (2009) examinesthe drive towards financial inclusionin view of the increase in bankaccounts of designated commercialbanks and changes in the population

of people below poverty line. Thefindings show that, across states, theincrease in bank accounts is notsignificantly related with thedecrease in below poverty linepopulation. The author posits on thepremise that offering banking servicesto a huge number of people is not theeffective tool for poverty reductionmeasure. A study on Nigeria by Okpara(2010), investigates the extent towhich microfinance institutions aidthe alleviation of poverty.The author'sfindings identify two phases throughwhich the effect of micro financecould be explained. The first phase,regarded as the take-off stage, withincreasing microfinance credit, viewspoverty as increasing at a decreasingrate. In the second phase, starting fromyear 2001 precisely, the persistent risein microfinance credit causes a drasticreductionin poverty index. Thus, atpresence, microfinance credit reducespoverty in Nigeria. There are severalother studies that also underscore thepositive impact of access to financialservices on poverty reduction. Thestudies include; Odhiambo (2009) forKenya (968-2006), Quartey (2008)for Ghana and Geda et al. (2006) forEthiopia (1994 - 2000).

In all, in line with the precedingreview, there is a growing trend ofdivergent conclusionsin additiontothe scant efforts on the linkagebetween capital inflows, financialsector development and povertyalleviation in Nigeria.In a nutshell,the nonexistence of the empiricalassessment of the dynamicinteraction between foreign capitalinflows - financial deepening -

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poverty nexus could account for thepaucity of the comprehensiveoutlines of policy options availablein any economy. In essence, sincehaving an inclusive understanding ofthis link is central to attaining theSustainable Development Goal(SDG) of ending extreme povertyby 2030, want of detailed expositionson the joint impact of capital inflowsand financial development onpoverty reduction may give rise tosuboptimal performance and inturn, accentuate unattainable policygoal (poverty alleviation). Hence, thepaper's findings could help offeringadequate and comprehensive policyoptions crucial for alleviatingpoverty in Nigeria.

3. Data and methodology3.1 DataThe study uses time series data set

between 1980 and 2017. The scopeencompasses the period when keypolicy reforms were introduced -such as Structural AdjustmentProgrammes (SAPs) and theMillennium Declaration - to boostdomestic investment, strengthenfinancial access, reinforce structuraleconomic transformation andalleviate poverty. Three capitalinflows measures are employed:foreign direct investment (FDI), netinflows (% of GDP), portfolioinvestment and personalremittances, received (% of GDP).FDI represents net inflows - newinvestment inflows less disinvestment- in the reporting economy fromexternal (foreign) investors (% ofGDP). Personal remittances,received (% of GDP) consist

personal transfers and compensationof employees, while portfolioinvestment captures transactions inequity and debt securities. Thefinancial development indicatorused is: credit to private sector (%of GDP).The ratio to GDP of thevalue of financial credits granted byfinancial intermediaries to privatesectors is commonly used in theliterature as it is mostly available fordeveloping countries over a longperiod time. By excluding financialcredit to the public sector, it hasthe advantage of channelling funds(financial resources) to productiveagents and perhaps to the poor(Jeanneney and Kpodar, 2008).Themeasure of poverty levels used in thestudy is: Poverty headcount ratio at$1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% ofpopulation) - % of the populationliving on less than $1.90 a day at2011 international prices). This is themost widely used measure of povertylevel. For instance, Osemene (2005);Akpan and Orok, (2009); kale,(2012) among others used povertyheadcount ratio in their respectivestudies.

The significance of economicgrowth to the attainment of the goalof poverty alleviation is widelyadvocated in the literature(Nafziger, 2006; Ravallion andChen, 1997; Deininger and Squire,1998). Hence, GDP per capital isincluded in the model to reflect theinfluence of economic growth onpoverty reduction. Following thestudy of Chakraborty (2010), it isassumed that the savings ratio (s) isaffected by inflation (INF). And there

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seems to be a consensus that inflationtends to cause risen poverty level(Easterly and Fischer, 2001). Assuch,inflation, consumer prices(annual %) is introduced in themodel. While data on povertyheadcount index were obtained fromboth Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN)Statistical Bulletin and WorldDevelopment Indicators (2018Edition), other data used weresourced from World DevelopmentIndicators (2018 Edition).

3.2 MethodologyConsiderable theoretical evidence

on the capital inflows - financialinclusion - poverty nexusdemonstrated in the previous sectioninformed the model formulation.Hence, the updated version of themodel of Beck, et al. (2007); Meyer(2004); McKinnon (1973); Shaw(1973); Eller et al., 2005 is specifiedin a functional form as follows;

In this model (Eq.1), is the

measure of poverty. representsthe capital inflows. Financialdevelopment is represented by QUOTE . indicates theinteraction term of foreign capitalinflows and financial deepening,

while are the controlvariables: economic growth andinflation rate respectively.

Following the study's objective,Autoregressive Distributed Lag(ARDL) bounds test approachdeveloped by Pesaran et al. (2001)is adopted. Other than othercointegration techniques, thisapproach is more appropriate given

its considerable advantages. Forinstance, like in the estimatedmodel, it is mostly well applicablefor small sample size. In addition,forthe regressors, whether they are I(0), I (1) or mutually co-integrated, ARDL is tenablyapplicable. However, in case of I (2)and above, it is consideredinappropriate.Hence, the ARDLmodel is specified as:

The difference operator isindicated by; is the white noise errorterm while represents the timeperiod.

Two steps are involved for thetest of the cointegration associationbetween the dependent variable ( )and the explanatory variables. Firststep, through ordinary least squares(OLS) technique, Eq. (2) isestimated. In the second step, bytracing the evidence (existence) ofcointegration with the placement ofrestriction on the whole estimatedcoefficients of the lagged levelvariables in that they are set (equal)to zero; such that null hypothesis -against the alternative hypothesis - .If the computed F - statistics is lessthan lower bound critical value, wedo not reject the null hypothesis ofno integration. However, ifcomputed F - statistics is greaterthan upper bound critical value, wereject the null hypothesis; in thiscase, between the variables in theestimated model, steady stateequilibrium is said to exist.Nonetheless, if the computed valueis within the bound, the result willbe termed as inconclusive. When thelong-run correlation exists among

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the variables, error correctionrepresentation is present. Hence,through the estimated equation, theError Correction term is obtainedand then, the short-run dynamics isassessed by estimating the VectorError Correction Model (VECM)(Akinlo and Akinlo, 2009). In at leastone direction, there is Grangercausality as implied by the existenceof cointegration, butit does not revealthe direction of causality (Engle andGranger, 1987). The causalityrelationship between and povertyreduction is, therefore, investigatedby conducting the Granger causalitytest through the VECM framework;which can be expressed as;

The speed of adjustment toequilibrium and long-runrelationship are captured by . Onthe other hand, represent the short-run dynamics of the model. Notably,there should be negative significantcoefficients ( ) of . It has beendemonstrated that after a shock inthe short-run, the negative sign ofECT coefficients implies that thedependent variable adjusts back toits equilibrium value (Akinlo andAkinlo, 2009; Fagbemi and Ajibike,2018b). Thisshows the long runcausal effect, and there isbi-directional causality between andpoverty, if both ( ) coefficients arestatistically significant. However,unidirectional causality is said toexist if only one coefficient isnegative and significant.

4. Empirical results and discussionAs shown in Table 1, the

empirical analysis involved the testof unit roots in the models based

on Augmented Dickey -Fuller(ADF) and Philli ps-Perron (PP)unit root test. The appropriatenessof the techniques applied is justifiedas no variable found to be I(2) orabove. This underpins the tenabilityof ARDL bounds tests approach inthe study. In addition, following thebound test for ascertaining thecointegration relationship in Table2, based on the computed F -statistics, there is strong evidence forthe existence of long runcointegration among the variablesacross models suggesting thepresence of long run relationbetween capital inflows, financialdeepening (in view of their jointeffect) and poverty reduction inNigeria. In the study, the lying ofCUSUM and CUSUMSQ withinthe critical boundaries, in Figure1, buttressesthe stability of thecoefficients in the ARDL models.While a good number of diagnosticsacross models are well - satisfied(see Table 3), for robustness/sensitivity test, as reported in Table5, the Dynamic Least Squares(DOLS) for estimating the long -run cointegration relationship werealso employed in the empiricalstudy.

Table 3 presents both the long -run and short - run estimatesbetween capital inflows, financialdevelopment and poverty reduction.Each model represents differentregressions. In model (i), the jointeffect of FDI and financialdevelopment (the ratio of credit toprivate sector) on poverty alleviationis examined. Regarding foreign

67



capital inflows and private credit,the empirical results are somewhatpuzzling owning to theirinsignificance, although mostvariables exhibit the expected sign.Aslong-run parameters are most oftenformed the main focus, in the longrun as given in Table 3, the twocontrol variables (GDP per capitaand inflation) throughout all modelsare significant. While inflation ratehas positive correlation with thepoverty measure (povertyheadcount),GDP per capita has anadverse association with the povertyindicator, which implies that a risein per capita GDP results to a declinein poverty.A persistenthigh inflationrate triggers a price hike and unstable

price, which can cause an inimicaleffect on people's welfare and expandpoverty. Regarding inflation, realestate prices and stock prices willincrease; on the other hand, thecosts of housing, clothing and foodwill rise. This suggests that poorpeople will need to spend more tocope and survive. Although inflationhas an impact on different incomegroup, rich people can benefit morefrom their real estate and financialassets price increases and poorpeople lack those kind of assets; thus,they suffer more. Previous evidenceby Yoshino et al. (2017);Easterly andFischer (2001); Nafziger (2006)offer tenable ground and support forthese empirical explanations.

Table 1 Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) and Phillips-Perron (PP) unit root test results

Variable Augmented Dickey-Fuller Phillips-Perron

GDP Level

First difference

-0.02(0)

-4.98(0)***

-0.40

-4.98*** Inflation

Level First difference

-2.40(2)

-6.06(1)***

-2.81

-11.26*** Private credit


-3.37(1)** -5.18(2)***

-2.62

-10.13*** FDI


-3.67(0)*** -5.50(0)***

-3.64*** -13.76***

Portfolio Investment Level

First difference

1.76(1)

-3.43(2)**

-2.42

-7.26*** Remittances


-1.96(0)

-6.41(0)***

-1.96

-6.74*** Poverty headcount ratio


-1.89(0)

-6.25(0)***

-1.88

-6.25*** ** & *** indicated the level of significance at 5% and 1 % respectively. Figures in(.) represent lag length selected by AIC criterion. The PP length was selected by Newey-WestBand Width.

Model F-statistics Level of Significance Lower critical value

Upper critical value

Asymptotic (n=1000) Finite Sample (n = 40) Asymptotic (n =1000) Finite Sample (n = 40) Model (i) (1, 0, 2, 2, 1, 0, 2, 2)

5.91***

Model (ii) (1, 0, 2, 2, 2, 0, 2, 0)

6.18***

Model (iii) (2, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1)

6.49***

1%

5%

10%

2.96

2.32

2.03

3.64

2.68

2.3

4.26

3.5

3.13

5.46

4.13

3.61

Table 2Bounds F-tests for cointegration relationship*** represents statistical significance at 1% level.

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In examining the long run effectof the capital inflows (FDI, portfolioinvestment and remittances) andfinancial sector development onpoverty alleviation, evidence inTable 3 reveals that in model (i)(FDI*Private credit) all variables arenegative with the exemption of FDI.On the other hand, only portfolioinvestment is significant, while FDIand remittances are insignificant.Nonetheless, the interaction term ofFDI and private credit is statisticallysignificant in the long - run as wellas in the short - run. In view of thepositive nature and insignificance ofFDI, which imply that many timesFDI inflows have not enhancedwelfare of the poor and have evenadversely affected them. In this case,what seems to be the cause is thatNigeria is attracting FDI inflowswhich are mainly beneficial to theupper class or inducingemployment generation for higherskilled workers in the country. Inaddition, they tend to be displacinglocal production that makes use ofvery low skilled labour therebysubstantiallyprovoking high povertyincidence. In another dimension,since there seems to be no rightcondition for foreign investors tooperate, it might not induce thebetter side of FDI. Just like thedomestic firms there is a tendencyfor them to get indulged in sociallydetrimental and corrupt activities.Hence, FDI inflows could not inany way result in lowering poverty

in Nigeria. This empirical assertionagrees with some previous studies(Agarwal and Atri, 2015;Akinmulegu, 2012; Ogunniyi andIgberi, 2014). Model (ii) and (iii)results are analogous to the oneobtained in model (i) regarding FDI.Focusing on the portfolioinvestment, it can be seen fromTable 3 (model (i)) that in the long,portfolio investment has a larger andsignificant effect on the reductionof poverty. A strong justification forthis development could be linkedto the prominent priority given toequity financing by most developingcountries, since debt financing isviewed to be much more volatile.The national government of therespective countries has beenencouraging inflows with higherrates of genuine fresh equityinvestment relative to debt. Thismove is making the economy lessvulnerable to financial shocks andthereby dramatically contributing tosocially induced wel fare anddecreasing poverty, as such offersopt ions and means whichultimately allow people to createpaths out of their poverty (OECD,2012). Portfolio investment canreflect a significantsubstantialdecrease in poverty given its largermagnitude compared toremittances and private credit. Theresults obtained for portfo lioinvestment in model (ii) and (iii)also indicate a negat ive andsignificant effect.

69



*, ** & *** indicate statistical significance at 10%, 5% and 1% respectively,whilst figures in (-) are t-values.

Variable Model (i) FDI*Private credit

Model (ii) Portfolio Inv*Private credit

Model (iii) Remittances*Private credit

Long run Short run Long run Short run Long run Short run Constant -0.25***

[-5.51] -0.85*** [-4.10]

0.63** [3.02]

0.75** [3.62]

0.12 [0.42]

0.99*** [5.14]

GDP -1.21** [-3.60]

-0.01* [2.25]

-0.08* [1.56]

0.002 [0.20]

-0.48*** [-3.95]

-0.65* [-1.93]

Inflation 0.50*** [4.25]

0.008 [0.86]

0.08** [2.15]

0.04** [3.59]

0.09* [1.55]

0.01 [1.00]

Private credit -0.42 [0.82]

0.14** [2.44]

-0.21 [-0.74]

0.004 [0.13]

-0.15** [-2.15]

0.12 [1.11]

FDI 3.35 [0.81]

0.07** [2.18]

0.04 [0.57]

0.006 [1.34]

0.06 [1.22]

-0.01** [-2.57]

Portfolio Inv -1.07** [-2.24]

-0.03 [-0.33]

-5.90** [-2.30]

-0.03** [-3.18]

-4.36* [-1.72]

-0.33 [-0.21]

Remittances -0.26 [-0.24]

-0.004 [-0.43]

-0.02** [-3.21]

-0.002* [-1.52]

-0.20 [-2.11]

-0.23* [1.58]

FDI*Private credit -1.13** [-3.24]

-0.03** [-2.52]

Portfolio Inv*Private credit -2.88* [1.67]

0.41** [2.50]

Remittances*Private credit -0.11** [-2.80]

-0.04*** [-4.38]

ER (-1) -0.05*** [-4.23]

-0.19** [-3.59]

-0.50*** [-5.12]

D.W 2.09 1.89 2.19 Ramsey reset test 0.52 0.77 0.92 Normality test 0.50 0.61 0.69 Serial correlation 0.16 0.36 0.53

Model (i) — FDI*Private credit

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016

CUSUM 5% Significance

-0.4

0.0

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016

CUSUM of Squares 5% Significance

Model (ii) — Portfolio Inv*Private credit

-15

-10

-5

0

5

10

15

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016


-0.4

0.0

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016

CUSUM of Squares 5% Significance

Model (iii) — Remittances*Private credit

-15

-10

-5

0

5

10

15

96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16


-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16

CUSUM of Squares 5% Significance Figure 1: cusum (left) &cusumsq (right)

70



In contrast, as regards theinsignificance of remittances inmodel (i), while remittances aredistributed and given to people indeveloping countries, the largerproportion of those who oftenreceive remittances could be fromhigh-income (rich) families.This isbecause considerable amountinvolved for leaving domesticcountries and work abroad, whichcan provoke an expansion of povertylevels.The empirical results buttressthe view of Agarwal and Atri, (2015).Furthermore, in model (iii)remittances also found to beinsignificant. However, it isstatistically significant in model (ii).This could be as a result of decreasingtransaction costs of sendingremittances owing to improvedtechnology or banking systems. Ourfindings in this respect marry upwith the conclusion of Adams JRand Cuecuecha (2013); Odozi et al.(2010); Waheed et al. (2013) in thatthe severity and level of poverty areobserved to be decreased byremittances. By and large, theinteraction term across models hasan adverse and significant effect onpoverty headcount ratio. On thefinancial development, except inmodel (iii), private credit isstatistically not significant inexplaining poverty reduction. Thepervasive dearth of financialinfrastructure, including absence ofterminals could warrant the financialexclusion of the poor. Regardless ofhow deep (develop) the financialsector is, if this case holds then thegains of financial development may

not get to the poor (Rewilak,2017).This suggests that capitalinflows and financial developmentcould jointly strengthen the meansto reinforcing structural economictransformation and effectiveindustrial structure for broad - basedgrowth and thereby the reductionof poverty. The study's findingsconsolidate the empirical assertionof Beck, et al. (2007); Demirg-Kuntet al. (2011). In the short - run, theobtained results, given the jointeffect of financial development andcapital inflows, are somewhatsimilar to those of long - run.

Furthermore, the short - runestimation results in Table 3, theresults of the two control variablesin the models are somewhat in linewith those of long -run, as theyexhibit similar signs except in model(ii) where the negatives sign ofGDP vanishes. Portfolio investmentin model (i) and (iii) is also notstatistically significant. These may beattributed to occasional financialshocks that might obscure theunderlying correlation betweenportfolio investment, economicgrowth and poverty line. However,unlike in the long run, remittancesare significant in model (iii) at 10%level, while FDI is found to besignificant in model (i) and (iii),indicating a relatively improvedcondition for foreign investors tooperate, which could bring out thebetter side of FDI.The estimatedparameters of error - correctionterm (ER) has expected signs andstatistically significant at 1% acrossmodels. When FDIis interacted with

71



private credit, the deviation of bothfinancial development and capitalinflows from the equilibrium valuesis deemed to be corrected by 5% inthe following period. It will becorrected by 19% when portfolioinvestment is interacted with privatecredit, while for the interaction ofremittances with private credit,correction is made by 50%. Thus,the existence of long - runequilibrium correlation amongcapital inflows, private credit, GDPper capita and inflation is empiricallyheld.

The existence of cointegration inthe models suggests that there is solidevidence of a long run correlationamong the variables implying thatat least from one direction thereshould be a case for Grangercausality (Engle and Granger, 1987).Following Engle and Granger(1987), the presence of cointegrationoften comes with error correctionrepresentation indicating that thedisequilibrium state in thecointegration relationshi pdeterminesany change in thedependent variables, while changesin error correction term (ECT) andother explanatory variables areaccounted for the disequilibriumstate. Hence the estimation of Eq. (3)and (4) ascertains the possible longrun and short run causal directionamong the variables. In Table 4, thecausal association between capitalinflow, financial development andpoverty reduction is presented. Thefindings (Table 4) reveal that acrossmodels the Wald test statistics is notsignificant for poverty headcount

under poverty reduction - led capitalinflows*financial development,whereas it is statistically significantfor the interaction term of capitalinflows and financial developmentunder capital inflows*financialdevelopment- led poverty reduction.These implies that the nullhypothesis that both capital inflowsand financial development do notGranger cause poverty reduction inthe short run is rejected at 5% insupport of capital inflows*financialdevelopment- led poverty reductionhypothesis. In contrast, in line withpoverty reduction - led capitalinflows*financial development, thereis no empirical finding in favour ofit. This suggests that the causaldirection between capital inflows,financial development and povertyalleviation is unidirectional, whichruns from both foreign capitalinflows and financial deepening topoverty level.The findings stress that,in view of lagged dynamic terms,future changes in the level ofpovertywould be in part engenderedby changes in both capital inflowsand financial development in theshort run. In addition, through theerror correction term adjustment,there is a crucial joint influence offoreign capital inflows and financialdevelopment on poverty reduction.The implication of these findings isthat the effective management ofcapital inflows and rapidly improvedfinancial sector would enhance adecline in poverty level. The presenceof the mechanism that adjusts thedis-equilibrium between capitalinflows, financial development and

72



poverty measure is shown by the ECTs. While not the whole ECTs aresignificant, they possess appropriate signs. This suggests that the significantnegative signs under capital inflows*financial development- led povertyreduction indeed offers robustness for the evidence of cointegration amongthe variables, although causality is unidirectional running from capitalinflows and financial development to poverty reduction.

Table 4:Granger causality results based on VECM

Model Lag Capital inflows*fin dev– led poverty reduction Poverty reduction – led Capital inflows*fin dev

Variable Short runª

ECTb Variable Short runª

ECTb

FDI*Private credit 5.13** -0.02*** [-5.55]

Poverty headcount 1.07 -0.72 [-0.29]

Inflation 6.28*** GDP 0.44 Private credit 4.04** Inflation 4.01**

FDI 0.15 Portfolio Inv 0.03 Remittances 4.58**

Model (i) 1

GDP 1.57

Portfolio Inv *Privatecredit 4.21** -0.006** [-3.38]


Inflation 2.55* GDP 1.03 Private credit 0.24 Inflation 0.004

FDI 5.10** Portfolio Inv 0.006 Remittances 4.58**

Model (ii) 1

GDP 5.59***

Remittances*Private credit 4.01** -0.15*** [-4.24]


Inflation 2.82* GDP 3.05* Private credit 2.5* Inflation 2.69*

FDI 7.77*** Portfolio Inv 0.54 Remittances 0.06

Model (iii) 1

GDP 4.43**

(a) The Wald statistic is reported. It tests the joint significance of thelagged values of the variables, which follow a x2 distribution. Figures (b)in parenthesis represent t-statistic. (***), (**) & (*) indicate the level ofsignificanceat 1%, 5% and 10% respectively.

Table 5 Dynamic Least Squares (DOLS)

Variable Model (i) Model (ii) Model (iii)

Constant 0.93*** [6.64]

0.91*** [8.76]

0.69*** [11.79]

GDP -0.35*** [-3.00]

-0.34** [-2.93]

-0.47*** [-4.74]

Inflation 0.02** [0.34]

0.008** [2.58]

0.02 [0.82]

Private credit -0.11 [-0.44]

-0.12 [-1.19]

-0.11* [-1.80]

FDI 0.03 [0.18]

0.02 [1.19]

0.04 [0.65]

Portfolio Inv -3.85** [-2.65]

-4.39* [-1.63]

-2.06 [-1.33]

Remittances -0.08 [-1.35]

-0.06* [-1.61]

-0.09* [-1.52]

FDI*Private credit -0.003** [-2.89]

Portfolio Inv*Private credit -1.61* [-1.72]

Remittances*Private credit -0.06** [-2.67]

Figures in parentheses are t-values. (***), (**) & (*) indicate significance at 1%, 5% and 10% respectively.

73



Overall, with underpinningevidence in Table 5, GDP per capitais adversely related to povertyheadcount, indicating that highgrowth rates would induce lowerpoverty levels in Nigeria. Thesefindings are somewhat in tandemwith the study of Rewilak (2017).Surprisingly, FDI is, by and large,positive and insignificant, suggestingthat huge inflows of FDI to thecountry may further exacerbatepoverty incidence. Given some pointsof view, this is a peculiar instanceof more plausible conjecture that ina feeble institutional environment(where corrupt practices and rent-seeking behaviour are ubiquitous)like Nigeria, FDI inflows tend togo badly and ineffectively togetherwith poor governance practices(Klein et al., 2001).Although notsignificant in all models, privatecredit, portfolio investment andremittances have negative signs. Inall, this implies that a rise in any ofthem could lead to a decrease inpoverty levels. Reasons for theirinsignificance have been evincedpreviously. More importantly, in away, empirical evidence on portfolioinvestment clearly buttressestheassertion that equity investment isvividly the most efficient andeffective form of equity in countries(including Nigeria) with weakcorporate governance rules andpractices.Finally, the poverty-alleviating effect of financialdevelopment could be enhanced ifit coincides with rising inclusivenessand rates of capital inflows, and withthe drive for improved economic

performance simultaneously.5. Concluding remarksThis paper examines the joint

effect of capital inflows and financialdevelopment on poverty reductionin Nigeria over the period of 1980 -2017 using ARDL bound test andGranger causality test based onVector Error Correction Model(VECM). As capital inflows involvedthree subcategories, the paperassesses all three in turn. The resultsreveal that FDI has a directdetrimental effect on povertyreduction in contrast to Bharadwaj(2014) and Ucal (2014). Lack ofincentive and inclusive structures orsocially conducive business climatemay be attributable to this. On theother hand, remittances have noinimical effect on povertyalleviation, as the severity and levelof poverty are observed to bedecreased by remittances in the longrun as well as in the short - run. Infurther findings, portfolioinvestment appears to have thegreatest direct poverty-alleviatingeffect, underscoring the prominentpriority given to equity financing bymost developing countries. This maymake these economies lessvulnerable to financial shocks andthereby dramatically contributing tosocially induced welfare anddecreasing poverty. However,evidence indicates that poverty-alleviating channel may be blockedby increasingly fragile financialsector, which could inhibit thesector's capacity to extend credit toinnovative small enterprises orindividuals. Nonetheless, the poverty

74



reducing impact of the financialsectorwould be heightened viaincreasing its depth.

The interaction term of capitalinflows and financial developmentreflects significant and substantialdecrease in poverty headcount,underlining the view that capitalinflows and financial developmentcould jointly strengthen the meansto reinforcing structural economictransformat ion and effectiveindustrial structure for broad -based growth and therebyaccentuating poverty-reducingeffect. In another way, throughempirical evidence, it could beposited that the indirect role of bothcapital in flows and financialdeepening in poverty-reducingchannel is substant ial andincreasingly crucial. Furthermore,results show that a rise in per capitaGDP leads to a decline in poverty,while a persistently high inflation

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-6

Abstract:This paper adopts the four steps of "comparative analysis". First of all, itsummarizes the Chinese language and Uzbek language and its Vowels. Chinese belongs tothe "Sino-Tibetan language family" and is an isolated language. The Uzbek language belongsto the "Altaic language family" and is an adhesive language. There are 10 single vowelsand 13 double vowels in Chinese language. There are 6 single vowels in Uzbek language,andone syllable contains one vowel, that is to say, several vowels have several syllables.Generally speaking, there are no double vowels in Uzbek language, and some of them areforeign words. Secondly, the single vowels in Chinese and Uzbek pronunciation are selectedfor comparative analysis. Then, the single vowels of Chinese and Uzbek are compared andanalyzed from the aspects of "pronunciation part", " tongue position"and "lip shape". Throughcomparative analysis, it is found that there are 3 vowels with the same letters and the samepronunciation. 1 consonant with different letter but the same pronunciation. 1 vowels withthe same letter and similar pronunciation. 1 vowels with different letter but the samepronunciation. Finally, based on the similarities and differences between the two vowels,the problems that Uzbek learners may have in Chinese consonant acquisition are predicted,and propose relevant teaching suggestions. The author believes that the "i, o, u" with thesame pronunciation is generally not biased; the vowel "a" with similar pronunciation iseasier to teach; the difficulty of teaching is "ê , e, ü , -i(front), - i(back) and er".

Key words: Chinese language; Uzbek language; phonetics; Vowels ; comparative analysis

THE CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF MODERNCHINESE AND UZBEK VOWELS

Chi DaojiaTeacher Volunteer at Chinese language and Literature chair.

Tashkent State Institute of Oriental Studies



Recommended citation: Chi Daojia. THE CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF MODERNCHINESE AND UZBEK VOWELS. 3-4. American Journal of Research P. 79-87 (2019).

1. IntroductionThe so-called "contrast analysis"

refers to a method of linguisticanalysis that compares the systemsof the two languages to reveal theirsimilarities and differences. In 1957,Lado pointed out in the bookIntercultural Linguistics that projectsthat are similar to the learner's

mother tongue are easier for them,and it is difficult to learn from theirdifferent mother tongue projects(LiuXun,2000). Therefore, a systematiccomparison of the two languages canpredict where the learner may ormay not have difficulty in learningthe target language, thus adoptingmore effective second language

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teaching measures in the teaching.The process of comparative analysisgenerally has four steps:

First, descri ption. The targetlanguage and the learner's firstlanguage are described in detail andin detail as the basis for comparison.In this paper, the modern ChineseVowels and Uzbek Vowels aredescribed in detail.

Second, selection. Choose somemeaningful language projects orstructures to compare between thetwo languages. This paper selects theVowels in Chinese and Uzbek forcomparative analysis.

Third, comparison. Compare theselected language items or languagestructures in the two languages tofind the same points and differencesbetween the two languages. Throughthe comparative analysis of Vowelsin Chinese and Uzbek , this paperaims to find out the similarities anddifferences of Vowels in the twolanguages.

Fourth, prediction. On the basisof comparison, predict thedifficulties and errors that may occurin the learning of second languagelearners (Liu Wei 2000). This paperis based on the similarities anddifferences between the twolanguages of Chinese and Uzbek inthe Vowels, and predicts theproblems that Uzbek learners mayhave in their Chinese Vowelslearning, and proposes relevantteaching suggestions.

At present, there are few studieson Uzbek in China. This paper isthe first to make a comparative study

of Chinese and Uzbek Vowels. Sincethere is no such thing as "Yun Mu"in the Uzbek alphabet, theinternational common "consonant"is used to classify the phoneticalphabets of the two languages inthis paper. In addition, the"International Phonetic Alphabet" isused for the phonetic analysis of thetwo languages.

2. Overview of Chinese and UzbekVowels

2.1 Overview of Chinese and itsVowels

Chinese, also known asMandarin, belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family.The earliestmarkers of Chinese pronunciationwere "direct method" and "anti-tangential method", followed by"phonetic notation". Since thepromulgation of the "Chinese PinyinScheme" in 1958, Latin letters havebeen used to mark Chinesepronunciation. The Chinese Vowelsdiscussed in this paper are based onthe phonetic alphabets in theChinese Pinyin Scheme.

The vowel, also known as"MuYin", is opposite to the consonant.The vowel is a phoneme that isunimpeded by airflow through themouth and pharynx during thepronunciation process (HuangBorong, Liao Xudong 2006: 20).There are 23 vowels in ChinesePinyin, of which there are 10 singlevowels and 13 double vowels. Inaddition, there are 16 special soundsfor the combination of vowels andnasal Vowels. As shown in thefollowing table:

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Table 2-1: International Phonetic Alphabet of Consonants of Pinyin

No. Vowel letter International phonetic No. Vowel letter International

phonetic single vowels

1 a [ ] 6 u [u] 2 o [ ] 7 ü [y] 3 e [ ]or[ə] 8 -i（front） [ ] 4 ê [ ] 9 -i（back） [ ] 5 i [i] 10 er [ər]

double vowels 11 ai [ai] ] 18 iou [i oʊ ] 12 ei [ei] 19 ua [u ä] 13 ao [ u] 20 uo [u o] 14 ou [ou] 21 uai [u aɪ ] 15 ia [i ä] 22 uei [u eɪ ] 16 ie [i e] 23 üe [y e ] 17 iao [i ɑʊ ]

The vowels in Chinese Pinyin have the following classifications:

(1) The vowels in Chinese Pinyin can be divided into lingual vowels, apical

vowels and curly vowels. There are 7 tongue vowels: a[ ], o[ ], e[ ], ê[ ], i[i], u

[u], ü [y]; 2 apical vowels: -i [ ] (pre-tongue of the tongue), -i[ ] (post-tongue of

the tongue); curly vowels.: er[ər].

(2) According to the tongue position is front or back when pronunciation, it can be

divided into: front vowel, central vowel, and post vowel. When the front vowel is

pronounced, the tongue is naturally flat, and the tip of the tongue touches the lower

teeth, such as i[i], ü[y], ê[ ]. When the central vowel is pronounced, the middle of the

tongue is raised and slightly nervous, and then the airflow flows out from the mouth,

such as a[ ], er[ər]. When the vowel is pronounced, the root of the tongue is swelled

into the soft palate for pronunciation, such as e[ ], u[u], o[ ].

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(3) According to the roundness of the lip shape when pronounced, it can be

divided into: round lip vowel and non-round lip vowel. When the round vowel is

pronounced, the lordosis of the lips is round, such as o[ ], u[u], ü[y]. When the vowel

is not rounded, the shape of the lips is natural and flat, such as a[ ], e[ ], ê[ ], i[i],

er[ər].

(4) According to the level of tongue in pronunciation, it can be divided into: high

vowel i[i], u[u], ü[y]; semi-high vowel e[ ], er[ər]; semi-low vowel o[ ], ê[ ]; low

vowel a[ ].

图2-1：舌面元音舌位唇形图

There is a special combination of vowels and nasal Vowels in Chinese (called the

nasal Vowels in Chinese Pinyin), which can be divided into front nasal and post nasal.

Front nasal: an, en, in, un, ün, uan, uen, ian, in, ün; post nasal: ang, eng, ing, ong,

uang, ueng, iang, iong.

No. vowels+ nasal Vowels International phonetic No. vowels+ nasal Vowels International phonetic 1 an [an] 9 uan [u an] 2 en [ən] 10 uen [u ən] 3 ang [ ŋ] 11 uang [u ŋ] 4 eng [əŋ] 12 ueng [u əŋ]

5 ian [i æn] 13 ong [ ŋ]

6 in [in] 14 üan [y n]

7 iang [i ŋ] 15 ün [yn]

8 ing [iŋ] 16 iong [i ŋ]

Table 2-1: International Phonetic Alphabet of “vowels+ nasal Vowels”

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2.2 Overview of Uzbek and its Vowels

Uzbek (Latin letter O'zbek tili , Cyrillic: Ўзбек тили) belongs to the Altaic

language and is the national and official language of Uzbekistan. Uzbek language has

a history of more than 1,200 years of use. Ancient Uzbek is used in the Sogdian, Daxia

and Huazizi models. Since the 8th century, Uzbek has been written in Arabic letters. In

1930 to 1940, the Latin alphabet was used. Since 1940, the Cyrillic alphabet was

adopted due to the influence of the former Soviet Union. After independence,

Uzbekistan began to promote the Latin alphabet in 1993 . The Uzbek language

discussed in this article is written and marked in Latin.

There are six single vowels in Uzbek, one syllable contains one vowel, that is to

say, several vowels have several syllables. For example, O'z be kis ton has four

vowels, that is to say, it has four syllables O'z-be-kis-ton.

Table 2-3: International Phonetic Alphabet of Vowels of Uzbek No. Uzbek Vowel letter International phonetic Corresponding Chinese vowel 1 a [a] a 2 e [ ] ê 3 i [i] i 4 o [ ] o 5 u [u] u 6 o' [o] o（semi-high）

The author classifies the vowels in Uzbek as follows according to the

classification of Chinese Pinyin vowels:

(1) The vowels in Uzbek are all tongue vowels: a, e, i, o, u, o'.

(2) According to the tongue position is front or back when pronunciation, it can

be divided into: front-vowel a, e, i; post-vowel o, u, o'.

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(3) According to whether the vocal cords vibrate can be classified (D.Matkarimova, N.Mamatjonova 2015:6) ① clear consonants: p[p ], f[f],k[k ], h[h], x[x], s[s], sh[ ], q[q] ② voice consonants: m[m], b[b], v [v], d[d], t[t], n[n], l[l], z[z], j[d ],

y [j], ch[t ], g[g], ng[ŋ], g’[ ], r[ r] (4) When the consonant pronunciation is pronounced, the air and unvoiced sounds are distributed. ① air supply tone: p[p ], t[t],k[k ], ch[t ] ② non-aspirating sound: b[b], d[d], g[g], q[q], z[z], j[d ]

Lips Lip tooth Tip of the tongue

Tip of the midrange tongue

Behind the tip of the tongue

Front of the tongue

Tongue midrange

Post-tongue Small tongue guttural

Method Location unvoiced voiced unvoic

ed voiced unvoiced voiced unvoic

ed voiced unvoiced voiced voiced voiced unvoic

ed voiced unvoiced voiced unvoic

ed Nasal m [m] n [n] ng [ŋ]

unaspirated b [b] d [d] g [g] q [q]

Plosive aspirated

p [p ] t [t] k

[k ]

unaspirated j [d ] Affrica

te aspirated ch [t ]

Fricative f [f] v [v] s [s] z [z] sh

[ ] x [x] g'[ ] h [h]

Lateral l [l]

vibrato r [ r] Semi-vowel y [ j ]

Table 2-4: Uzbek consonant pronunciation table

3. Contrastive analysis of Chinese and Uzbek consonantsPinyin and Uzbek letters are written in Latin letters, so some letters are

pronounced the same or similar. There are 22 consonant letters in Chinesephonetic alphabet and 23 consonant letters in Uzbek alphabet. Accordingto the author's research, there are 8 consonants with the same letters andthe same pronunciation. 1 consonant with different letter but the samepronunciation. 8 consonants with the same letters and similar pronunciations.4 consonants with the same letters but the different pronunciation. 3consonants are totally different. In addition, the Uzbek consonants v andy are the same and similar to the Chinese pinyin letters v and y, respectively.Among them, the Scheme for the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet stipulatesthat v is not used as the spelling of Chinese syllables, only as a spelling offoreign languages, minority languages and dialects. The details are as follows:

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Table 3-1: Comparison of Uzbek and Chinese ConsonantsNo. Uzbek consonants International phonetic Chinese Consonants Remarks Same pronunciation

1 f [f] f 2 k [k ] k 3 l [l] l 4 m [m] m 5 n [n] n 6 p [p ] p 7 s [s] s 8 ng [ŋ] ng

Same letters

9 v [v] / Same as pinyin v 10 x [x] h Different letters Similar pronunciation

11 b [b] b 12 d [d] d 13 g [g] g 14 j [d ] j 15 t [t] t 16 z [z] z 17 sh [ ] sh 18 ch [t ] ch

Same letters

19 y [j] / Same as pinyin y Different pronunciation

20 h [h] / 21 q [q] / 22 r [ r] / 23 / [ ] x

Same letters

24 g' [ ] / 25 / [ ] zh 26 / [ ] c

Different letters

From the pronunciation position, both lip sounds are the same. In lip-tooth pronunciation, there are v in Uzbek, but not in Chinese; in tip of the tongue pronunciation, there are c and zh in Chinese, but not in Uzbek; in tongue-front pronunciation, there are q[t ]、x[ ] in Chinese, but not in Uzbek; g[g], k[kh], ng[ŋ] in the posterior lingual sound are the same, but h[x] in Chinese is the lingual sound, and x[x] in Uzbek is a small tongue;there is no small tongue and guttural in Chinese. According to the classification of obstacles in pronunciation methods, nasal and lateral sounds are the same, while the j pronunciation in Uzbek and Chinese is similar. In the plosive，Uzbek has q[q], Chinese does not; in the fricative sounds, Uzbek has v[v], h [h], g'[ ], Chinese does not, but Chinese has r [ ], x [ ], Uzbek does not; in the affricate sounds, Chinese has c [tsh], zh [ ], q [ h], Uzbek no; Uzbek has vibrato r[ r] and semi-vowel y[j] ( Similar to the Chinese pinyin letter y),but not in Chinese.

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From the perspective of voicing consonants, there are 8 unvoiced consonants and 15 voiced consonants in Uzbek, 17 unvoiced consonants and 5 voiced consonants in Chinese. Among them，the letters "m, n, l, n g and r" are all voiced consonants in Chinese and Uzbek, but the letters "b, d, t, g and j"are unvoiced consonants in Chinese，while they are voiced consonants in Uzbek.

From the perspective of aspiration and non-aspiration, there are 4 aspiration sounds and 6 non-aspiration sounds in Uzbek, 6 aspiration sounds and 6 non-aspiration sounds in Chinese. Among them, the letters"p, t, K and ch"are aspirated sounds, while the letters "b, d, g, Z and j"are non-aspirated sounds; but the letters Q are non-aspirated sounds in Uzbek and aspirated sounds in Chinese. 4. Prediction and Suggestions of Chinese Consonants Teaching

Based on the contrastive analysis of consonants between Chinese and Uzbek, the following pronunciation teaching predictions and suggestions are put forward for Chinese learners whose mother tongue is Uzbek:

The consonants "f, k, l, m, n, p, s, ng" with the same letter and the same pronunciation are the easiest to teach, and students generally do not have errors.

It is easier to teach the eight consonants with similar pronunciation "b, d, g, j, t, z, sh, ch" with the same letters, but it is necessary to point out that the letters "b, d, t, g, j" are unvoiced consonants in Chinese and voiced consonants in Uzbek. In addition, the "z" vocal cords in Chinese do not need strong vibration, but in Uzbek is strong vibration. In addition, it should be emphasized with students that "sh"and"ch"in Chinese belong to tongue warping, while "sh"and"ch"in Uzbek are pronounced with flat tongue. The difficulty of teaching is"h, q, x, r, zh, c", in which the pronunciations of"h[x], q[t h], x[ ], r[ ]" are most easily affected by Uzbek language. "[h], [q], [x], [ r]" needs to be emphasized during teaching. "zh, c" does not have these two sounds in Uzbek, but teachers need to pay attention to the fact that students may make a flat voice, "c[ ]" may be influenced by English or Russian into "s[s]".

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Chinese Character Reform Committee 1958 Chinese Pinyin Program [S] "TheResolution of the Fifth Session of the First National People's Congress on ChinesePinyin Program", p.2.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-7

Abstract: The study examined the determinants of crimes in Nigeria from economicand socioeconomic perspectives: A macro-level analysis using a time series data coveringthe period of 1990 to 2014. Both economic and socio-economic factors that determinantcrime were included in the model. The economic factors include GDP per capita; maleunemployment rate; female unemployment rate and poverty rate while the socioeconomic-demographic factors include higher education enrolment; urban population and ruralpopulation.The study embraces the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model toempirically analyze the model since the variables were stationary at levels I(0) and firstdifference I(1). The empirical results in the long-run indicated that gross domestic productper capita and female unemployment rate was found to have a negative significant effecton crime rate in Nigeria while urban and rural population, male and female unemploymentrate were found to have a positive significant effect on crime rate in Nigeria. Also, theresults of the short-run indicated that gross domestic product per capita and highereducation was found to have a negative significant effect on crime rate in Nigeria whileurban population, male unemployment rate and poverty rate were found to have a positivesignificant effect on crime rate in Nigeria in the short-run. Therefore, for a country likeNigeria to reduce criminal activities in the country, there must be an increase in theincome of the people. Also, government should invest more in education because itmakes the people more rational and more risk averse and so it reduces the propensity tocommit crimes. Therefore, higher education attainment will be the cure for criminalactivities in Nigeria. Government should also create more jobs because high unemploymentrates will compel people to commit crimes and this will increase crime rate in Nigeria.Lastly, there should be high budgetary provision towards poverty alleviation programmebecause higher poverty may lead to higher crimes rate due to depression or mentalillness associated with being poor and this will decreases the rate of return of legalactivities and more likely to increase return of illegal activities.

Keywords: Crime Rate, Economic Factor, Socioeconomic Factor, ARDL, NigeriaJEL Classification: J10, K14, K42, I30

DETERMINANTS OF CRIME IN NIGERIA FROMECONOMIC AND SOCIOECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES:

A MACRO-LEVEL ANALYSIS

Aduralere Opeyemi, OYELADE University of Ibadan, Nigeria

[email protected];[email protected]



Recommended citation: Aduralere Opeyemi, DETERMINANTS OF CRIME IN NIGERIAFROM ECONOMIC AND SOCIOECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES: A MACRO-LEVELANALYSIS. 3-4. American Journal of Research P. 88-105 (2019).

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1. IntroductionCrime is an activity which is

against the law and the fact that thelinkage between criminal activitiesand the socio-economicdevelopment of the society isundeniable. It is an action oromission which constitutes anoffence and is punishable by law andcrime is an unlawful act punishableby a state or other authority. Crimeis an offence against the value systemof any given society. It is usuallyconceived as the outcome of amultiplicity of conditions, rangingfrom economic, social, cultural andfamily (Igbinedion and Ebomoyi,2017). Crime is an act harmful notonly to some individual but also to acommunity, society or the state thatis a public wrong. Crimes alwayscreate distortions and discomfort inevery society which results in thefeelings of insecurity among peopleof a specific society (Khan et al.,2015). The costs and effects of crimevary among the various facets of thepopulation and touch almosteveryone in varying degrees(Igbinedion and Ebomoyi, 2017).Economists have attempted to knowthe reasons behind crime and this iscalled "economic of crime".There isno widely accepted definition ofeconomic of crime. Economic ofcrime deals with the effect ofincentives on criminal behavior andthe possible measures to reducecrime.Economic of crimes is anillegal acts in which offenders'principal motivation appears to beeconomic gain (Freeman, 1996).This conceived of any offense in

which individuals or collectivities ofpeople purposively act in an illegalmanner in order to gain financialreturns (e.g., robbery, drug selling,tax evasion, computer crime, andabuses of economic aid). Economicsof crime deals with the effect ofincentives on criminal behaviourand the possible measures to reducecrime. Economic models not onlypredict and explain the behaviourof criminals, but can also be usedto describe the causes of crime andthe dynamic interaction betweencriminals and anti-crime measures.

The two most mentionedeconomic and socioeconomicproblems in recent times are crimeand unemployment.In recent times,there has been a growing concernover the modestly increasing trendsof violent crimes in Nigeria. Forinstance, murder which is a clearexample of violent crimes was 1,629in 1994. This number steadilyincreased to 2,120 in 2001 andclimbed to a record high of 2,136 in2003 (CLEEN Foundation, 2007).Such a phenomenal increase of over75 percent between 1994 and 2003is worrisome. In 1994 statistics hadit that the total number of armedrobbery was estimated to be 2,044.In 2002, it rose to 3,889 which was52 percent increase in less than adecade. Also in 2005, 5,210 cases ofarmed robbery were reported but in2004, it rose to 10,762. 10,771 casesof armed robbery were reported tothe police in 2006; the numbersteadily increased to 14,400 in 2007and 16,312 in 2011. This is a clearrise of over 43 percent in less than 5

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years. In contrast however, 16,499cases of armed robbery werereported to the police in 2012, whilein 2013, the number of reportedarmed robbery cases to the policefell to 14,700 (a decline of 18percent) (Omotor, 2010). Cases ofcrimes were on the average higherduring the era of military yearsbut ithas been declining since the returnto civil democracy in 1999. However,armed robbery cases were moreduring the latter period. The declinein theft and other forms of stealingwhich accounted for over 60percent of crimes in Nigeria wassharper than other forms of crimes.For example, while a total of 69,341cases of theft were reported in 1994,this fell to 31,340 in 2003. Armedrobbery cases reported in 1999 were2,044 and increased to 3,497 in 2003.Crime is not only armed robbery butof different types and they includemurders, robbery, burglary, larcenytheft, motor vehicle theft thatincludes arson, and victimlesscrimes.There are some othercrimes, such as bank frauds, creditcard frauds, tax evasions, insurancefraud, computer crimes, cellularphone crime etc. These typesofcrimes are called white-collar crimescommitted by a person belonging toa high social status in the course ofhis occupation(Khanet al., 2015).

It is true that no part of the worldis without crime. Both developed anddeveloping countries have beenvictim of that inequity since thebirthof human being. However, thisissue has become severe in leastdeveloping countries (LDCs)

predominantly in Nigeria. The masssize of crimes has been meticulousdue to the high unemployment, thesoaring prices of food and rawmaterials, the increasing gapbetween the rich and the poor, themigration from scattered areastoward populated areas and the lackofeducation. Crime is not related tosome specific group or communityof people, but many well off andeducated people are also seen toinvolve in thecriminal behavior oractivities(Khanet al., 2015). Thisresearch work is sets to study boththeeconomic and socioeconomicdeterminants of crime in Nigeria:Amacro-level analysis.

2. Stylized Facts on the Trend ofCrime Rate in Nigeria

Table 1 gives some crimeindicators in Nigeria viz assault,murder, smuggling, stealing, armedrobbery, sex offence, traffic offence,currency offence, Indian hemp,forgery, human trafficking andcultism. It was observed that assaultfluctuated from its peck occurrenceof 7,602 in 2007 to a minimum levelof 5,491 in 2010. Except in 2011where violent crimes like murderdwindle to 9,220, there has been asurge in its occurrence. This rose toa climax of 22,689 cases in 2010. Inthe same vein, smuggling activitiesin Nigeria has been on the rise from6,359 reported cases in 2007 to 5,657occurrence in 2010 but a drop to3,933 magnitudes in 2011. Over thescope of this study, it could be seenthat stealing happened in 46,740instances in 2007 and fell to 41,496in 2008, 34,958 in 2009, 23,868

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t imes in 2010 and 11,504occurrences in 2010. This is anindication that the rate of stealinghas reduced drastically in Nigeriawhile robbery has been on the riseover time.

Likewise, armed robbery was atits peak in 2010 with 19,507happenings and very low in 2011with 9,193 occurrences. Sex offencewas on the increase from 2007 to2009 when it rose 4,162 cases butfell to 2,330 in 2010. Since the returnof democracy in Nigeria, trafficoffence has been reducing from 6,393in 2007 to 2,206 in 2008 and laterto 2,048 occurrences in 2010.However, it soars to 3,568 in 2011.Currency offence has been on therise over time and the highestoccurrences were recorded in 2011with a figure of 3,143. Indian hemp

consumption has devastating effectson the health of recipients, thus theNational Drug Law EnforcementAgency (NDLEA) prohibit itsconsumption. The crime of Indianhemp was 11,635 in 2007 and fellto 4,777 in 2008 after which itincreases to 5,855 in 2009 and laterto 8,578 in 2010. It however fell to5,664 in 2011. Human trafficking hasbeen fluctuating overtime and it wasvery low in 2008 and significantlyhigh with 4,939 in 2007. Lastly,cultism or ritual offence was very lowin 2008 (35 cases) and high in 2011with a figure of 1,612. In the samevein, forgery had been fluctuatingover the period considered with2,616 cases in 2007 to 1,400 in 2008and rise to 2,479 in 2009 while it fellto 1,920 in 2010 after which itincreases to 2,946 in 2011.

Table 1: Trend of Crime Indicators in Nigeria for Some SelectedYears

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Assault 7,602 5,432 5,537 5,491 6,001 Murder 10,467 11,058 11,419 22,689 9,220

Smuggling 6,359 1,344 2,164 5,657 3,933 Stealing 46,740 41,496 34,958 23,868 11,504 Robbery 8,594 16,567 16,127 19,298 8,083

Armed robbery 10,774 17,517 14,682 19,507 9,193 Sex offence 3,542 3,562 4,162 2,330 4,008

Traffic offence 6,393 2,206 2,651 2,048 3,568 Currency offence 644 516 1,593 2,695 3,143

Indian hemp 11,635 4,777 5,855 8,578 5,664 Forgery 2,616 1,400 2,479 1,920 2,946

Human trafficking 4,939 35 1,890 3,815 3,533 Cultism/ritual 1,378 83 1,447 1,284 1,612

Source: Author Computation from National Bureau of Statistics (NBS, 2014)

Furthermore, it was observedfrom the Figure 1 below that all thecrime cases considered has been

fluctuating over the period.Overtime, the entire crime rate hasbeen exhibiting the same pattern.

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Figure 1: Trend of Crime Indicators in Nigeria for Some SelectedYears


Also, the trend of crime classified by religion in Nigeria is given belowin Table 2.It was observed that crime committed by people that practiceChristianity has been on the increase up to 2010 but fell in 2011. Similarly,crime committed by Islamic faithful increases from 2007 to 2009 anddwindled from 2010 to 2011. Other religion that is not mentioned in thisstudy occupied the next position after Islam but it has been fluctuatingover time. Furthermore, traditionalreligion partakers' crime rate was onthe increase from 2008 till the 2011. The crimes committed by this groupwere highest in 2007 (20,823). Both crimes committed by Christian andothers religion faithful were very high in 2010. All these have someimplications for the socio-economic and development of Nigeria.

Table 2: Trend of Crime Classified by Religion in Nigeria

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Christian 57,675 62,250 74,420 78,739 46,706

Islam 48,113 54,441 65,084 50,867 35,316 Traditional 20,823 4,931 5,894 14,707 16,270

Atheist 7,307 769 919 6,790 6,037 Others 25,500 8,393 10,034 200,778 27,203


From the figure below, the crime committed by Christianity is thehighest throughout the year and follow by Islamic and traditional faithfulpartakers. Also since Atheist is not common in Nigeria, there are fewpartakers and as a result, they committed the lowest crime in Nigeria.

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Figure 2: Trend of Crime Classified by Religion in Nigeria


3. Literature ReviewThe swift increase in criminal

activities in various parts of the worldhas generated the economics ofcrimes.There are enormous volumeof theoretical and empirical literaturethat have explained the determinantsof crimes in developed anddeveloping countries.A number ofstudies have been carried out inorder to know the determinants ofcrime rates. For example, Rath,(2012) examined socio-economiccondition as a contributing factor forcriminality of women prisoners inOdishaby using descriptive statisticsfor 217 respondents in the state. Theresult of the study indicated thatcriminality has touched almost allthe sectors of the country. It has evennot spared the bureaucrats,politicians, religious preachers andlaw executors. Hence, crime hasbecome a major area of concern andit needs tremendous effort by theState agency to fight against suchcriminality and to revert thecriminals back into the societystreamlining them with social valuesand responsibilities. Also, Clear,

(2014) examined the effects of highimprisonment rates on communities:There are considerablemethodological challenges in tryingto link the consequences ofconcentrated incarceration toreduced public safety. Findings fromstudies are mixed yet, as empiricalevidence grows of the negativecollateral consequences ofconcentrated incarceration, thelikelihood that concentratedincarceration is criminogenic in itseffects on those communitiesbecomes stronger. No well-established or proven strategy existsfor combating the effects ofconcentrated incarceration oncommunities.

Also, Petersilia, (2000) examinedwhen prisoners return to thecommunity, political, economic,and social consequences. The studywas done by distributing 200questionnaires in the study area andin order to analyse the data, boththe descriptive statistics and ordinaryleast technique were used. The resultof the findings indicated thatironically, no-parole systems also

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significantly undercut postreleasesupervision. When parole boards haveno authority to decide who will bereleased, they are compelled tosupervise a parolee populationconsisting of more serious offendersand not one of their own choosing.Parole officers believe it is impossibleto elicit cooperation from offenderswhen the offenders know they willbe released, whether or not theycomply with certain conditions. Andbecause of prison crowding, someStates (for example, Oregon andWashington) no longer allowparolees to be returned to prison fortechnical violations. Field supervisionof parolees tends to be undervaluedand, eventually, underfunded andunderstaffed.Sham et al., (2013)reviewed social structure, crime andquality of life as women travelers inMalaysian cities in a sample of 120women in all the eight existingprison in Kisii town. The data fromthe research was analyzed usingdescri ptive statistics throughpercentages and frequencies. Also,cross tabulation and ordinary leastsquare (OLS) technique was usedto test the level of significance. Thestudy result indicated that whethersocial structure had an impacttowards the crime occurrence in themain urban area in Malaysian cityremains an open question. A furtherstudy on this variable will help toexplore the situation by tapping onthe right respondent to thequestionnaire pertaining the travelsafety issues among the womentravelers.

In the same manner, Khan et al.,

(2015) examined the socio-economic determinants of crime inPakistan: New evidenceon an olddebate from 1972 to 2011. The studymade used of error-correction model(ECM) to show the speed ofadjustment from short-run into long-run. The findings from the resultindicated that a positive relationshipbetween crime rates andunemployment rate in Pakistan.Higher unemployment diminishesthe rate of return of legal activities,and is more likely to increase thereturn of illegal activities. There wasa significant negative relationshipbetween the crime rates and thehigher education. The study furtherassessed that GDP per capita leadsto higher crime rates in the long-run but to lower rates in the short-run. Finally, there was a positiverelationship between the crime ratesand poverty in the long-run but thereis a negative relationship in theshort-run. Dara et al., (2015)examined tuberculosis control inprisons: current situation andresearch gaps using a sample 3,395in the South-East Region of Nigeria.The statistical tool adopted in thestudy was the spearman rank ordercorrelation coefficient. The studyrevealed that that despite being aserious cause of morbidity andmortality among incarceratedpopulations, many prison systemsencounter a variety of challenges thathinder TB control. These include,but are not limited to, insufficientlaboratory capacity and diagnostictools, interrupted supply ofmedicines, weak integration between

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civilian and prison TB services,inadequate infection controlmeasures, and low policy priorityfor prison healthcare.

Furthermore, Murray et al.,(2013) examined crime and violencein Brazil: Systematic review of timetrends, prevalence rates and riskfactors using a panel data. Thefindings from the study indicated thatthrough a systematic review of theliterature, it was identified 10 studiesassessing the prevalence of self-reported offending in Brazil and 9studies examining risk factors. Levelsof self-reported offending seem quitehigh among school students in Brazil.Individual and family-level riskfactors identified in Brazil are verysimilar to those found in high-income countries.Ghani, (2017)examined urban crime betweenMalaysia and Nigeria: A comparativestudy and the result indicated thatcriminal activities in urban areashave become more terrifying inmany parts of the world. The lastthree decades have shown anaggravated toll of urban crimesacross the globe which is notpeculiar to either developing ordeveloped countries. Both suffer thesame providence. In any given urbanareas where crime is prevalent, itcreates social predicament to thesociety such as safety of property,lives are threaten, people will beliving in fear in their respectiveliving environment and generate lowquality of life due to the havoc itcreates socially and economically. Asmentioned earlier, managing urbancrime has become a basis of concern

and various controlling andpreventive measures have to beapplied to combat crimes. The bestapproach to crime management isprimarily prevention strategy ratherthan waging war against criminalactivities.

Anthony, (2013) examined thesocial factors affecting effectivecrime prevention andcontrol inNigeria. This study revealed that thesecurity agencies are inadequatelyequipped and motivated, coupledwith poverty, unemployment andthe breakdown of family valuesamong others have made crimeprevention and control a difficulttask.Paolo, (2008) investigated thesocio-economic and demographicdeterminants of crimeacross Spanishprovinces. Results indicate thatlagged crime rate, clearance rate,urbanization rate and fraction offoreigners are positively correlatedto crime rates. Property crimes arebetter explained by socio-economicvariables (youth unemployment rateand education).Levitt and Miles,(2006) examined the economiccontributions to the understandingof crime. The studies generally foundthat increases in police and greaterincarceration lead to reduced crime.The death penalty, as currently usedin the United States, does notappear to lower crime. We alsoreview the evidence on three othercrime-related debates in whicheconomists have played a centralrole: racial profiling, concealedweapons laws, and the impact oflegalized abortion.Buonanno andLeonida, (2005) examined non-

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linearity between crime andeducation: Evidence from Italianregions. The empirical resultssuggested that crime was negativelycorrelated to education for low andmedium levels of education, andthat criminality displays persistenceover time. However, as expected,crime is positively correlated toeducation for high levels ofeducation, a result that seems to bedriven by a white collar effect.

4. Theoretical FrameworkandMethodology

4.1. Theoretical FrameworkThe theoretical framework of this

study is grounded on the standardrational choiceeconomic model ofcrime by Nobel Prize laureate GaryBecker (1968). His work radicallychanged the way of thinking aboutcriminal behaviour bydemonstrating that not so muchmental illness and socialoppressions, but individualrationality, determines whether aperson engages in criminal activitiesor not. Becker's rational criminaldecides whether or not to commitcrimes based on a cost-benefitanalysis aimed at maximizingutility.A common understanding ofcrime is that the population can bedivided into two groups: good guysand bad guys. In this view, the badguys commit crime unless they areincapacitated and the good guys arereliably law abiding. The economicmodel of crime shifts the focus fromcharacter to the choices availableto individuals. The choice of whetherto commit crime is driven by theconsequences, which differ among

individuals depending on theopportunities available to them. Thisperspective leads naturally to apresumption that deterrence works- crime rates will be inversely relatedto the likelihood and severity ofpunishment (Machin et al.,2011).Economists focus on choicesand consequences and therefore, allpotential criminals have a benefit ofcrime Xt, which includes both thefinancial and any expectedpsychological benefits of crime. Anindividual committing crime facescosts from law-enforcement agencies.The severity of the punishmentincluding fines and jail time is onepart of the total cost, and the otherpart is the probability of gettingcaught. Therefore, the costs willequal the probability of punishmentPro(Pt) times the cost ofpunishment (CPt). Thus, theexpected return from crime equal:

))((Pr - ttt CPPoX .................1

Applying standard differentiationrule to equation (1), it implies thatthe number of criminals rises as Xtrises and declines as Pro(Pt) or(CPt) rises. Thus, the individualdecision to commit crime isconditional upon the followingstipulation:

0 ))((Pr - ttt CPPoX .............2

4.2. Model SpecificationThe model for this study is an

adapted model which captures crimeas a function of both economic andsocio-economic demographic factors(Khan et al., 2015; Lobon et al,2017; Igbinedion and Ebomoyi,2017 and Anwar et al., 2017). The

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economic variables include GDPper capita; male unemploymentrate; female unemployment rate andpoverty rate because these variableswill help to measure the impact ofeconomic factors on crime rate inNigeria while the socioeconomic-

demographic factors include highereducation enrolment; urbanpopulation and rural population.

Based on the theoreticalframework and the literaturereviewed, the crime rate determinantmodel is given as:

)3.(.................................................. ) & , , , , ,f( = tttttttt POVRUFUMRPUPHEEGDPPCCR

Where CRt = Crime Rate (using annually aggregated number ofreported crime incidence cases)

GDPPCt= GDP per capita, (using PPP constant 2011 international$)

HEEt = Higher Education Enrolment (number of persons)UPt = Urban Population (number of persons)RPt = Rural Population (number of persons)UMt = Unemployment Rate, Male (using % of male labour force

modeled ILO estimate)UFt= Unemployment Rate, Female (using % of female labour force

modeled ILO estimate)POVRt = Poverty Rate (using poverty headcount ratio at $2 a day (PPP)

% of population)Òhå l³nåàr rågråss³în îf thå double log mîdål ³s g³vån ³n åquàt³în

(4) bålîw

)4.(............................................................................................................. e ++++++++

7

6543210

tt

ttttttt

POVRUFUMLNRPLNUPLNHEELNGDPPCLNCR

Òhå à ðriîri åõðåñtàtiîn is given as.

4.3. Estimation TechniquesThe study embraces the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model

to empiricallyanalyze the above model. According to Pesaran et al (2001),the ARDL co-integration technique (bound test), compared to othermultivariate co-integration methods such as Johansen (1998) and Johansenand Juselius (1990), enables the co-integration relationship to be estimatedby the ordinary least square (OLS) after determining the lag order of themodel. Also, the model can accommodate regressors that are stationary ateither levels I(0) or first difference I(1). In addition, the long-run andshort-run parameters of the models can be simultaneously estimated(Pesaran et al., 2001).

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)5.(...........................................e ++++

+ +++

+ +++++++

11

1511

1411

13

11

1211

1111

1011

9

181716

15141312110

tt

m

iit

m

iit

m

ii

t

m

iit

m

iit

m

iit

m

ii

ttt

tttttt

POVRUFLNUM

LNRPLNUPLNHEEGDPPC

POVRUFLNUMLNRPLNUPLNHEELNGDPPCLNCRLNCR

The reparameterized result gives the short-run dynamics and long run relationship of the underlying variables.The long-run relationship of the underlying variables is detected through the F-statistic (Wald test). In this approach, long-run relationship of the series was said to be established when the F-statistic exceeds the critical value band. The major advantage of this approach lies in its identification of the co-integrating vectors where there are multiple co-integrating vectors.Тhus, а јоіnt null hуроthеsіs іnvоlvіng соеffісіеnts оn lаggеd lеvеls оf crime rateі.е. Но: ß9i= ß10i = ß11i = ß12i = ß13i = ß14i = ß15i = 0 аgаіnst thе аltеrnаtіvе Но: ß9i= ß10i = ß11i = ß12i = ß13i = ß14i = ß15i = 0; іs tеstеd usіng thе Wаld оr F-tеst stаtіstіс wіth сrіtісаl vаluеs рrоvіdеd bу Реsаrаn еt аl., (2001). Тhе F-tеst hаs nоn-stаndаrd dіstrіbutіоn.

4.4. Data SourcesThe data used for the research work are basically time series data covering

1990 to 2014, a period of twenty-five (25) years. The data for all thevariables are obtainedfrom National Bureau of Statistics (NBS, 2014),Central Bank of Nigeria's Statistical Bulletin (CBN, 2015) and WorldBank's World Development Indicators (WDI, 2016).

5. Results and Discussions of Findings5.1 Preliminary Analysis: DescriptiveStatistics, Correlation Analysis,

Unit Root Test and ARDL Bounds Test for Co-IntegrationTable 3 reports the descriptive statistics and the purpose of descriptive

statistics is to summarize the data which include the mean, median,maximum, minimum and standard deviation and other normality test.The crime rate was 195,898on the average which means that crime rate inNigeria was 195,898 yearly on the average. Crime rate has a minimum of76,519 and a maximum value of 435,262and it mean falls within its minimumand maximum. Furthermore, GDP per capita was $3,747.6 per year whichindicate a low figure which make crime rate to increase. Also, the highereducation enrolment was 988,635 yearly and this means that there is anhigh rate in the enrolment in education in Nigeria with enough job whichin turn lead to high rate in crime in Nigeria. In the same vein, urbanpopulation is 50,516,000 which is lower than rural population of 81,432,000while unemployment among male is higher than that of female and poverty

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rate in Nigeria was 59.62% which is very high to encourage more crime.Furthermore, all the variables follow within their minimum and maximumand crime rate, GDP per capita and urban population are positively skewedwhile higher education enrolment, rural population, male unemployment,female unemployment and poverty rate are negatively skewed and as aresult of those that are negatively skewed, there median is higher thantheir mean. The Jarque-Bera statistic accepts the null hypothesis of normaldistribution at the 10% level of significance for all the variables.

Table 3: Descriptive Statistics

CRt GDPPCt HEEt UPt RPt UMt UFt POVRt Mean 195,898 3,747.6 988,635 50,516,000 81,432,000 7.632 7.356 59.616 Median 153,238 3,030 1,032,873 47,200,000 82,100,000 7.700 7.400 61.900 Maximum 435,262 5,640 1,701,123 83,300,000 94,200,000 8.000 7.500 90.230 Minimum 76,519 2,740 124,776 28,400,000 67,200,000 7.200 7.100 18.400 Std. Dev. 115,057 1,064.7 615,454 16,871,986 8,234,365. 0.152 0.116 23.159 Skewness 1.241 0.522 -0.202 0.454 -0.154 -0.485 -0.889 -0.212 Kurtosis 2.996 1.596 1.360 1.979 1.835 4.806 2.940 1.777 Jarque-Bera 6.417 3.188 2.970 1.944 1.514 4.379 3.295 1.744 Probability 0.040 0.203 0.226 0.378 0.469 0.112 0.193 0.418 Observations 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 Source: Author's ComputationNote: ** imply 5% level of significance for normality using JB statistics

The degree and direction of association among the variables are shownin Table 4. Correlation analysis is use for two purpose which is to knowthe degree of linear association among variables and to see whether thereis no multicollinearity among variables.A number of the signs tend toconform with a priori expectation while higher education enrolment donot conform. No serious problem of multicollinearity exists, as the Pairwisecorrelation coefficient for any of the variables does not exceed 0.80(Gujarati, 2003).

Table 4: Correlation Matrix LNCRt LNGDPPCt LNHEEt LNUPt LNRPt UMt UFt POVRt

LNCRt 1 LNGDPP

Ct -0.182 1 LNHEEt 0.234 0.691 1 LNUPt 0.182 0.198 0.799 1 LNRPt 0.299 0.684 0.188 0.390 1 UMt 0.687 0.297 0.375 0.571 0.657 1 UFt 0.336 0.376 0.181 0.513 0.572 0.368 1

POVRt 0.310 0.759 0.546 0.681 0.684 0.635 0.375 1 Source: Author's Computation

To examine the stationarity of the series and time series properties ofthe variables in the model, the unit root test was carried out using of

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Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) test and it is presented in Table 5. Thestudy tests for unit roots on the effect of economic and socioeconomicfactors on crime rates in Nigeriaand the ADF guarantee that the inferenceregarding the important issue of stationarity is unlikely driven by the choiceof testing procedures used. The results revealed that the variables areintegrated of order zero and one that is combination of I(0) and I(1)which called for autoregressive distributed lag (ARDI).Table 5: Unit Root Test Result using Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF)

Level First Difference Variable ADF

Critical Value

t*[p-value] ADF Critical Value

t*[p-value] Status

LNCRt -3.738 -1.873 [0.339] -3.753 -4.288[0.003]* I(1) LNGDP

PCt -3.738 -0.660 [0.988] -3.753 -3.806 [0.009]* I(1)

LNHEEt -3.753 -1.576 [0.478] -3.753 -10.165[0.000]* I(1) LNUPt -3.769 -5.069 [0.000]* - - I(0) LNRPt -3.769 -6.849 [0.000]* - - I(0) UMt -2.992 -3.444 [0.019]** - - I(0) UFt -2.992 -3.423 [0.020]** - - I(0)

POVRt -3.737 -1.961 [0.301] -3.753 -7.353 [0.000]* I(1) Source: Author's ComputationNote: *, ** and *** imply 1%, 5% and 10% level of significance

Since the unit root test confirmed the combination of order zero andone that I(0) and I(1), the next step is ARDL bounds test for co-integration and result from the bounds test co-integrationis presented inTable 6. The result revealed that computed F-Statistics for Wald test was8.429. The value exceeds both the upper bounds and lower bounds criticalvalues for all level of significance. Therefore, the statistics test yields evidenceof long-run relationship among the variables at 1%, 2.5%, 5% and 10%levels of significance in Nigeria.

Table 6: Bounds Testing for Co-integration Analysis

Computed Wald F-statistic: 8.429; K = 5 Bounds Level Lower Bound Upper Bound

10% critical bounds value 2.26 3.35 5% critical bounds value 2.62 3.79

2.5% critical bounds value 2.96 4.18 1% critical bounds value 3.41 4.68

Source: Author's ComputationNote: *, ** and *** imply 1%, 5% and 10% level of significance

5.2. Short-Run and Long-Run Effect of Economic and SocioeconomicFactors on Crime Rates in Nigeria

The short-run and long-run ARDL results for the effect of economic

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and socioeconomic factors on crime rates in Nigeriaare presented in Table7. Since the unit root test confirmed the combination of order zero andone that I(0) and I(1) and the ARDL bounds test for co-integrationyield evidence of long-run relationship among variables, the short-runand long-run effect of the variables were examined.

Table 7: Parsimonious Long-run and Short-run ARDL-ECM Results

Dependent Variable: Crime Rate (CRt) Variable Long-run Short-run

D(LNGDPPCt) -7.842 [0.000]* -6.123 [0.000]* D(LNGDPPCt(-1)) - -1.737 [0.111]

D(LNHEEt) -2.219 [0.847] -0.297 [0.000]* D(LNHEEt(-1)) - -0.255 [0.000]*

D(LNUPt) 5.017 [0.006]* 2.130 [0.846] D(LNUPt(-1)) - 4.817 [0.024]**

D(LNRPt) 3.833 [0.008]* 1.020 [0.101] D(LNRPt(-1)) - 1.474 [0.120]

D(UMt) 1.761 [0.000]* 1.274 [0.000]* D(UMt(-1)) - 3.640 [0.000]*

D(UFt) -1.152 [0.052]*** 0.226 [0.125] D(UFt(-1)) - 0.582 [0.785] D(POVRt) 1.523 [0.052] 1.840 [0.0725]*

D(POVRt(-1)) - 0.001 [0.000]* C -4.338 [0.102] -

ECTt(-1) - -0.960 [0.000]* R-Square 0.981

Adj R-Square 0.965 F-Statistics 60.785 [0.000]*

Akaike info criterion (AIC) 23.100 Schwarz criterion (SIC) 23.643

Durbin-Watson Stat. 2.189 Serial Correlation Test 3.273 [0.081]

Normality Test 4.955 [0.084] ARCH Test 0.323 [0.728]

Heteroskedasticity Test 0.490 [0.866] Ramsey RESET Test 5.758 [0.022]

Source: Author's ComputationNote: *, ** and *** imply 1%, 5% and 10% level of significance

Empirical results indicate that there was a long-run relationship amongthe crimes rates and some of the explanatory variables and coefficients ofthe variableshave theoretical expected signs except for femaleunemployment which does not follow suit. Also, the results show that 1%increase in gross domestic product per capita will bring about7.842%decrease in crime rates in Nigeria. This means that as per capita income ofthe people increase, tendency of committing crime reduces which is thenormal scenario as expected.Therefore, for a country like Nigeria to reducecriminal activities in the country, there must be an increase in the income

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of the people. In the same manner,1% increase in higher education willbring about 2.219% decrease incrime rate indicating that highereducation has the expected sign butinsignificant in determine crime ratein Nigeria. As more educationdirectly induces high earnings ofindividuals and may increase boththe opportunity cost of crimes andthe cost of time spent in criminalactivity. Therefore, education makesthe people more rational and morerisk averse and so it reduces thepropensity to commit crimes. Thisresult indicates that people involvedin criminal behaviour tends to beless educated and havepooreconomic background ascompared to the non-criminals.Furthermore, urban and ruralpopulation has a positive significanteffect on crime rate in Nigeria thatis a 1% increase in both urban andrural populationwill bring about anincrease of 5.017% and 3.833%respective increase in crime rate. Thisresult indicates that more peopletends to involved in criminalbehavour as the population gohigher. High population withoutresource to cater for the populationin term of job and the rest will resultin more criminal activities in thelong run. There was a divergencebetween male and femaleunemployment rate because maleunemployment rate has a positivesignificant effect on crime rate whilefemale unemployment rate has anegative significant effect on crimerate. Therefore, 1% increase in maleunemployment rate will bring about

1.761% increase in crime rate inNigeria while 1% increase in femaleunemployment rate will bring about1.523% decrease in crime rate inNigeria. This means that increase inmale unemployment tend to increasecriminal activities because must malein Nigeria are the breadwinner whohave to look for ways of providingfor the family whether through legalor illegal means but this is notapplication to female because theywill be at the receiving hand.

The short-run economic andsocioeconomic determinants ofcrimes rate in Nigeria was donethrough the help of error-correctionmodel (ECM). The ECM resultindicate that gross domestic productper capita and crimes rate has anegative significant relationshi pwith each other. This means that 1%increase in gross domestic productper capita will bring about 6.123%decrease in crime rate. This concurwith the long-run finding and itindicates that more per capitaincome reduces crime rate drasticallyin Nigeria. However, the empiricalresults show that there was a negativesignificant relationship betweenhigher education and crimes rate inNigeria both at current and lag period.Therefore, 1% increase in highereducation will reduce crime rate by0.297% and 0.255% at current andlag period. Therefore, highereducation attainment is a cure forcriminal activities in Nigeria. Urbanpopulation has a positive significantrelationship with crime rate in lagperiod in Nigeria while ruralpopulation has the theoretical

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expected sign but insignificantrelationshi p with crime rate inNigeria but at current and lag period.Therefore, 1% increase in urbanpopulation will increase crime ratein Nigeria by 4.817% at time goeson. Furthermore, the results on theshort-run strongly support theexistence of significant and positiverelationship between the crimes rateand male unemployment at bothcurrent and lag period while femaleunemployment has positive butinsignificant relationship with crimerate in Nigeria. Therefore, 1%increase in male unemployment willbring about 1.274% and 3.640%increase in crime rate in Nigeria.High unemployment rates maydecrease the earning opportunitiesfor the individuals which in turncompel them to commit crimes andthis makes crime rate toincrease.Also, there was a negativesignificant relationship betweencrimes rate and poverty in Nigeriaat both current and lag period whichis in support with theoretical findings.This means that 1% increase inpoverty rate increase crime rate by1.840% and 0.001% respectively.Therefore, higher poverty may leadto higher crimes rate due todepression or mental illnessassociated with being poor and thiswill decreases the rate of return oflegal activities and more likely toincrease return ofillegal activities.Hence, poverty is one of the majorcontributing factors of high crimesin Nigeria.The coefficient of error-correction term was negative andsignificant and evaluates that all

short-run variables may converge onthe long-run that is the speed ofconvergence was very high as 96%per year.It indicates that there wasconvergence whichmeans that short-run coefficient values move to theirequilibrium or stable path.Also, thevalue of adjusted R-squared of96.5% shows that the model wasrelatively good as most of thevariations are being explained by theexplanatory variables and the modelwas free from any econometricproblem through the Durbin-Watson statistics of 2.189 while theF-statistic of 60.785[0.000] indicatesthat the overall model was good. Theresults of diagnostic test statisticsconfirm the absence of serialcorrelation, heteroscedasticity,a u t o r e g r e s s i v e c o n d i t i o n a lheteroscedasticity (ARCH) in themodel and the model is normallydistributed.

6. ConclusionThe swift increase in criminal

activities in various parts of the worldhas generated the economics ofcrimes. Crimes always createdistortions and discomfort in everysociety which results in the feelingsof insecurity among people of aspecific society. The study examinedthe determinants of crimes in Nigeriafrom economic and socioeconomicfactors perspectives: A macro-levelanalysis using a time series datacovering the period of 1990 to 2014.Both economic and socio-economicfactors that determinant crime wereincluded in the model. The economicfactors include GDP per capita;male unemployment rate; female

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unemployment rate and poverty ratewhile the socioeconomic-demographic factors include highereducation enrolment; urbanpopulation and rural population. Thestudy embraces the autoregressivedistributed lag (ARDL) model toempirically analyze the model sincethe variables were stationary at levelsI(0) and first difference I(1). Theempirical results in the long-runindicated that gross domesticproduct per capita and femaleunemployment rate was found tohave a negative significant effect oncrime rate in Nigeria whileurban andrural population, male and femaleunemployment rate were found tohave a positive significant effect oncrime rate in Nigeria. Also, theresults of the short-run indicated thatgross domestic product per capitaand higher education was found tohave a negative significant effect oncrime rate in Nigeria while urbanpopulation, male unemploymentrate and poverty rate were found tohave a positive significant effect on

crime rate in Nigeria in the short-run. Therefore, for a country likeNigeria to reduce criminal activitiesin the country, there must be anincrease in the income of the people.Also, government should investmore in education because it makesthe people more rational and morerisk averse and so it reduces thepropensity to commit crimes.Therefore, higher educationattainment will bethe cure forcriminal activit ies in Nigeria.Government should also create morejobs because high unemploymentrates will compel people to commitcrimes and this will increase crimerate in Nigeria. Lastly, there shouldbe high budgetary provision towardspoverty alleviation programme-because higher poverty may lead tohigher crimes rate due to depressionor mental illness associated withbeing poor and this will decreasesthe rate of return of legal activitiesand more likely to increase returnof illegal activities.

References:

Anthony, A. A.; (2013). Social Factors Affecting Effective Crime Prevention and Controlin Nigeria. International Journal of Applied Sociology, 3(4): 71-75

Becker, G.S.; (1968). Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach. Journal ofPolitical Economy, 76(2): 169 - 217.

Buonanno, P. and Leonida, L.; (2005). Non-linearity between Crime andEducation:Evidence from Italian Regions. Social Problems, 34: 187 - 211.

Buonanno, P. and Montolio, D.; (2008).Identifying the Socioeconomic Determinants ofCrime in Spanish Provinces. International Review of Laws and Economics, 28(2): 87 - 97.

Clear, T. R.; (2014). The Effects of High Imprisonment Rates on Communities. Crimeand Justice, 37(1): 97 - 132.

CLEEN Foundation (2009): http://www.cleen.org/about.html 11-04-09Dara, M.; Colleen D. A.; Natalie V. S. V. M.; Haider A. A. A.; Dato C.; Hernan, R.;

Rosella, C.; Giovanni, S.; Lia D.; Sarabjit, S. C. and Giovanni, B. M.; (2015). Tuberculosiscontrol in prisons: current situation and research gaps. International Journal of InfectiousDiseases, 32: 111-117.

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Ehrlich, I.; (1973). Participation in Illegitimate Activities: A Theoretical and EmpiricalInvestigation. Journal of Political Economy, 81(3): 521-565.

Freeman, R. B.; (1996). Why Do So Many Young American Men Commit Crimes andWhat Might We Do About It?. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 10(1): 25-42.

Ghani, Z. A.; (2017). A Comparative Study of Urban Crime between Malaysia andNigeria.Journal of Urban Management xxx:xxx - xxx.

Gillani, M., Mahmood, S, Y., Rehman, H., & Rashid, A. (2008). Unemployment,Poverty, Inflation and Crime Nexus: Co-integration and Causality Analysis ofPakistan,Pakistan Economic and Social Review, 47(1): 79-98.

Haddad, A. and Moghadam, A. (2008). Socio-Economic Determinants of Crimes: ACross-Sectional Study of Punjab Districts. International Journal of Economics and EmpiricalResearch, 3(11), 550-560.

Iqbal, M. M. and Jalil, H. H.; (2010). Urbanization and crime: A case study of Pakistan,Presented at 26th Annual General Meeting of PSDE, Pakistan Institute ofDevelopmentEconomics, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Khan, N.; Ahmed, J.; Nawaz, M. and Zaman, K.; (2015). The Socio-EconomicDeterminants of Crime in Pakistan: New Evidenceon an Old Debate. Arab Economicsand Business Journal, 10: 73 - 81.

Levitt, S. D. and Miles, T. J.; (2006). Economic Contributions to theUnderstanding ofCrime. Annu. Rev. Law Soc. Sci, 2:147 - 164.

Machin, S.; Marie, O. and Vuji?, S.; (2011). The Crime Reducing Effect of Education.Economic Journal, 121: 463- 484.

Murray, J. Cerqueira, D. R. D and Kahn, T.; (2013). Crime and Violence in Brazil:Systematic Review of Time Trends, Prevalence Rates and Risk Factors. Aggression andViolent Behavior, 18: 471 - 483.

Omotor, D. G.; (2009). Socio-Economic Determinants of Crime in Nigeria. PakistanJournal of Social Sciences, 6(2): 54 - 59.

Omotor, D. G.; (2010). Demographic and Socio-Economic Determinants of Crimesin Nigeria (A Panel Data Analysis). Journal of Applied Business and Economics,

Petersilia, J.; (2000). When Prisoners Return to the Community: Political, Economic,and Social Consequences. Papers from the Executive Sessions on Sentencing andCorrections, No. 9

Rath, J. J.; (2012). Socio-Economic Condition as a ContributingFactor for Criminalityof Women Prisoners in Odisha. Odisha Review, 18 - 29.

Sham, R.; Muhammad, Z. S. M. H., Hairul, N. I.; (2013). A Review of Social Structure,Crime and Quality Of Life as Women Travelers in Malaysian Cities. Procedia - Social andBehavioral Sciences, 101: 307 - 317.

Todaro, S. and Easterly, D.; (2006). Investment in Human Capital. American EconomicReview. 1 - 17.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-8

Abstract: In this article it is researched that Belikov's figure who is the teacher of theGreek language as the main character of the novel entitled "Captive of cover" byA.P.Chekov and described the main character's gloomy expression " somethingwouldn't happen" which makes everybody fear.

Key words: satire story, funny story, political situation, dead languages.

SATIRE FOR REACTIONARY MODE IN THE STORY BYA.P.CHEKHOV

"THE MAN IN THE CASE"

Musaeva Feruza AbdubakievnaTeacher at Andijan state university



Recommended citation: Musaeva Feruza Abdubakievna. SATIRE FOR REACTIONARY MODEIN THE STORY BY A.P.CHEKHOV "THE MAN IN THE CASE". 3-4. American Journal ofResearch P. 106-108 (2019).

À. P. Chekhov is rightlyconsidered to be one of the bestmasters of short humorous storiesnot only in Russian, but also inworld literature. Having started hisliterary career as a humorist andsatirist, Chekhov at first did not giveserious importance to his literarywork, considering himself a futuredoctor (in 1879 he entered themedical faculty of MoscowUniversity, which graduated in1884).

He wrote small entertainingminiature stories, jokes, andanecdotes for humorous magazines.But together with this "handicraft"work Chekhov created such smallstories, which seemed to be ordinary

funny miniatures, but the innercontent differed by the striking depthand power of artistic generalization.

So, a young, aspiring writerbecame a master. At first Chekhovwas languishing under the weight ofthe cruel requirements of the genreof a small story. In his letters we keepseeing complaints that he has tothrow out the essence of his stories.It could have been not onlydangerous, but also disastrous forthe young talent, and AntoshChekhonte (as the young man signedhis stories) would have remainedonly a talented joker. But Chekhovmanaged to do something dangerous- useful for himself. He forcedhimself to "accept" the demands of

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the genre, starting to persistentlystudy the complex laws of the littlestory from within, to reveal itshidden possibilities.

A certain time of hard work haspassed and the fever has reconcileditself to his creative will.

Chekhov learned how to conveythe life of a man in a small story. Andsince the heroes of his stories wereordinary people, one of the many,Chekhov's little story conveys theflow of life itself. A small humorousstory has risen to the height of anepic narrative. Chekhov became thecreator of a new kind of literature, asmall story, which includes, interms of depth and completeness ofthe ideological and artistic content,a story and novel.

And the very thing that used tobring him suffering - the need toruthlessly reduce, throw away, dirty- has now turned into a law ofcreativity for him. In his letters,statements, notes, appeared "inSuvorov's way" laconic andexpressive sayings, formulas of art:"Briefness-sister of talent", "Writingtalentedly, that is, briefly", "The artof writing is an art to reduce", "Ican speak briefly about long things".The last formula, in our opinion,precisely defines the essence ofChekhov's extraordinary skill.

Ì.Bitter in the following words,he described the meaning ofChekhov's stories: "In each of AntonPavlovich's humorous stories I heara quiet, deep breath of a pure, trulyhuman heart... Nobody understoodas clearly and subtly as AntonChekhov, the tragedy of the trifles

of life, nobody before him knew howto draw so ruthlessly and ruthlessly ashameful and dreary picture of theirlives in the dull chaos of thebourgeois everyday life. [1.28]

In this heartfelt description ofChekhov's stories, Gorky definesboth their social significance andone of the most important featuresof Chekhov's artistic originality: thecombination, confluence in hisworks, the comic beginning with thedramatic and tragic. From his youngage Chekhov has a keen sense ofcontradictions with reality. At first,he felt the comic side of thesecontradictions with particularacuteness; then he began to feeltheir tragic and dramatic side witheven greater depth.

The main contradiction thattormented Chekhov was that hishomeland, the most talentedRussian people, called for a greathistorical life, was weary under therule of "Unterev Prishebeevs","people in a case", "chameleons" andother ridiculous, evil, insignificantfilled the bourgeois and noblesociety.

In 1898, when he wrote "TheMan in the Case", Chekhov wasclear that it is necessary to fight thereaction, with political indifference,with ordinary people, political satireis necessary.

This is what the story "The Manin the Case" was all about.

The story is rightfully consideredto be the pinnacle of Chekhov'ssatire both in content and form.Reflecting in bright and typicalimages the movement and struggle

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in the wide circles of intellectualsof the late 19th century, this storyis clearly against the reactionarycamp. At the same time, the story"The Man in a Case" mobilized andsummarized all the artistic means ofsatire used in earlier stories. Thepolitical orientation of the storydetermined, first of all, the choiceof the main character: in the imageof Belikov Chekhov as if summedup the observations that he madeduring his entire literary activity overthe reactionary officials, servants ofthe tsarist regime.

What is Belikov's fundamentalfeature that underlies his characterand explains his personal life andsocial role?

Finding out this trait, usually usethe definition given by the narratorBurkin in the beginning of the story:"...this man had a constant and

irresistible desire to surround himselfwith a shell, to create himself ... acase that would have secluded him,would have protected him fromexternal influences".

Indeed, a panic fear of living life,of everything that violates theestablished rules, habitual norms,annoying the idea that everythingremains the same as it was, aremanifested in every act of Belikov,in his entire life.

For Belikov the most essential thingis that his case was extremely active. Thisis how he differs from the simple peasantMavra, whom Chekhov comparestwice with Belikov, at the verybeginning and at the very end of thestory, and thus gives the backgroundfor the characterization of the maincharacter. If anybody has the notion of"case" as an aspiration to privacy, toprotect oneself.

References:

1. M.Gorky A.P.Chekhov. Collection of materials-M., 1951.p.282. A.P.Chekhov. Collected Op. in 12 volumes, Moscow, 1962.3. A.P.Chekhov. Collected.Works.Vol. 8. M., 1962, pp. 280-293.4. Berdnikov A.P.Chekhov. Ideological and creative search L., 1970.5. Paperny Z. Chekhov's notebooks. Ì., 1976.6. Ermilov V.A., A.P.Chekhov M., 1959.7. Revyakin A.I. Creative work of A.P. Chekhov M., 1956.8. Golubkov V.V. Skill of A.P.Chekhov M., 1958.9. A. Chekhov Turkov and his time, 1987.9. Bialyi G.A. Chekhov and Russian realism. Ì.1981.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-9

Abstract: This study analysed human resource development (HRD) practices andorganisational commitment (OC) of teachers in Government Aided Secondary Schoolsin Wakiso District, Uganda. Particularly, the study analysed the relationship betweenperformance appraisal, training and promotion and OC. The study used a sample of 336secondary school teachers who responded to a self-administered questionnaire. Descriptiveanalysis, factor analyses, Cronbach alpha (?) tests and multiple regression were carriedout. Descriptive analysis revealed that OC, performance appraisal and promotion weremoderate while training offered was good. Factor analysis and Cronbach alpha (?) testsrevealed that the items measuring HRD practices subscales were valid and reliable measures.Multiple regression analysis revealed that performance appraisal and promotion had apositive and significant relationship with OC. However, the relationship between trainingand OC was negative and insignificant. It was concluded that in the context of secondaryschools in Uganda, OC was problematic, the current performance appraisal and promotionapproaches were insufficient but training was sufficient. Therefore, it was recommendedthat the Ministry of Education, Science, Technology and Sports (MoESTS) in liaisonwith head teachers should improve the implementation of performance appraisal, howeverthey should not over prioritise the provision of training to teachers, and the EducationService Commission which is the body responsible for the promotion of teachers shouldreform the promotional practices.

Key words: Human Resource Development Practices. Organisational Commitment.Performance Appraisal. Promotion. Training.

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT PRACTICESAND ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT OF

TEACHERS IN GOVERNMENT AIDED SECONDARYSCHOOLS IN WAKISO DISTRICT, UGANDA

Wilson Mugizi ([email protected])

Kampala International University Western Campus



Recommended citation: Wilson Mugizi. HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENTPRACTICES AND ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT OF TEACHERS INGOVERNMENT AIDED SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN WAKISO DISTRICT, UGANDA.3-4. American Journal of Research P. 109-127 (2019).

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IntroductionSecondary education helps in the

acquisition of knowledge, skills andvalues necessary for the exercisingof responsible citizenship (Laurie,Nonoyama-Tarumi, McKeown &Hopkins, 2016). This is becausesecondary education promotesopenness in individuals enablingthem to become better citizens(Baumann & Winzar, 2016).Secondary school education is aneffective means of equi ppingindividuals with the ability to takeknowledge-based decisions anddevelop democratic attitudes. Itimproves and strengthens thedevelopmental capacities ofindividuals and communities.Acquisition of secondary educationcreates a safer, healthier and moreprosperous society and enhances theliving standards of individuals bychanging their visions andperspectives (T?rkkahraman, 2012).Secondary education upgradesstandards of living of individuals(Baumann & Winzar, 2016).Secondary school education learningopportunity is essential forcombating poverty and creatingeconomic mobility. In addition,secondary education links primaryschool education to highereducation and connects schoolsystems to labour markets. Indeed,its demand around the world hasgrown as more children enter andprogress through the primary schoolsystem (Motivans, 2011).Recognising the importance ofsecondary education, secondaryeducation systems in developing

countries especially Africa are underpressure to serve more students andto do so more effectively. There is ademand that secondary schools needto should do a better job of preparingstudents for adulthood making surethat they actually learn while theyare in school and are equipped withskills they will need to becomeproductive workers and fullparticipants in their societies (Null,Cosentino, Sridharan & Meyer,2017).

In pursuit of increasing secondaryeducation, Uganda was one of thefirst countries in sub-Saharan Africato undertake a policy of universalsecondary education in 2007 (Adan& Orodho, ?2015). The governmentof Uganda declared that the goals ofUSE were to increase the primaryto secondary school transition rateto 80 percent by the year 2015 byproviding tuition-free secondaryeducation and to increase equitableparticipation in quality secondaryeducation (Huylebroeck & Titeca,2015). However, despite the increaseof secondary education, in Ugandacomplaints are high that students arenot learning because teachers areshowing low commitment to theirjobs. About 15 percent of teachersdo not turn up to teach their classesmaking the government of Ugandapay over Shillings 16 billion inmonthly salaries to teachers whohardly show up at schools (Oduut,2017). Many teachers haveabandoned classes to ride boda-bodas (commercial motorcycles) orattend to their merchandise to earnextra income. A number of teachers

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arrive at their respective schools asearly as 8:00 am, sign in theattendance book and disappearagainst the Uganda Public CivilService policy that prohibits publicservants from engaging in any otheremployment during work hours(Kato, 2018). Therefore, secondaryschool teachers fail to make schemesof work, lesson plans andperforming weekly duty negativelyaffecting teaching and learning(Ataike, 2014). The low commitmentof teachers with no passion for theirjobs affects their performancebecause they hardly take on extraroles in the schools and are lessfocused to their jobs. The teachers'experience reduction in theirprofessional growth andprofessionalism hence they fail tocreate effective learningenvironments and increase learningpotentials of their students (Altun,2017; Carbonneau, Vallerand,Fernet & Guay, 2008). This studyanalysed factors affecting thecommitment of teachers ingovernment-aided secondary schoolsin Uganda. Particularly, the studyanalysed human resourcedevelopment (HRD) practices andorganisational commitment ofteachers.

BackgroundOrganisational Commitment.

Organisational commitment (OC)is a multidimensional conceptcomprising of affective, continuanceand normative aspects. Affectivecommitment refers to an individual'semotional attachment to andinvolvement with an organisation;

continuance commitment is aboutthe perceived costs of leaving anorganisation; and normativecommitment explains to the feltresponsibility to support and remaina member of an organisation(Stinglhamber et al., 2015).Therefore, organisationalcommitment is the bond betweenthe employee and the organisationsuch that the employee wants tocontinue serving the organisationand to help it achieve its objectives(Mugizi, Bakkabulindi & Bisaso,2015). OC is important as farorganisations such as secondaryschools are concerned. OC leads toreduced employee turnover becausecommitted employees are loyal tothe organisation, share its values andidentify with the goals of theorganisation having little reason towant to leave it (?ulibrk, Deli?,Mitrovi? & ?ulibrk, 2018). OC leadsto acceptance of organisationalchange because when anorganisation engages in changeinitiatives, committed employeesprovide many benefits such asputting in extra effort to ensure thatthe change succeeds. In addition,during a period of change,committed employees serve as publicrelations representatives and gobeyond the norm to assist theorganisation to function effectively(Visagie & Steyn, 2011). Employeeswith commitment feelings do notfrequently involve themselves innegative behaviour such asabsenteeism, are more compatibleand productive individuals withhigher levels of satisfaction, loyalty

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and responsibility (Mosadeghrad &Ferdosi, 2013). OC not onlyincreases the success of an individualin a certain role but also encouragesthe individual to exhibitorganisational citizenshi pbehaviour, that is, to do manyvoluntary actions necessary for theorganisation (Mugizi, Bakkabulindi& Bisaso, 2016a). In other words,OC enhances job performance inorganisations such as schools.

Human Resource DevelopmentPractices

The term human resourcedevelopment (HRD) is a three-component model involvingtraining, education anddevelopment (Kumpikaite, 2008).Training concerns application offormal processes to impartknowledge and help people toacquire the skills necessary for themto perform their jobs satisfactorily(Armstrong, 2012). Training leads toleadership development, learningnew work skills, socialisationencompassed in orienting newemployees to the culture of anorganisation, understanding jobresponsibilit ies and educatingemployees in regard to businessethics (Schraeder, 2009). Educationis the measure of knowledge andskills (Barton, Armstrong, Preheim,Gelmon & Andrus, 2009). Anindividual's education is an indicatorof a person's skill levels orproductivity. Therefore, individualswith more education are likely tohave greater in-depth, analyticalknowledge (crystallised intelligence)as well (Mugizi et al., 2015).

Employee development pertains toskills, behaviours and abilities of anindividual necessary for long-termpersonal effectiveness andcontribution to the organisation'sability to remain competitive byproviding high-quality goods andservices (Ford, Kozlowski, Kraiger,Salas & Teachout, 2014). Employeedevelopment helps employees toacquire or sharpen capabilitiesrequired to perform various functionsassociated with their present orexpected future roles and developtheir general capabilit ies asindividuals and discover and exploittheir own inner potentials for theirown and/ or organisationaldevelopment processes (Rao &Krishna, 2009). Therefore, HRDdescribes individual development,career development, andorganization development roles toachieve maximum productivity,quality, opportunity, and fulfillmentfor organisation members as theywork to accomplish the goals of theorganisation (Kumpikaite, 2008).HRD seek to develop people'sknowledge, expertise, productivityand satisfaction, whether forpersonal or group/ team gain or forthe benefit of an organisation,community, nation or ultimatelythe whole humanity (Werner &DeSimone, 2011). HRD practicesrefer to a set of systematic andplanned activities designed by anorganisation to provide its memberswith the opportunities to learnnecessary skills to meet current andfuture job demands includingperformance appraisal, training and

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promotion (Tizikara & Mugizi, 2017).The investigations of this studyexamined the influence ofperformance appraisal (PA), trainingand promotion on organisationalcommitment of teachers.

Literature ReviewTheoretical ReviewThe Social Exchange Theory

(SET) provides underpinnings forthe relationship between HRD andorganisational commitment. SETproposes that individuals are rationalwhen making decisions and choosethe option that is perceived to resultin the highest net benefit given theirpreferences and constraints(Corcoran, 2013). Therefore,persons who give much to others tryto get much from them, and personsthat get much from others are underpressure to give much to them. Thisprocess works out at equilibrium tobalance the exchanges. Hence, in anexchange relationship what onegives may be a cost, just as what onegets may be a reward (Mugizi et al.,2015). Therefore, SET posits thatpeople's decisions to engage in aninteraction process are based oncost-benefit analysis and thecomparison of alternatives. Peoplesuch as employees in organisationsengage in an exchange process oncethey have judged the rewards andthe costs and will enter relationshipsin which they can maximize benefitsand minimise costs. The exchangewill be engaged in if the resultingrewards are of value and theperceived costs do not exceed theperceived benefits (Nunkoo, 2016).Hence, in an organisation the social

exchange process begins when thosein charge offer employees appealingresources that act as an exchange.Resources are exchanged through aprocess of reci procity with theorganisation offering to theemployees who in turn reciprocatewith good deeds or job attitudes.Thus, SET suggests that employee'sjob outcomes such as organisationalcommitment (OC) are a result of aseries of sequential transactionsbetween the employer and theemployee (Cropanzano, Anthony,Daniels & Hall, 2017). Positiveinitiating actions such as providingorganisational support in terms ofactivities like positive appraisal,training and promotion might bereciprocated with positive outcomesincluding OC (Mugizi et al., 2015).Therefore, guided by SET this paperanalysed how HRD in terms ofperformance appraisal (PA), trainingand promotion as an exchangebetween schools and teachersinfluence OC of teachers.

Performance Appraisal andOrganisational Commitment

Performance appraisal (PA) is theevaluation of an employee's jobperformance over the previousperiod by his/ her supervisor(Cappelli & Conyon, 2018). WithPA an overall evaluation of workcontent, loads and volumes iscarried out to establish what hasbeen achieved during the reportingperiod and agree on objectives forthe next period (Armstrong, 2010).PA offers feedback guidance in acomplete system of performancemanagement fostering employee

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motivation contributing to increasedcommitment (Mugizi et al., 2015).Scholars (Farndale, Hope-Hailey &Kelliher, 2011; Gellatly, Hunter,Currie & Irving, 2009; Kuvaas,2010; Morrow, 2011; Salleh, Amin,Muda & Halim, 2013; ?endo?du,Kocabacak & G?ven, 2013) haverelated PA and organisationalcommitment (OC). Farndale et al.(2011) in a survey on employees infinance, automotive, foodstuff andcommunication sectors in the UKreported a strong positiverelationshi p between appraisalprocedural justice and OC. Gellatlyet al. (2009) examined the examinedeffect of PA as part of reward-oriented human resourcemanagement (HRM) practices onAC and CC of employees workingin a variety of Canadian-basedorganisations. Their findings revealedthat PA had an insignificantrelationship with AC and a negativerelationshi p with CC. Kuvaas(2010) in an analysis of PA ofemployees in a bank, a governmentdepartment and a pharmaceuticalindustry in Norway found out thatPA had positive relationship withthe affective aspect of OC.

Morrow (2011) in a review ofstudies reported that previous PAconducted one month previouslyhad no subsequent impact on ACamong software developmentemployees. On the other hand, priorperformance ratings and perceivedsystem knowledge were unrelated toAC. Nevertheless, higher levels ofperceived system knowledgeenhanced AC among banking

employees. Salleh et al. (2013)examined the relationship betweenPA and OC of public servantsworking in the federal departmentsof East, North and South ofPeninsular zones Malaysia. Thefindings indicated that perceivedfairness of PA influenced their OC.?endo?du et al. (2013) analysed ofthe relationshi ps between HRMpractices and OC of employees incompanies in the province of Konyain Turkey. The findings revealed apositive significant relationshi pbetween PA in terms of performancefeedback and OC. However, thestudies above reveal contextual andempirical gaps. With respect to thecontextual gap, all the studies weredone outside secondary schools andnone in the context of the developingworld of Africa. Still, while all theother studies revealed that a positiveand significant relationship betweenPA and OC, Gellatly et al. (2009)did not and Morrow (2011) reportedthat the relationshi ps varieddepending on the type oforganisation. These gaps made itimperative in the context ofsecondary schools in Uganda to seekto test the hypothesis that:

H1: There is a relationshi pbetween performance appraisal andorganisational commitment.

Training and OrganisationalCommitment

Training is the plannedintervention that is designed toequi p employees with skills toenhance their job performance.Training is about the skills anemployee must acquire to improve

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the probability of achieving theorganisation's overall goals andobjectives (Truitt, 2011). Traininginvolves the application of formalprocesses to impart knowledge andhelp people to acquire the skillsnecessary for them to perform theirjobs satisfactorily (Armstrong, 2010).Since training builds employeecapabilit ies, it should increasefeelings of internal control(autonomy) and competence,which in turn lead to organisationalcommitment (OC) as there increasein one's identification, involvement,and emotional connection with thework and the organisation as anindividual and the organisation as awhole (Gellatly et al., 2009).Different scholars (Bashir & Long,2015; Mohyin, Dainty & Carrillo,2012; Mugizi, Bakkabulindi &Bisaso, 2016b; Savaneviciene &Stankeviciute, 2011; ?endo?du etal., 2013) have related training andOC. Bashir and Long (2015) soughtto identify the relationship betweenemployees' training and employees'OC using the academic staff of oneof a faculty in a public university inMalaysia. The findings indicated theexistence of a positive significantrelationship between the trainingand AC and NC but therelationshi p with CC wasinsignificant.

Mohyin et al. (2012) studiedHRM strategies for managing OCusing employees of smallconstruction professional servicefirms in the UK. Their results frominterviews, observation anddocument analysis indicated that

training was important in fosteringOC. Mugizi et al. (2016) examinedthe extent to which human resourcemanagement (HRM) practices thatincluded training were predictors ofemployment commitment (EC) ofacademic staff in universities inUganda. The results showed thattraining was a positive significantpredictor of EC. Savaneviciene andStankeviciute (2011) analysed HRMpractices linkage with OC ofemployees in a service sectororganisation in Lithuania. Theiranalysis found out that skill-enhancing HRM practices(training) had a positive relationshipwith AC. However, ?endo?du et al.(2013) in an analysis of therelationshi p between HRMpractices and OC revealed thattraining in job skills had a weak butsignificant relationship with OC.Silva and Dias (2016) evaluated theimpact of organisational training onthe degree of OC of employees in aprivate security organisation inPortugal. The results supported theexistence of a direct and positiverelationship between organisationaltraining and OC. However, thestudies above reveal that none ofthem was carried out in a secondaryschool and only one study by Mugiziet al. (2016b) was carried out in thecontext of Uganda but still in thecontext of universities with differentdynamics from those of secondaryschools. Still, while all the otherstudies suggested a positive significantrelationship between training andOC, ?endo?du et al. (2013) reporteda weak but significant relationship

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with between training and OC. Thesegaps attracted this study in thecontext of secondary schools inUganda to analyse whether:

H2: There is a relationshi pbetween training and organisationalcommitment.

Promotion and OrganisationalCommitment

Promotion is the movement of anemployee from a lower level positionto a higher level positionaccompanied by (usually) changesin duties, responsibilities, status andvalues (Rao & Krishna, 2009).Promotion increases jobresponsibility, scope and authority(Singh, Ragins & Tharenou, 2009).Promotion is an opportunityprovided by the organisation to itsemployees and normally only thosewho have achieved the standard setby the organisation can be promoted.Organisations use promotions toreward highly productive workers,creating an incentive for workers toexert greater effort (Aminuddin &Yaacob, 2011). Workers valuepromotions because they carry anincrease in job amenities such as abigger office or a spending accountand they are also anacknowledgment of work well donehence they are associated with egoboost. Some workers might enjoy theincrease in authority over co-workers that often accompany apromotion (Kosteas, 2011). Scholars(e.g. Cicekli & Kabasakal, 2017;McCabe & Garavan, 2008; Scheible& Bastos, 2013; Weng, McElroy,Morrow & Liu, 2010) have analysedthe relationship between promotion

and OC. Cicekli and Kabasakal(2017) sought to determine therelationship between promotion,development and recognitionopportunities at work andorganizational commitment usingwhite-collar employees in themanufacturing and servicecompanies in Turkey. The studyestablished that promotionopportunities did not predict OC.

McCabe and Garavan (2008)carried out a study on drivers ofcommitment among nursing stafffrom two National Health Service(NHS) organisations in the UK.Analysis of interview results using theconstant comparative approachindicated that development(promotion) was among the factorsthat positively influencedcommitment. Mugizi et al. (2016b)in an examination of the influenceof HRM practices on EC found outthat promotion was a negative andinsignificant predictor of EC.Scheible and Bastos (2013)examined the influence of HRMpractices on OC of employees of aninformation technology company inBrazil. The study found a positive andhighly significant correlationbetween promotion and OC. Wenget al. (2010) examined therelationship between for aspects ofcareer growth namely; career goalprogress, professional abilitydevelopment, promotion speed andremuneration growth and OC ofemployees in companies operatingin different cities of People'sRepublic of China. Their findingsrevealed that promotion had a

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positive significant relationship withOC. However, contrary to the otherstudies, Cicekli and Kabasakal(2017) and Mugizi et al. (2016b)reporting from contexts other thansecondary schools revealed thatpromotion did not predict OC. Thesegaps made it necessary for this studyto further examine whether:

H3: There is a relationshi pbetween training and organisationalcommitment.

Research MethodsSample and procedureThe respondents were 336

teachers in government-aidedsecondary schools in WakisoDistrict in Central Uganda. Thequestionnaire was completed byheads of departments and classroomteachers. The selection of theaforementioned respondents wasbased on the assumption that theydirectly experienced HRD practicesbecause of their positions in theschools as teachers. The studyemployed simple random samplinga technique by which therespondents were selected atrandom and entirely by chance. Thisgave each individual equal chanceof being included in the sample. Thisenabled collecting of data from arepresentat ive sample forgeneralisation of the findings. Theresearchers personally collected thedata after briefing the respondentsabout the study and thequestionnaire. The researcherssought consent from al l therespondents to participate in thestudy and were promised anonymityand confidentiality.

MeasuresSince the study adopted the

positivist approach, data collectioninvolved use of a self-administeredquestionnaire (SAQ). The SAQ wasa close-ended questionnaire withquestion items based on a nominalscale with appropriate alternativesgiven for section A on demographiccharacteristics of the respondentsand ordinal scale based on the five-point Likert truth scale (1= Veryuntrue, 2 = Untrue, 3 = SomewhatTrue, 4 = True and 5 = Very true)for sections B (independentvariable) and C (IndependentVariables). Section A ondemographic characteristicscomprised items on age categories,sex, marital status, education levelattained, teaching experience andterms of employment. Section Bcomprised questions onorganisational commitment (OC)measured using three dimensionsthat were affective commitment(AC), continuance commitment(CC) and normative commitment(NC). AC was measured using sevenitems (7 items ? = 0.910), CC fiveitems (5 items ? = 0.850) and NCsix items (6 items ? = 0.745) adoptedfrom Mugizi, Bakkabulindi andSsempebwa (2016). Section Ccomprised questions on HRDpractices also measured using threedimensions that were performanceappraisal, training and promotion.Performance appraisal (6 items ? =0.894), training (7 items ? = 0.801)and promotion (5 items ? = 0.874)adopted from Mugizi andBakkabulindi (2018). The SAQ based

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measure was ideal for sampledrespondents because they easilyresponded to the questions due toproficiency in the English Languageadopted in the questionnaire.

Data Management and Analysis.The data were processed by coding allthe questionnaires, entering the datainto the computer using the StatisticalPackage for Social Sciences (SPSS),summarising them using frequencytables and editing them to removeerrors. Quantitative research methodswere used to establish the validity andreliability of the data collectionquestionnaire. The validities ofOrganisational Commitment (OC) interms of affective commitment (AC),continuance commitment (CC) andnormative commitment (NC), andHRD practices which includedperformance appraisal, training andpromotion were tested using Factor

Analysis. Reliability tests for theconstructs were done using CronbachAlpha (a). Data analysis involveddescriptive, correlation and regressionanalyses. The Statistical Package forSocial Sciences (SPSS) aided theanalysis of data.

ResultsDemographic Characteristics. The

data on demographic characteristicsof the respondents in the study inTable 1 indicate that the modalpercentage (35.7%) of the teacherswere aged 31-40 years, male(57.1%), married/ cohabiting(67.9%), had bachelors degree(72.3%), had been teaching for over10 years (50.9%) and (66.1%)permanent. Variations in thefrequency totals were as a result ofmissing data. The results ondemographic characteristics of theteachers are presented in Table 1.

Item Categories Frequency Percent Up to 30 years 84 25.0 31-40 years 120 35.7 41-50 years 108 32.1 51 and above years 24 7.1

Age

Total 336 100.0 Male 192 57.1 Female 144 42.9

Gender

Total 336 100.0 Single never married before 93 27.7 Married / cohabiting 228 67.9 Single but ever married 15 4.5

Marital Status

Total 336 100.0 Diploma in Education 36 10.8 Bachelors in Education 243 73.0 Post graduate Diploma in Education 21 6.3 Masters 33 9.9

Education level

Total 333 100.0 Less than 1 year 27 8.0 1 - 5 years 51 15.2 6 - 10 years 87 25.9 10 years and above 171 50.9

Working experience

Total 336 100.0 Permanent 222 66.1 Probation 51 15.2 Part-time 36 10.7 Contract 27 8.0

Terms of employment

Total 336 100.0

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Teachers

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Organisational Commitment.Organisational Commitment (OC)was measured using threedimensions namely; affective (AC),continuance (CC) and normativecommitment (NC). The results ofeach of the dimensions include

frequencies, percentages and means.For each dimension, factorloadings and Cronbach alpha (?)results are also presented showingthe validity and reliability of theresults. The results are as presentedin Table 2.

Affective Commitment (AC) Mean

(Overall x =3.86)

Factors Loadings

Alpha

(α)

I am very happy being a member of this school 4.17 0.806 0.836

I enjoy discussing this school with the people outside it

3.89 0.690

I really feel as if this school’s problems are my own 3.24 0.372

I am deeply attached to this school 3.93 0.852

I am part of the family of this school 3.96 0.782

I feel emotionally attached to this school 3.77 0.750

This school has a great deal of personal meaning for me 4.08 0.786

Eigenvalue 3.781

% variance 54.016

Continuance Commitment (CC) Mean

(Overall x =3.07)

Factors Loadings

Alpha(α)

I am afraid of what might happen if I quit my job in this school without having another job lined up

3.19 0.723 0.874

It would be very hard for me to leave my job in this school right now, even if I wanted to

3.11 0.885

Too much in my life would be disrupted if I decided to leave my job in this school now

3.00 0.890

It would be too costly for me to leave this School now 2.81 0.803

Right now, staying on my job in this school is a matter of necessity

3.23 0.774

Eigenvalue 3.340

% variance 66.809

Normative Commitment (NC) Mean

(Overall x =3.22)

Factors Loadings

Alpha(α)

I think that people these days rarely move from job to job too often

2.77 0.550 0.771

I believe that a person must always be loyal to his or her school

4.16 0.704

Jumping from this school to another seems unethical to me

3.18 0.779

Table 2: Means, Factors Loadings and Cronbach Alphas onComponents of OC

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One of the major reasons I continue to work in this 3.63 0.775

school is that I feel a sense of moral obligation to remain 2.59 0.545

Even if I got another offer of a better job elsewhere I would feel it is right to stay in this school

3.02 0.713

Eigenvalue 3.534

% variance 58.899

The results in Table 2 show thatthe teachers rated their AC to behigh (overall mean = 3.86corresponding to true) but their CCand NC were moderate (overallmean = 3.07; mean = 3.22corresponding to somewhat true)respectively. While the teachers werecommittal about their AC levels,they were non-committal abouttheir CC and NC levels of OC.Factor Analysis indicated that theitems on each of the threedimensions of OC could be reducedto only one factor, with respectiveeigenvalues of 3.534, 3.534 and 3.534respectively. The respective threefactors explained over 54%, 66%,and 58% of the joint variation inthe respective items constituting afactor. With factor loadings that wereat least 0.5 strong considered(Costello & Osborne, 2005), theresults in Table 2 indicate that eachitem loaded highly on the

corresponding factor. Therefore, allthe items were valid measures of theconstructs (AC, CC & NC) theymeasured. The Cronbach alphas =0.917, 0.816 and 0.798 for therespective components of OC wereabove the benchmark = 0.70(Tavakol & Dennick, 2011). Thissuggests that the items for the threedimensions of OC that were used tocollect data were reliable measures.

Human Resource ManagementPractices. Human ResourceManagement (HRD) Practiceswere also measured using threedimensions namely; performanceappraisal, training and promotion.Also, the HRD results includedfrequencies, percentages andmeans. For each dimension,factor loadings and Cronbachalpha (a) results are presentedindicat ing the valid ity andreliability of the results. The resultsare as presented in Table 3.

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Performance Appraisal Mean

(Overall x =3.44 )

Factors Loadings

Alpha

(α)

In this school, I am appraised at regular intervals 3.69 0.519 0.810

In this school, my performance measured on the basis of objective results

3.62 0.782

The appraisal system of this school advances my career 3.48 0.763

In this school after every appraisal, I receive feedback about my performance

2.95 0.682

The performance appraisal system of this School is fair 3.41 0.781

The appraisal system of this school has a strong influence on my performance

3.43 0.813

Eigenvalue 3.198

% variance 53.293

Training Mean (Overall x = 3.66)

Factors Loadings

Alpha(α)

My school provides me with extensive training to enhance my job performance

3.64 0.813 0.880

In this school, I receive regular training in the different aspects of my job

3.44 0.862

My training needs in this school are identified through a formal performance appraisal mechanism

3.02 0.753

The training programmes available for me in this school are relevant to the changing needs of my job

3.58 0.765

In this school, I have been encouraged to participate in seminars and workshops

4.25 0.755

In this school, I have been assigned challenging jobs to evoke my skills

3.57 0.611

The mentoring I have received in this school has been vital to my job performance

3.94 0.789

Eigenvalue 4.122 % variance 58.888 Promotion Mean

(Overall x =3.00 )

Factors Loadings

Alpha(α)

I have a clear understanding of the promotion requirements of my job in this school

3.19 0.690 0.831

Management of this school has communicated the promotion policy to me very clearly

2.79 0.815

There is an opportunity for me to get promoted in this School soon

2.81 0.753

Promotion in this school is based on merit 3.27 0.750 The promotional opportunities available to me in this school are satisfying

3.03 0.861

Eigenvalue 3.011 % variance 60.229

Table 3: Means, Factors Loadings and Cronbach Alphas onComponents of HRD

The results in Table 3 show that the teachers rated performance appraisalin the schools to be rated moderate (overall mean = 3.44), training wasgood (overall mean = 3.66) and promotion was also moderate (overallmean = 3.00). The teachers were non-committal on HRD practices exceptfor training. Factor Analysis indicated that the items on each of the threedimensions of OC could be reduced to only one factor, with respective

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eigenvalues of 3.198, 4.122 and3.011 respectively. The respectivethree factors explained over 53%,58%, and 60% of the joint variationin the respective items constituting afactor. With factor loadings that wereat least 0.5 strong considered, theresults in Table 2 indicate that eachitem loaded highly on thecorresponding factor. Therefore, allthe items were valid measures of theconstructs (performance appraisal,training & promotion) theymeasured. The Cronbach alphas =0.810, 0.880 and 0.831 for the

respective components of EC wereabove the benchmark = 0.70. Thissuggests that the items for the threeHRD practices that were used tocollect data were reliable measures.

Regression Model for PredictingEmployee Commitment usingRecruitment and Selection. Toestablish whether the recruitmentand select ion predicted theemployee commitment (EC) ofthe academic staff , EC wasregressed on select ion andrecruitment. The pertinent resultsare in Table 4.

Standardised Coefficients Significance Predictor Variables Beta (β) (p)

Performance Appraisal 0.470 0.000 Training -0.042 0.484 Promotion 0.234 0.000 Adjusted R2 = 0.340 F = 44.135, p = 0.000

Table 4: Regression of Organisational Commitment on HRD practices

The results in Table 4 show that performance appraisal, training and promotion explained 34.0% of the variation in OC (adjusted R2 = 0.340). This means that 66.0% of the variation was a result of factors not considered in this study. The regression model was significant (F = 44.135, p = 0.000 < 0.05). Performance appraisal (β = 0.470, p = 0.000 > 0.05) and promotion (β = 0.483, p = 0.000 < 0.05) had a positive and significant influence on OC but training (β = -0.042, p = 0.484 < 0.05)had a negative and insignificant influence on OC. Therefore, the first and second hypotheses to the effect that there is a relationship between performance appraisal and OC, and there is a relationship between training and OC were accepted. However, the hypothesis to the effect that there is a relationship between training and OC was rejected. The magnitudes of the respective betas (β) suggested that performance appraisal had a moderate effect on OC while promotion had a weak effect on OC.

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DiscussionThe results of the study revealed

that organisational commitment(OC) was moderate. This finding isconsistent with the premise onwhich this study was based thatcommitment of teachers was low.The first hypothesis (H1) to theeffect that there is there is arelationship between performanceappraisal and OC was accepted. Thisfinding concurs with the findings ofprevious scholars. For example,Farndale et al. (2011) reported astrong positive relationship betweenappraisal procedural justice and OC.Similarly, Kuvaas (2010) found outthat PA had a positive relationshipwith the affective aspect of OC.Salleh et al. (2013) indicated thatperceived fairness of PA influencedtheir OC. Further still, ?endo?duet al. (2013) revealed a positivesignificant relationship between PAin terms of performance feedbackand OC. However, the finding wascontrary to the finding by Gellatly etal. (2009) that PA had an insignificantrelationship with AC and a negativerelationship with CC. Similarly,Morrow (2011) reported thatprevious PA conducted one monthpreviously had no subsequent impacton AC and prior performance ratingsand perceived system knowledge wereunrelated to AC although higherlevels of perceived system knowledgeenhanced AC. Thefeore, with thefindings concurring with a numberof previous scholars, the resultssuggest that there is a relationshipbetween performance appraisaland OC.

The second hypothesis (H2) tothe effect that there is a relationshipbetween training and OC wasrejected. This finding was consistentwith ?endo?du et al. (2013) whorevealed that training in job skillshad a weak but significantrelationship with OC. Similarly, thefinding was consistent with thefinding by Bashir and Long (2015)on the aspect of CC which showedan insignificant relationship withtraining although with respect to theaspects of AC and NC the findingwas inconsistent as the relationshipwas positive and significant. Thefinding was also inconstant withMohyin et al. (2012) who indicatedthat training was important infostering OC. Similarly, Mugizi etal. (2016) reported that training wasa positive significant predictor of EC.Also, Savaneviciene andStankeviciute (2011) found out thatskill-enhancing HRM practices(training) had a positive relationshipwith AC. Further, the results by Silvaand Dias (2016) supported theexistence of a direct and positiverelationship between organisationaltraining and OC. With the findingof the study inconsistent with thefindings of most of the previousstudies, the results suggest that inthe context of secondary schools inUganda, training had a limited effecton OC.

The third hypothesis (H3) to theeffect that there is a relationshipbetween promotion and OC was alsoaccepted. This finding agrees withMcCabe and Garavan (2008)promotion was among the factors

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that positively influencedcommitment. Likewise, Scheible andBastos (2013) found a positive andhighly significant correlationbetween promotion and OC. Also,Weng et al. (2010) revealed thatpromotion had a positive significantrelationship with OC. However, thefinding disagreed with the findingby Cicekli and Kabasakal (2017)that promotion opportunities did notpredict OC. Also, Mugizi et al.(2016b) found out that promotionwas a negative and insignificantpredictor of EC. However, with thefinding of the study agreeing withmost of the previous scholars,promotion had an effect on OCalthough it was weak.

ConclusionDeducing from the above

discussion, it is concluded that inthe context of secondary schools inUganda, organisationalcommitment (OC) is problematic.Also, the current performanceappraisal and promotion practicesare insufficient hence correlatingwith the moderate OC. Training wassufficient hence failing to correlatewith a low OC. Therefore, it isrecommended that the Ministry ofEducation, Science, Technology

and Sports (MoESTS) in liaisonwith head teachers should improvethe implementation of performanceappraisal. Performance appraisalshould advance the careers of theteachers, involve the provision offeedback about their performance,involve fairness and should have astrong influence on the performanceof teachers. However, the MoESTSin conjunction with head teachersshould however not over prioritisethe provision of training as it isalready high. With respect topromotion, the Education ServiceCommission which is the bodyresponsible for the promotion ofteachers should reform thepromotional practices. The promotionof teachers should be based onrequirements understandable to theteachers, the promotion policy isclearly communicated, there beopportunities for teachers to bepromoted, based on merit and thepromotional opportunities availableshould be satisfying. However, theinvestigations of this study werelimited to secondary schools in onedistrict in the developing context ofUganda. Therefore, future researchshould compare with schools in thedeveloped countries.

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IMPROVEMENT OF LAND-RECLAMATION STATUSBY WATERING PHYTOMELIORATIVE PLANTS AND

SAVING WATER RESOURCES

Turayev Ulugbek1, Nurov Dilmurod1, Isayeva Laylo1, Barnayeva Munira1,Shorofutdinov Humoyun2, Sharopov Nurmuhammad2, Ibrohimova Kumush2.1. Àssistant, Tashkent Institute of Irrigation and Agricultural Mechanization

Engineers Bukhara branch, Bukhara city, Uzbekistan2.Bachelor student, Tashkent Institute of Irrigation and AgriculturalMechanization Engineers Bukhara branch, Bukhara city, Uzbekistan



Recommended citation: Turayev Ulugbek, Nurov Dilmurod, Isayeva Laylo, Barnayeva Munira,Shorofutdinov Humoyun, Sharopov Nurmuhammad, Ibrohimova Kumush. IMPROVEMENTOF LAND-RECLAMATION STATUS BY WATERING PHYTOMELIORATIVE PLANTSAND SAVING WATER RESOURCES. 3-4. American Journal of Research P. 128-136 (2019).

Abstract: In the fields of saline soils of the Bukhara oak, under the grasslandalluvial soils, sowing of phytomeliorative plants, Tariq and Corn crops as a secondcrop in the fields released from the winter wheat, with the reduction of salt washingprinciples and timing, , grain and duplicate crops. At the same time, tariq and cornseeds will be able to keep the soil moisture content well up to the autumn, reducingthe intake of salt in the soil.

Key words: phytomeliorative plants, salt, intensity, melioration, collector, soil, sizedwaters, recyclable crop, variants, saline washing.

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In our country since the firstyears of independence, majorchanges have been made inagriculture, which is one of the mostimportant sectors of the economy.The President of our country, theheads of our government, createdlegal relations on the basis of decreesand resolutions on improvement ofagricultural and land reclamation,and great opportunities for thedevelopment of multilateraleconomy.

The adoption of these decreesrequires that the attention be paidto the agrarian and land-reclamationsector and that the living standardsof the population increase, and thatthe population's nutrit ionalrequirements are met. to solveimportant problems. This, in turn,pays great attention to rural andwater management personnel.

In the consistent policy pursuedby the state, priority is given to theimprovement of land reclamationand rational use of water resourcesto obtain high yields of high qualitycrops. Currently, the creation ofeconomical irrigation technologies,improvement of land reclamation,repair and reconstruction ofcollector-drainage systems, landdegradation, secondary salinization,full compliance with the irrigationregime and special attention is paidto such events.

Since the early years ofindependence, efforts have beenmade to accelerate grain productionby reducing the cotton fields andreducing the cotton fields. At present,after harvesting grain crops, mostof these areas remain empty due towater shortages resulting inunderground waters evaporating

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from the ground through thecapillaries, and containing mineralsand all water-soluble harmfulsubstances the salts are incorporatedinto the soil, causing salinization ofthese areas at different levels and asa result, a large amount of waterresources are spent on autumn salinecleaning.

To overcome these problems,many scientists in our country havecarried out scientific research andexperiments. Scientists such asacademician Q.Mirzajonov,professor MXXamidov, professor B.Khalikov, associate professorB.Suvanov, A.Hamidov andU.Juraev are the second time to

reclaim crops after winter wheat andto improve the reclamationcondition of the soil, phytomelioranthave been experimenting with plantcultivation. At the same time, wehave to rely on water resources,reduce the level of soil salinity,obtain extra hectares during watershortages, reduce waterconsumption for saline, it isdesirable to plant thephytomeliorative plants that areresistant to drought, salt-digesting,collecting various useful nutrients inthe soil, as well as to prevent themeliorative deterioration of the soil.

Many scientific research andadvanced farming practices have

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shown that one of the key factors inachieving sustainable high yields ofagricultural crops on irrigated landsis the use of scientifically-groundedmethods to improve soil fertility andimprove fertility to use.

Based on the above conclusions,sowing tariq and corn crops as asecond crop in the fields falling outof autumn wheat was carried out inthe field of grassy, moderately salinesoils of the ErkinShoyim farm of theAlat district of Bukhara region ,

depth of settlements was 1.5-1.65meters in depth. The experimentswere conducted in three versions and3 times based on PSUYAITI(formerlyPhIthI).

In our first variant, tarik plantwas planted, in the second variant,the corn plant and the 3-bedobservations were left blank afterwinter wheat. Our experience was 1half and the area of each option was10mx50m or 0.05 hectares.

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Testfielddiagram

Results from the experimentalfield showed that the intake of salineconcentration in the Phyto-meliorant cultivated areas wasslightly less than that of the 3 species,for example, in the sown areas ofphytomeliorative plants, there was adecrease in salts relative to thecontrol (pudded) option. At the endof the water cycle, the amount ofdry residues in the size of 1,121-

1,139 grams of potato in the plantedcorn yielded 1,313-1,335 g of dry matter.The plant weight of the soil afterharvesting is increased by the relativeweight of the soil, which increases theamount of soil grains, that is, theweight of 0-30 cm at the beginning ofvegetation, has a weight of 1.46 g /cm3, , in the end of vegetation theplantations of phytomeliorant were1.43-1.44 g / cm3.

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Pic 1.Option field (tarik plant and corn plant)

When analyzing the amount ofchlorine in the soil of theexperimental field of phtomeliorant,the amount of chlorine in the 0-30cm layer prior to sowing of thephytomeliorant crops was 0.034%,and the density of 0-100 cm in thesoil was 0.032%. Tariq planted in ourfirst variant, the chlorine content at

the end of the growing season was0.022% in the 0-30 cm layer and0.025% in the 0-100 cm layer.Chlorine content in our CornCorner 2 option was 0.021% in the0-30 cm layer and 0.019% in the0-100 cm layer at the end of thegrowing season. In our observableversion, the amount of chlorine in

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the 0-30 cm layer was 0.046% and0.04% in the 0-100 cm layer. In ourcontrol version, the amount of dryresidue in the soil was 0.193% inthe 0-30 cm layer at the beginningof the vegetation and by the end ofthe growing season this value was0.214%. According to the results ofcommon experiments, the highestsalinity control option was observedin the field, which was left withoutseeding, and the lowest salt contentwas observed in the Corn Cornerfield in our 2nd variant.

The highe st le ve l o f sa l twashing in the field of testing wasrecorded in the plow controlversion of the experimental area.Seasonal sal in ization of thisoption was 5828 m3 / ha. TheTariq plant was sown in the firstvariant with seasonal salinity of4254 m3 / ha and 1574 m3 / ha ofwater was consumed as comparedto control. The salinity was 2,965m3 / hectare, which indicates theconsumption of 2863 m3 / h lessthan the control version.

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Pic 2.Shurf, a dug for determining Pic 3.Different soil depthsthe levels of the watershed and soil layers

CONCLUSIONIn the fields of the grassy,

medium-sandy soils of the Bukhararegion, the Tariq and Corn plants,which are resistant to drought anddrought-resistant crops, are exposed

to the end of the growing season,salt intake is 29%, salt washingnorms - up to 33%, and anadditional 24.6 t / ha from 1 hectare,and 480 g / ha of greenhouse grainscan be obtained from the corn.

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REFERENCES

1. The Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan dated February 7, 2017 "On theStrategy for the Further Development of the Republic of Uzbekistan", N UP-4947.

2. Sh.Mirziyoev - Together we build a free and prosperous Uzbekistan state - Tashkent -"Uzbekistan" -2016.

3. Methods of Field Practices, Cotton Research Institute of Uzbekistan - 2007, methodicalmanual.

4.Mirzajonov Q.M. "Ameliorative condition of soil in the regions of the republic and factors oftheir improvement" Cotton and grain Tashkent - 1999.

5. "Tomatoes for the cultivation of high crops of cereal grains". Tashkent, 1996.6. Hamidov M.X, Shukurlayev X.I, MamatalievÀ.B. "Hydroelectric melioration of agricultural

production". East, Tashkent. 2009. - 379 pages. 7. Hamidov M.X, Shukurlaev XI, MamatalievÀ.B."Agricultural hydroelectric melioration". Tashkent. Sharq.2008.-408 pages.

8. Rakhimbaev F.M, Xamidov M.X. "Agricultural melioration". Tashkent. "Work".1996.-364pages.

9. RakhimbaevF.M spells. "Recycling of agricultural products". Tashkent. "Cocktails". 1994.-327pages.

10. Rakhimbaev F.M, Shukurullaev X.I. "Zax Landing Amelioration". Tashkent. "Work".1996.-201 pages.Internet Information.

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CONCEPT "EVERY FAMILY IS AN ENTREPRENEUR"AND INNOVATIVE IDEAS IN IT

(SOCIAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS)

Davletov Jamshid BekmatovichTeacher at the Department of "National Idea,

Fundamentals of Spirituality and Law Education" at Urganch State University, History faculty



Recommended citation: Davletov Jamshid. CONCEPT "EVERY FAMILY IS ANENTREPRENEUR" AND INNOVATIVE IDEAS IN IT (SOCIAL AND PHILOSOPHICALANALYSIS). 3-4. American Journal of Research P. 137-136 (2019).

One of the most pressing issues isthe creation of new jobs and theemployment of the population,especially young people inUzbekistan, where the labor sourcesare developed enough and morethan 450,000 young people joiningthe labor force every year. This isbecause the main strategic goal ofthe people of Uzbekistan on buildinga secular state is to establish a legaldemocratic state based on the ruleof law and market economy, whichis certainly a matter of the legitimate

protection of the family institution,its interests and human capital. Inthis regard, it is important to furtherstrengthen the legal and practicalbasis for the further developmentof business culture in familyrelations, the socio-economicdevelopment of families and thecreation of decent living conditionsfor our citizens. It is taken intoconsideration to implement this goalin the Decree of the President ofthe Republic of Uzbekistan Sh.M.Mirziyoev of June 7, 2018 "On

Abstract: in this article, there was analyzed the concept "Every Family is anEntrepreneur" and its innovative ideas and in this process there were illustrated the conceptof family business, i.e. the concept of "Every Family is an Entrepreneur" and its innovativeessence, as a new organizational and legal form of business for the development andexpansion for small business and entrepreneurship.

Key words: the program "Every family is an Entrepreneur", a legal and democraticstate, human capital, secular state, market economy, family business, familyentrepreneurship, family home-work, private entrepreneurship, innovation, urbanization,rule of law, social-political system.

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Every Family is an Entrepreneur".So far, in the academic lexicon,such concepts as "family business","family entrepreneurship", "familyhome-work" were used and theymeant the family entrepreneurship.The concept of "every family is anentrepreneur" or "businessmanfamily' has been put into use in theabove Decree.

So, what is the social-philosophical interpretation of theseterms? What is their main concern?Are socio-economic aspects mostimportant in them or families,family values? These questions areof scientific character and searchfor answers to them is consideredas social-philosophical interpretationof the issue. As the founder of thephilosophy of the new era, R. Decartsays, "first define the essence of thewords and you will save people fromhalf of the mistakes they make".

It's necessary to say that nowadays,it is time to legitimize the concept offamily business - the concept of "Everyfamily is an entrepreneur" and itsinnovative essence as a neworganizational and legal form ofbusiness for the expansion and furtherdevelopment of small business andentrepreneurship. At the moment,another important issue - theadoption of a concept that will enableto further expand the role and shareof small businesses in the economyof the country, first of all, privateentrepreneurship and the creationof innovative clusters is still actualfor us.

"Every family is an entrepreneur"means a family of business people,

business subjects, a group of peoplewho have the opportunity to engagein entrepreneurship, to benefit fromtheir own labor. The core of thisgroup is family and subjects whocarry out general activity joining thefamily from around. Often, the mainsubjects of entrepreneurship arehusband and wife. There will appearan opportunity to particular type ofactivity and service thanks to thesepersons' initiative and moneyresources. Naturally, subjectsinvesting in their own funds plantheir own profits. In the process ofprivate property use andentrepreneurial activity expansionand development of this privateproperty are the basis of anyentrepreneurship.

Experts point out thatentrepreneurship relies on thefollowing principles:

- Independent economic activityby market demand;

- Having a purpose to benefit;- Being able to act at random

taking the economic responsibilityand obligation upon;

- Aspiration for news;- Observing established laws;- Keeping business secrecy;- Feeling social responsibility, i.e.

assessing the welfare of theircommunity and people as the mainfocus of their activities, etc. If we arebased on these princi ples andrequirements, family entrepreneurshipis an independent, voluntary economicactivity, profit-driven purpose, risk-management approach, aspirationfor innovation and news, which is aguarantee of private property

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development. As it turns out, themechanisms of market economyfully function in family businesses,which combine individual andeconomic interests with focus ontargeted economic activities.

Although improving theeconomic conditions of thepopulation in Uzbekistan has beenpraised for decades, there has beenno real change in real life.Population's urbanization was onlyabout 35%. Therefore, in the aboveDecree, the purpose of the program"Every family is an entrepreneur" isdescribed as to improve the materialand financial conditions of thepopulation and ensure significantpositive changes in the quality andthe degree of life.". Thus, the term"family business" is not only anindependent economic activity,primarily the improvement of thematerial conditions of thepopulation, the quality of life andthe urbanization.

Lifestyle, urbanization is not justa washing machine or a car, it is alsoconsidered as Wi Fi, personalcomputer or notebook, interactivemeans, free access to the world'speople, high service, medical careat home, at a convenient time, usageof heat and electricity sourceswithout any limitation orinterruption. The most effective,advanced test of states that meetsindividual demands and needs isentrepreneurshi p, self-service.Family business is the most effectiveform of full satisfaction of the diversedemands and needs of thepopulation. This is because

entrepreneurial activity is based onthe demands of the specific needsof people. As long as there are suchorders, people are willing to pay fortheir remuneration, but only in thiscase, entrepreneurship innovationappears and is organized as a newtype of service. Where there is anopportunity to pay for the demandand the need, the news and the newtype of service, there is a civilizedrelationshi p between businessentities and the population "inaccordance with market economylaws".

Literatures note thatentrepreneurshi p is a social-historical feature of our people.However, its extensive support bythe state, as the main objective ofthe state's economic policy, is acompletely new phenomenon andinnovation. Entrepreneurship, familybusiness has never been so widelyand actively supported by the socio-political system, the government, asit is today. Over the past two years,eight laws, more than 30Presidential Decrees andResolutions have been adopted toensure entrepreneurshi p andinnovation. For example, in theDecree of the President of theRepublic of Uzbekistan "OnApproval of the Strategy forInnovative Development of theRepublic of Uzbekistan for 2019-2021" (2018, September 21)"expanding the range of competitiveproducts in domestic and foreignmarkets", "use of modern innovativeideas", "human capitaldevelopment" were defined as tasks.

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It is difficult to do these tasks withoutbusinessmen who aspire toinnovation, the use of innovativeideas. Today, family entrepreneursare engaged in various types ofactivities such as fishing, poultryfarming, rabbit, livestock, home-work and handicraft. For example,according to the demands and needsof the population, 22-25 thousandtons of fish should be grown inKhorezm region. But in 2017, only40-42% of these needs were satisfied.Even, the region can export fishproducts. Today in Khorezm thereare 568 fish farms, 75% of whichare family businessmen. They include7,757 hectares of natural and 3225hectares of artificial reservoirs. In2018, the region implemented 80projects worth 31 billion 126 millionsums. Of these, more than 24 billion526 million sums are bank creditors.The rest of the money was paid byentrepreneurs themselves.

When the head of our stateMirziyoev visited Khorezm regionin January 2017, he got acquaintedwith the family fishery complex"Boltaboy aksakal" in Khiva district.He pointed out that fishery is a verybeneficial branch and it serveshuman health. After that, a moderncomplex and a limited company"Khorezm Fish Industry Agro" wasset up in Chinobod village of Khivadistrict.

"From China," said HikmatOlloberganov, the manager of thecompany, "we have expanded therange of the lines of preparing andpackaging canned and sausageequi pment for freezing, water

oxygen enrichment and utensils tofeed production equal to $ 1 million461,000. Now our workshops havethe capacity to produce 500 tons offish a year. Today, we have preparedfour types of canned fish andsausages. By 2018 alone, we haveearned 42 billion net profits onaccount of those.

It is possible to mention lots ofsuch examples. The fact is that it wasdifficult to imagine that theproduction of canned fish inKhorezm 20 to 30 years ago wascarried out by private entrepreneursand family businesses were activelyinvolved in such innovative activities.At first, 15-20 metric centners offish per hectare were taken from thebasin and today it is up to 150-200metric centners. Experts estimate thata healthy person should consume atleast 12 kilograms of fish a year and1 kilogram of fish and fish food permonth. We need to double ourproduction of fish and fish food toreach that figure. This is how familybusiness helps socially andnationally.

Family Entrepreneurship is asmall enterprise with two to threeor twelve employees, a company, afarm, a cultural and consumerservice facility. For example, almost82-85% of cafes, bars, restaurants,training centers, nurseries and shopsbelong to family business inTashkent city and Tashkent region.National craftsmanshi p in therepublic - the main part of thesubjects of sewing skull caps, sewingand textile are family businessmen.Obviously, the effective use of the

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potential of families helps to solvemany social problems. The Decreeof the head of our state "OnMeasures to Organize EnterpriseEntrepreneurship Initiatives andProjects in the Regions" ofSeptember 11, 2018, it was said thatbusiness people face a number ofbarriers. Credit and land allocation,obtaining licenses, access to externalmarkets, attracting investment,negligence in local offices andsluggishness were crit icized.According to him, the state of free-standing state property will be soldat the expense of zero. Free state-owned property or land parcels shallbe granted to the auctioneer rightafter a one-year advancereservation, after which the termsof the investment agreement aresubsequently fulfilled.

In Uzbekistan, 2018 was namedas the Year of Support of EffectiveBusiness, Innovation Ideas andTechnologies and 76,000 projectsworth 21 trillion sums and 1billion dollars were implementedwithin the framework of the StateProgram. Due to the measurestaken, real incomes of thepopulation increased by 12%compared to 2017. Within theframework of such programs as"Every family is an entrepreneur",

"Youth is our future", about 2trillion sums were allocated, andmore than 2,600 business projectswere implemented. Since thebeginning of the year, additional 5.5trillion sums of additional funds havebeen left in the regions due to theoverpaid taxes. It is 6 times more thanin the previous year and 32 timesmore than in 2016.

The year 2019 was named as"Year of Active Investments andSocial Development" with the aimof logical continuation of the workstarted in 2018. Positive outcomesin the economy will provide asystematic solution to the problemsfaced in the social sphere and canonly be achieved through thedevelopment of entrepreneurship,endless work and aspiration, andprosperity. In this regard NadjmiddinKubra, the great scholar, said, "Isaw success in efforts, and failure -in ignorance and laziness".

Thus, entrepreneur promotessocio-economic life with his owninitiative and resources,responsibility for his work creates abusiness environment in the society,in which he creates a sense of serviceto the interests of the people, hisnews and innovation are in line withthe essence and dynamism of thereforms in our country.

Referenges

Äåêàðò Ð. Èçáðàííûå ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ â 2 ò. Ò. 2 (Selected works in 2 volumes. V. 2.). -Moscow: Ìûñàü, 1991. - P. 278.

Ñèíäàðîâ Ê., Æóìàíàçàðîâ È. Òàäáèðêîðëèê ñóáúåêòëàðèíè òåêøèðèøíèíãµó³ó³èé àñîñëàðè (Legal basics of checking business subjects). - Tashkent.: ßíãè àñðàâëîäè, 2006. - 12 p.

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¤çáåêèñòîí Ðåñïóáëèêàñè Ïðåçèäåíòèíèíã £àðîðè. "¥àð áèð îèëà - òàäáèðêîð"äàñòóðèíè àìàëãà îøèðèø ò´²ðèñèäà" // Õàë³ ñ´çè, 2018, 8 èþíü (Resolution of thePresident of Uzbekistan. On carrying out the program "Every Family is an Entrepreneur").Newspaper "Khalk suzi", June 8, 2018).

Õèçðè÷ Ð., Ïèòåðñ Ì. Ïðåäïðèíèìàòåëüñòâî (Entrepreneurshi p). - Moscow:Ýêîíîìèêà, 1992; Ëàìïåðø Õàéíä. Ñîöèàëüíàÿ ðûíî÷íàÿ ýêîíîìèêà. Ãåðìàíñêèéïóòü (Social market economy. German way). - Moscow: Ýêîíîìèêà, 1993.

Ëèâøèö À.ß. Ââåäåíèå â ðûíî÷íóþ ýêîíîìèêó (Introduction to market economy).- Moscow: Ýêîíîìèêà, 1992.

Ðàççà³îâ À. È³òèñîäèé òàôàêêóð ñàð÷àøìàëàðè (Springs of economic thought). -Tashkent: ¤çáåêèñòîí ÍÌÈÓ, 2011.

¤çáåêèñòîí Ðåñïóáëèêàñè Ïðåçèäåíòèíèíã Ôàðìîíè. "2019-2021 éèëëàðäà¤çáåêèñòîí Ðåñïóáëèêàñèíè èííîâàöèîí ðèâîæëàíòèðèø ñòðàòåãèÿñèíè òàñäè³ëàøò´²ðèñèäà"// Õàë³ ñ´çè, 2018, 22 ñåíòÿáðü (Decree of the President of Republic ofUzbekistan. "On Approval of the Strategy for Innovative Development of the Republic ofUzbekistan for 2019-2021". Khalq suzi September 21, 2018).

¤çáåêèñòîí Ðåñïóáëèêàñè Ïðåçèäåíòè íóò³è. "È³òèñîäíè èííîâàöèÿëàðíèêåíã æàëá ýòãàí µîëäà µàð òîìîíëàìà ðèâîæëàíòèðèø - õàë³ ôàðîâîíëèãèíèþêñàëòèðèøíèíã ìóµèì îìèëè" // Õàë³ ñ´çè, 2018, 30 íîÿáðü (Speech of thePresident of the Republic of Uzbekistan. "Developing Economy in all Branches by WidelyAttracting Innovations is an Important Factor of Improving People's Welfare". Khalqsuzi, November 30, 2018).

The above shown place.Ìèðçè¸åâ Ø.Ì. "¤çáåêèñòîí Ðåñïóáëèêàñè Êîíñòèòóöèÿñè ³àáóë ³èëèíãàíèíèíã

26 éèëëèãèãà áà²èøëàíãàí òàíòàíàëè ìàðîñèìäàãè ìàúðóçàñè" // Õàë³ ñ´çè, 2018,8 äåêàáðü (Mirziyoev Sh.M. The talk at the ceremony devoted to the 26th year anniversaryof the constitution of Uzbekistan. Khalq suzi, December 8, 2018).

Ìèðçè¸åâ Ø.Ì. "¤çáåêèñòîí Ðåñïóáëèêàñè Îëèé Ìàæëèñèãà Ìóðîæàòíîìàñè"// Õàë³ ñ´çè, 2018, 29 äåêàáðü (Mirziyoev Sh.M. Address letter to the Supreme Meetingof the Republic of Uzbekistan. Khalq suzi, December 29, 2018).

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-12

TOPONYMS OF TASHKENT AS A FACTOR OFREFLECTION OF HISTORICAL PROCESSES

(1917 - 1980)

Khayriya BurievaPhD historical sciense



Recommended citation: Khayriya Burieva. TOPONYMS OF TASHKENT AS A FACTOROF REFLECTION OF HISTORICAL PROCESSES (1917 - 1980). 3-4. American Journal ofResearch P. 143-151 (2019).

Currently, Tashkent is the capitalof the Republic of Uzbekistan, oneof the major centers of culture, art,science, technology, industry,commerce on the Asian continent,a city with a rich and interestinghistory. According to the results ofarchaeological excavations, his ageis determined to be 2,200 years old.From a historical point of view, itshistory can be divided into theancient, medieval stages, the periodof the three khanates, the colonial,Soviet times, the era of independence.The political, socio-economic,cultural and spiritual processes ofthese times are reflected in the

historical sources of various types.One of the peculiar types of

historical sources are toponyms -names of localities. They appear atvarious stages of the history ofregions and carry information aboutthe nature, topography, climate,population, ethnic structure,administrative division, politicalstructure, social and economic life,religion, languages of the region. Itis advisable to investigate themaccording to geographical, linguisticand historical classifications.

Forming over many centuries,the historical toponyms of the cityof Tashkent, from the point of view

Abstract: The article is devoted to the subject of interrelation of historical events andthe processes of formation of urban toponyms, on the example of the structure of toponymicgroups of names of districts and streets of Tashkent in the 20th century. The classificationof these groups of toponyms and examples of toponyms reflecting historical events in thelife of the city are given.

Key words: toponymy of Tashkent, historical factor, names of districts and streets,semantic analysis, toponymic groups.

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of language groups, have formedcertain linguistic layers, such asSogdian, Turkic, Persian-Arabic,Russian-European, mixed. Theiroccurrence on the territory ofTashkent is closely connected, firstof all, with political processes thatentailed ethnic and othertransformations on its territory. Thestudy of the structure of toponymicgroups, as well as the etymologicalanalysis of toponyms, allows for adeeper and more reliable coverageof the history of the capital at variousstages and in general.

At this stage, there are a numberof scientific works of specialists,where, against the background ofdisclosing the historical developmentof the capital from antiquity to thepresent, information is given on theorigin and etymology of sometoponyms of the city of Tashkent 1.P.167; 2.P.3; 5.P.80; 6.P.24; 8.P.190.

Studies have also been carried outdirectly on the historical toponymyof Tashkent in the XIX - XXcenturies, the emergence oftoponyms, their classification,structure, quantitative indicators,dynamics, etymology, semantic andlinguistic toponymic groups 3.P.234;4.P.122 .

Thus, the emergence of a Russian-European stratum of historicaltoponyms in Tashkent began in thesecond half of the nineteenthcentury. and continues to the present.More precisely, they were includedin the structure of the toponymy ofthe city under the rule of theTurkestan Governor-General, thenduring the period of Soviet power

(the 20th century). And in the 21stcentury, in the years of independentdevelopment of Uzbekistan, theshare of toponyms borrowed fromforeign languages in the city, as wellas throughout the country, isincreasingly increasing due to theactive integration of Uzbekistan intothe world community, the expansionof its foreign relations, the attractionof foreign investments, establishingcomprehensive cooperation withmany countries of the CIS, Europe,America and Asia.

Of particular interest is theclassification of toponyms accordingto their semantic meaning, whichallows to identify the specificity ofurban names and their relationshipto the history of the city. Thus, onthe territory of Tashkent during theperiod under study there existedtoponyms that can be divided intothe following groups:anthrotoponyms, toponymsassociated with the geographicalfeatures of the region, namesreflecting the economic and socialdevelopment of the capital,toponyms associated with culturaland spiritual development of theregion related to ethnic groups,historical events, etc.

In this article, we will look atchanges in the structure of thetoponymy of Tashkent during theSoviet period on the example of thenames of districts and streets of thecity. As a result of the establishmentof the power of the Soviets in Russiaand on the territory of theneighboring regions, a unified controlsystem of the USSR was introduced

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with the center in Moscow, Russianwas adopted as the official language.Tashkent became the capital of theUzbek Soviet Socialist Republic,incorporated into the Union ofSoviet Socialist Republics. Thispolitical situation has played adefinite role, both in the history ofthe republic and its capital city. Formore than seventy years, therepublic developed according to theprograms of five-year plansapproved by the state center, whereall directions were coordinated withthe political regime and ideology ofthe Soviet state. This specificity wasreflected in the toponymy of variousterritories of the country, includingthe city of Tashkent.

It is known that during the ruleof the Turkestan GeneralGovernorship (1867-1917), the cityof Tashkent was its center andconsisted of two parts - the Old Cityand the New City 3.P.28-29 . Thisdivision was maintained in the firstyears of Soviet power. After theestablishment of the power of theSoviets, the new munici palauthorities began to carry outadministrative and territorial changesin the city, the initial stage of whichfalls on the 1920s. In 1929, a decreeof the Presidium of the CentralExecutive Committee on theorganization of city councils wasissued, according to which theterritory of Tashkent was dividedinto four districts, as indicated inthe document of the ExecutiveCommittee, "firstly, for the Counciland, in general, the city governmentto establish constant control over

the life of the city and its relatedterritories, and secondly, to createconditions for attracting people tothe cause of Soviet construction"9.P.3-20; 4.P.9 .

At first, these four city districtswere simply called by numbers - "I,II, III, IV districts"; in November1929, the decision of the ExecutiveCommittee gave them the followingnames: "Leninsky, Oktyabrsky,Proletarsky, Stalin's". In the 1930s,the territory of Tashkent expandedwith the annexation of formercollective farm lands around thecity, and two more urban districtswere added - Kirovsky andFrunzensky. During these years, theProletarsky District was renamedKuibyshevsky. So, in the names ofsix urban areas, five were the namesof famous political figures of theSoviet state, and one (October) wasnamed after the historical event ofthat period - the victory of theOctober revolution of 1917, whichresulted in the establishment ofSoviet power.

During World War II, over 1million people were evacuated toUzbekistan from the territories ofUkraine, Belarus, Russia and otherregions of the USSR. After the war,most of this population returned totheir former places of residence, butthere were also those who remainedto live in the republic. Due to themechanical growth of the populationduring this period, the number ofresidents increased, which was oneof the reasons for the formation hereof two more new urban areas -Moscow and Central.

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However, in 1956, Moscow andStalin, in 1959, the Central districtswere abolished, and the city nowconsisted of five districts.

In the same period, an intensiveexpansion of the residential area ofChilanzar in the south-west of thecapital began, where neighborhoodswere erected, along with localresidents, representatives of variousnationalities and ethnic groups, mostof whom remained in the city afterevacuation, were settled. As a result,in 1962 a new administrative unit inthe city was formed - Chilanzardistrict. It is assumed that thetoponym "chilanzar" refers to thegroup of natural names, i.e. it means"a place with many gardens."However, the full etymology of thisplace name has not yet beenestablished.

It should be noted that not onlypolitical events, but also naturalfactors influenced the toponymy ofTashkent in the 20th century. Inparticular, a large earthquake of upto 8 points occurred on April 26,1966 in Tashkent, the epicenter ofwhich was in the Kashkar andLabzak mahalla, the maximumdamage zone reached 10-12 sq. Km.As a result of this natural disaster,many buildings in the city centerwere destroyed: more than 2 millionsquare meters. living space, 236administrative buildings, about 700trade and catering facilities, 26utilities, about 180 educationalinstitutions, schools for 8 thousandplaces, 26 cultural and educationalinstitutions, 185 medicalinstitutions, 245 buildings of

industrial facilities, were left withouthousing 78 families or 300 thousandpeople, there were victims 10.P.232.

To eliminate the consequencesof the earthquake and in order torestore Tashkent, a large numberof people were attracted from allregions of the republic, as well asfrom other territories of the Sovietstate. The city was rebuilt in 3.5 years.According to statistics, housing wasbuilt on 3200 square meters, a lotof kindergartens, schools,insti tutes, buildings of state,commercial, public institutions,commercial enterprises. Thereconstruction of Tashkent wascarried out according to a speciallydeveloped plan. As a result, due tosome expansion of the urban area,construction of new buildings,increase in population, especiallydue to labor migration from otherterritories of the country, it becamenecessary to increase administrativeand territorial units. And in 1967-1977 4 more urban districts wereformed in Tashkent: Sergel i,Khamza, Sabir Rakhimov, AkmalIkramovsky. Sergeli district islocated in the southwestern part ofthe capital, originated on the basisof Sergeli massif, and was mainlybuilt up after the 1966 earthquake.This name of the area is consideredethnotoponym. In 1968, the Khamzadistrict was established in theeastern part of Tashkent, wheremany industrial facilit ies andresidential areas of the populationwere located.

The name of the region is ananthropotoponym, since it is

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named after the famous Uzbekpoet, playwright , composer,director, teacher, statesman HamzaHakimzade Niyozi (1889-1929). In1970, during the years of therestoration of the city after theearthquake, in the north-westernpart of Tashkent, another newdistrict was formed as a result ofjoining to the city of some ruraldistricts, as well as pieces of landfrom the October and Kirovskydistricts. He was given the name ofGeneral Sabir Rakhimov (1902-1945), who died heroically inbattles during World War II. Thefourth district emerged in 1977, asa result of the alienation of certainterritories from the Chilanzar andOktyabrsky districts (since theseregions became very denselypopulated). This area was namedafter the statesman of the republicduring the years of Akmal Ikramov'sSoviet rule (1898-1938). In the 1980s.the city already had ten districts.Their names can be classifiedaccording to the fo llowingtoponymic groups: anthropoponyms(7 names) - Akmal Ikramovsky,Kirovsky, Kuibyshevsky, Leninsky,Sabir Rakhimov, Frunzensky,Khamza districts; place nameassociated with the nature of thearea (1 name) - Chilanzar region;ethnotoponym (1 name) - Sergelidistrict; a toponym that reflects ahistorical event (1 name) -Oktyabrsky district.

It is known that in 1991 the SovietUnion collapsed due to theimminent political and economiccrisis in the country. Independent

states were formed in the post-Sovietspace. Among the first declared itssovereignty the Republic ofUzbekistan. In the years ofindependence, the city of Tashkenthas retained its metropolitanposition as the center of a sovereignstate. The territory of the city andthe urban agglomeration isexpanding to this day. The role ofTashkent is growing as an importantcenter not only in the country, butthroughout Central Asia. Such animportant political change is alsoreflected in the toponymic structureof Tashkent. A new district,Bektemirsky, was formed, dozensof streets, hundreds of new buildingswere built.

In the period under review,along with the new administrative-territorial units, many streets wereformed in Tashkent, which wasconnected with pol it ical andsocio-economic factors. The list ofnames of ci ty st reet s wasconsiderably en larged by thenames of new streets, as well asby renaming some of the oldstreets. So, in the 1930s of thetwentieth century there were morethan 500 large and medium lengthstreets 7.P.1-2 .

Semantic analysis of the namesof city streets of this period allowsthem to be classified into toponymicgroups and identify the quantitativecorrelation, which is important instudying the dynamics of toponymsof the city, establishing therelationship between the toponymicstructure of the region and itshistorical development.

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Table 1The classification of street names of Tashkent in the late 1930 s. 4.P.18

№ Toponymic groups The number of

place names in the group

Examples of street names and their meaning

1. Toponyms related to socio-economic life

132 Gulbazar street (means “flowers market”), Temiryolchilar street (named after the railway station)

2. Mixed place names 123 3-rd Akkurgan street (the third street with the name Akkurgan is “white hill”), 2ng Saperny lane (named after the Saperny battalion, previously located here)

Anthropotoponyms 110 Zengi-ata street (on behalf of the famous shrine in the Islamic world), Rosa Luxemburg street (on behalf of the famous Polish-German scientist philosopher and economist)

4. Street names associated with nature and natural objects

71

Salar street (from the name of the river Salar, which flows through the area), Almazar street (meaning “apple orchard”)

5. Place names representing various place names

30

Khorezm street (from the name of the region in Uzbekistan, now it is the name of the region), Baltic street (from the name of the Baltic Sea in the north of Europe)

6. Ethnotoponyms 20 Kara-Kirghiz street (the name of the Turkic tribe), Turkmen street (from the name of the people in Central Asia)

7. Street names associated with historical events

12

8th March street (named after the holiday – International Women’s Day March 8), October street (named after the October revolution of 1917 by the Bolsheviks in Russia)

Further, due to the expansion of

the city in the post-war years andduring the restoration of the city afterthe earthquake of 1966, the territoryof the city expanded, new quartersand streets were built; the status ofthe capital city, its position as apolitical and socio-economic,cultural, educational and spiritualcenter led to the concentration ofmany buildings of various institutionsand enterprises, the construction ofnew neighborhoods and streets, eachof which had its name, This positionof Tashkent was directly reflected inits toponymy. Thus, in the 1980s,there were 1107 major city streetsand streets of average size 11.P.119 .

It should be noted that in 50years, that is, compared with the1930s, not only the number of citystreets has changed, but also theirtoponymic groups. In particular, inthe 1980s, the number of large andmedium-sized city streets increasedby 2.1 times, the names of thesestreets included 1) theanthropoponyms presented the mostnumerous group and their lot grewalmost 5 times (the state policy wasaimed at strengthening measures toperpetuating the memory ofstatesmen of the country, heroes ofthe Great Patriotic War, heroes oflabor, honored workers of scientificand other spheres); 2) the number

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of place names associated withgeographic names has increased by7 times (here there is an increase ininterregional and external relationsof the republic, and as a result, thegeography of names has increased,that is, the addition of namesassociated with numerous regions ofthe Soviet Union, as well as withthe names of cities in othercountries of the socialist system); 3)street names reflecting the socio-political life of the city, more than2 times (this indicates an increasingrole of the political and ideologicalfactor, as well as the developmentof branches of the nationaleconomy, expanding the network ofeducational and medical institutionsin the capital); 4) toponymspointing to natural objects, alsoincreased by 2 times (due to thegrowing number of parks,residential areas, as well as theterritorial expansion of the city dueto the outskirts, which hadagricultural objects with thecorresponding names); 5) thenumber of streets named afterhistorical events increased by 2.8times (mainly due to events relatedto anniversaries of polit ical

organizations, also historical eventsthat took place in various regions ofthe Union and in a number offoreign countries that collaboratedwith him), 6) however, the numberof ethnotoponyms remained almostunchanged (perhaps this can beexplained by the fact that the Sovietgovernment sought to consolidatethe nationalities that lived on itsterritory without highlighting thenational factor). It should beespecially noted that two newsemantic groups appeared in thetoponymic composition of streetnames of this period - 7) namesassociated with cultural and spiritualfactors in the life and activities ofthe population, 8) toponyms,which are oriental names of people.The appearance of these twotoponymic groups testifies to theincreased attention of society to thedevelopment of cultural life, toaesthetic growth, to an increase inthe human need for spiritualperfection, his striving for freerthinking, capturing the beauty of theworld and its essence, as well as itsgood intentions in the names places,objects that surround it in everydaylife.

Table 2Classification of street names of Tashkent in the early 1980 s.

4.P.86№ Toponymic groups The

number of place

names in the group

Examples of street names and their meaning

1. Anthropotoponyms 524

Ashrafi street (on behalf of the famous Uzbek composer of the twentieth century Mukhtar Ashrafi), general Petrov street (named after the Soviet general, hero of World War II), Shastri street (named after the political leaders of India)

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2. Place names representing various place names

214 Altai street (in honor of the Altai Mountains in the south of Siberia), Odessa street (from the name of the city in the Crimea), Leninabad street (from the names of the city in Tajikistan)

3. Toponyms related to socio-economic life

213 Airport Square (due to the location of the street near the airport), Petersburg State University street (due to the location along the street of Central Asian State University), Textile street (from the name of the Tashkent Textile Factory)

4. Names associated with cultural and spiritual factors

141

Mehribon street (translated from Uzbek means “merciful”), “Izvestia” street (from russian “news” and this is the name of the newspaper “Izvestia”, which was a periodical of the governments of the Soviet Union), Madaniyat street (translated from Uzbek means “culture”)

5. Street names associated with nature and natural objects

122

Archazar street (in Uzbek means “spruce garden”), Ariqli street (named for the location of the street near the river), Sadovaya street (from russian “garden” and due to the location of a large garden on the street).

6. Toponyms for Eastern names of people

40 Gayrat sreet (male name, means "energetic, decisive, hardworking boy"), Gulsanam sreet (female name means "the most beautiful flower among the most beautiful, that is, girl of incomparable beauty"), Zumrad sreet (female name, its meaning is "a gem of green (emerald); priceless, like an emerald, or a girl with green (blue) eyes").

7. Street names associated with historical events

30

Pobeda street (from russian “victory” and named after the victory of the Soviet Union in World War II (1939-1945)), 40 years of the Komsomol street (associated with the celebration of the 40th anniversary of the political all_union youth organization of the Young Communist League).

8. Ethnotoponyms 21 Karamurt passage (associated with the name of the Turkic tribe of Kara Murut), Tatar street (“Tatars” – the name of the Turkic people).

In general , studies on the

structure of the historical toponymsof Tashkent, in particular, thenames of its districts and streets inthe 1917-1980s, indicate theexpansion of the urban area, thegrowth of its population, economicstrengthening, the development ofsocial, cultural , spir itual li fepopulation, which vividly reflectedon its toponymy. As a result of therevolut ion, the Bolsheviksestablished Soviet power, whichpursued here a centralized policyaimed at the approval of theideology of the Soviet state. These

events were reflected in the namesof urban areas, neighborhoods,streets, objects, in the names ofwhich there are toponyms, bothrelated to the local nature, historyand traditions, and practicallyunrelated to the specifics of theregion and not reflect ing i tshistorical development. The analysisof the semantic meaning anddynamics of the growth of urbantoponyms allows us to trace thepicture of the historical events thattook place in this period in thecapital itself and in the wholecountry.

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References

1. Alimova D. and other. History of Tashkent (from ancient times to today). - Tashkent,2007. - p.167.

2. Buriev O. Is "Darkhan the land of Khan's? // Newspaper "Tashkent evening".February 10, 1992.

3. Burieva X. Historical toponymy of Tashkent (XIX - XX centuries). - Tashkent:Noshirlik yog'dusi, 2009 - p.234.

4. Burieva X.A. From the history of Tashkent city names (1917-1980). - Tashkent:Academy, 2012. - p.122.

5. Khasanov X. From the history of Middle Eastern nominal. - Tashkent: Fan, 1965.- p.80.

6. Muhammadjonov A. Ancient Tashkent. - Tashkent: Sharq, 2002. - p.24.7. Plan-guide to the city of Tashkent in 1936. - Tashkent, 1936.8. Qoraev S. Do you know the geographical names mean? (Toponyms) - Tashkent:

Uzbekistan, 1970. - p.190.9. State Archive of Tashkent. Foundation 10, inventory 1, case 618, sheets 3-20.10.Tashkent. Encyclopedia. / Editorial board: A.Akromov, B.Alimov, M.Aminov, etc.

- Tashkent: State Scientific Publishing House "Uzbekistan Milly Encyclopedia", 2009. -p.232.

11. Tashkent: a short guide reference book. / N.A. Dekhkonkhodjaev, A.I.Grishenko,S.R.Rakhmanov, A.S.Zeltser. - Tashkent: Uzbekistan, 1981. - p.119.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-13

OLIGARCH CRIME AND ILLEGAL SEIZURES ASTHEPERPETRATOR AND THE TOOL OF CRIMINAL

BANKRUPTCIES IN THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN

Indira MirzamukhamedovaLawyer, Almaty City Bar AssociationDoctoral student, Caspian University

Republic of Kazakhstan, Almaty



Recommended citation: Indira Mirzamukhamedova. OLIGARCH CRIME AND ILLEGALSEIZURES AS THEPERPETRATOR AND THE TOOL OF CRIMINAL BANKRUPTCIESIN THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN. 3-4. American Journal of Research P. 152-159 (2019).

The phenomenon of bankruptcyin general and criminal bankruptcyin particular is hardly a novelty forthe Republic of Kazakhstan and itslegal system. This phenomenon relieson a mobile platform of a complex typeconsisting of such legal areas as civil,criminal, administrative, labour,corporate et al. Such complexity perse gives an idea as to the depth of thelegal and public relations containedin this system. The same multi-layered system accounts for the dead-end situations, often incapable ofresolution, which, one way oranother, the law-enforcement bodies

come across in the process of theirwork on cases where the starting pointis criminal bankruptcy [1, p.120].

Criminal entities engaged in theorganised type of activities arezealous in using the situation wherethe re-distribution of property isaggressive in nature since for themit presents a fertile soil to steal thisvery property. At present in ourcountry one cannot fail to note theupsurge of the mercenary activitiesaimed at turning the tool ofbankruptcy, originally useful infostering the financial recovery of theeconomy, into another tool, which

Abstract: The article analyses the influence of oligarch crime upon the economy ofthe Republic of Kazakhstan. It also looks in detail at such illegal and shadowy activity asillicit asset seizures in the context of criminal bankruptcy and the growing relevance ofproviding the long-term economic security of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The articleuncovers some causes, which have an effect on detection and predictability of suchillegal activities.

Key words: oligarch crime, criminal bankruptcy, illegal seizures, the perpetratorofcriminal bankruptcy, economy, criminal business, economic crime, economic security.

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can be called nothing else but thefinancial tool of its corruption.

The long-term process of thedevelopment of our economy hasbeen going on not without visibleefforts and, what is most important,without sufficiently consistent andtime-appropriate measures in theform of a checking and protectingmechanism against criminalencroachment upon its foundation.By the beginning of the thirdmillennium, which was, perhaps,the most important and difficultperiod for the economy, suitableconditions were also created for thegrowth of the above-mentionedcrime. Since the criminal economyhas been given a certain push indevelopment, which had a shadowyhue, it has also gained opportunitiesfor both full and partial "symbiosis"with the State sector of the economy.The face of such economy with acriminal shade has become preciselythe oligarch crime, with oligarchybeing a particular social structure,where the quasi-legislative power ofa few mercenary-minded entities isconcentrated on illegal or partiallyillegal grounds, which is a salientfeature of the so called "oligarchy"[2, p.90].

Understandably, one cannotdescribe oligarchy as a phenomenononly as "black" without considering"grey", which is somewhat removedfrom various extremes of this notion.Such an extreme could be illustratedby a distinctive example when entitiespossessing high-level quasi-legislative power, pass on their job/

position as inheritance from fatherto son, within their own circle,thereby bypassing prescribed legalprocedures of electing to thesepositions other people, often someof the most worthy potentialcontenders. On the contrary, if theelection instrument prescribes theso-called property qualification,with the letter of the law beingstrictly adhered to, the oligarchy inthis case, although often not beingconsidered legitimate, neverthelesscan be considered closest to the bonafide and honest politics with regardto the economy of the State. Theso-called "elected" entities simply donot allow any other people, apartfrom their close circle, to get thejobs/positions, which is whatoligarchy is in the direct meaningof this phenomenon [3, p.111].

The oligarchs themselves, notonly in the Republic of Kazakhstan,but also in Russia, as well as inother post-Soviet States, are dividedinto the so-called nation-wide clansand clans of lesser size. The powersystem of such clans is generally builtaccording to the classic perceptionof oligarchy, specifically, accordingto Aristotle's system of oligarchytypes, where it is viewed as classic.Classic oligarchy implies that onlywell-off entities can be allowedaccess to power, and this is the mainaxiom of this type, a certain "bloodcirculatory system" of the saidphenomenon. Power is formed andserves itself in the closed "eco-space".The laws of this power completelyand utterly work for the entity in

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command; the entity also makes thelaws [4, p.10].

The factor of "execution andpardoning" does not exist in theoligarchs' toolbox, nor does theirown determination of tax liabilitiesor other competitively advantageousand objectively expressed actions forthemselves. Thus, this situationforces oligarchs to use criminal toolsto expand their authority andprivileged actions.

One of the strongest tools in thisscheme is illegal seizure,representing a certain chain ofoperations, which makes use ofloopholes in the legislation and isused to gain authoritative powersover assets, as a rule the assets of agiven enterprise. In this context,criminal bankruptcies become aconvenient, simple and, mostimportantly, cheap tool of suchshadowy privatisation, whicheventually could not fail to turn intoa flourishing business in the handsof a criminal privileged layer ofsociety [6].

Most regrettably, this ratherwidespread stereotyped axiomhappens to be reflected in objectivereality, namely, in the criminalacquisition of all large assets in thesphere of business. As is well-known,conducting business is far frombeing the most straightforward thing,to put it mildly, starting frommassive responsibility and finishingwith various huge risks and problems.Kazakhstani businesspersons moreoften than not come across theinsurmountably developed "wall" in

the form of illegal seizures, actingas a "parasite" for the target businessin all meanings of this word. In sucha case, transfer of assets frompossession of owners on legalgrounds is quite a normal occurrence.Illegal seizures are characterised bya range of procedures for alleventualities, starting with directthreats and use of violence andfinishing with the bypassing of legalprocedures using the most crafty andsly ways. In doing so theysuccessfully put on the mask of"strictly abiding by the law",contradicting it at the same time.

As a phenomenon, illegal seizureundermines the respect to the rightsof property in every possible way. Italso has a damaging effect upon theimage of the international aspect ofbusiness in the Republic ofKazakhstan, which cannot butobstruct such an important factoras long-term investments in thefuture [5, p.89].

The major reasons for therampage of illegal seizures in theRepublic of Kazakhstan are theweakness of courts and the lawenforcement system, especiallyagainst the backdrop of the rise ofuncontrolled corruption activities. Itwould be extremely difficult to carryout an illegal seizure of an enterpriseon a certain territory without thesupport of the district or cityadministration, especially if anenterprise is big enough. In the vastmajority of cases, it is the supportof dishonest authorities that acts asa decisive factor of illegal seizures

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and criminal bankruptcies. In itsturn, the weakness of the legislativeframework clearly and distinctlyindicates that the registration lawsare a far cry from perfection or anyacceptable level at all. For example,how is it possible that in the absenceof a certain legitimate entity all thedocuments pertaining to registrationcould be transferred to anotherentity of a dubious nature? Anygrounds for that? They do not exist.Any questions? Nobody has any. Themere fact that the business ownercan indeed confirm its legitimaterights by producing its passport orthe power of attorney dulynotarised, is not even taken intoconsideration.

For the past 10 years, assets inthe Republic of Kazakhstan havetangibly expanded. Against thisbackground, the rampage of illegalseizure as a phenomenon reflects thelow level of entrepreneurshi pculture of business entities. Ownersrarely even give a thought to the factthat they may become a direct targetof illegal seizure. Indeed, they dothink about pressing issues, such aspriority and long-term businessdevelopment, building relations withpower structures, but absolutely donot attempt to forecast a potentialillegal seizure. Unfortunately, thisis human psychology, and the levelof education or upbringing makesno difference what so ever. Such islife that people generally do not wantto think about bad things, and thisis understandable. Nevertheless, itis the entities who bear the brunt of

a certain responsibility on theirshoulders that must eradicate thisfeature in themselves at all costs,because it is these entities that arethe most important economic "bricks"in the foundation of a State. Apartfrom everything listed above the lackof entrepreneurship culture is alsoreflected in the deliberate breach oflabour, tax and civil legislation.Everything listed above cannot fullyreveal the decisive factors of criminalbankruptcy in our State [5].

It is also important to bring tolight the weakness of marketinstitutions, most evident recently,because in this way or the otherthey cease to be reliable regulatorsof the market environment. The Stateis gradually relinquishing theopportunity of the mutuallybeneficial adaptation of thelegislative framework to marketinstitutions, which, in their turn,would dictate the rules of behaviourto all entities engaged in marketrelations in the interests of both theState on the whole, and its peoplein particular, and not just in theinterests of a group of privilegedphysical and legal power entities.

Illegal seizure, as a phenomenon,greatly impedes normal developmentof the real sector of economy of anyState. Addressing the State tasks isnot only last on the list; it is noteven on the list. The reality is thatthis phenomenon aims only atredistribution of property, and thisprocess can last not just for a longtime but endlessly. One can describethe illegal seizure as a key aspect of

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criminal bankruptcy, which slowlybut surely is drying up economicresources. It is possible to recordthe massive outflow of capital abroad,also as a consequence of illegalseizures. For entrepreneurship, it ispretty much one of a few efficientways out of a developed situation,since, in case of worsening of thatvery situation the entrepreneurshipmay try to survive in another place,more favourable for conductingbusiness. This cannot but have animpact on the drain of a useful labourforce, detrimental for our economy,on a nation-wide scale. Businessdevelopment will not be on trackwhile illegal seizure exists on the scalecurrently indicated by various experts[6, p.10].

Just as a person in a state ofpermanent fear cannot workproperly, enterprises cannotfunction normally being constantlyin a state of self-defence. It is ratherdifficult to fully evaluate the damagecaused by illegal seizure, since byand large it takes place covertly,which does not allow for calculatingthe damage in monetary terms.Illegal seizure directly underminesthe prestige of the Republic ofKazakhstan in the internationaleconomic arena. Most regrettably,it is common for our mentality tothink that if something has beenforcefully taken from somebody, orsomebody was locked up, they havedeserved it. This is becoming simplya statistic. In many civilised anddeveloped countries, suchcircumstances are more likely to

cause a state of shock. What weconsider normal circumstances areby no means the same for manycountries. Precisely such imagedamage inflicts investment blows onour economy since many economicprocesses taking place in ourcountry directly engage foreignowners. The expanding criminalbankruptcy resulting from similarlyexpanding oligarch crime by nomeans helps the formation of anadvanced and technology-savvyeconomy of the Republic ofKazakhstan. Matters are made worseby the fact that, as a rule, bankruptcycases have been brought specificallyagainst companies attractive fromthe investment point of view, whilethe economically hopelesscompanies have continued theiractivities in the same way as before.This points to the unwholesomeselectiveness of the bankruptcyprocedure because as a result quite aviable branch of business is affected.In its turn, the mechanisms ofrehabilitation character, with veryrare exceptions, have not beenworking at all.

The present period of economicdevelopment of the Republic ofKazakhstan is witnessing a peak ofcriminal bankruptcies. It has becomeespecially clear after there has beenformed a segment of corporate raidercompanies directly specialising inarranged illegal bankruptcies. Itfollows from this that successfulcounteraction to such a phenomenonis almost impossible without theengagement of the relevant level

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experts, including appraisers andauditors. However, there appearsto be one more problem in this area,namely, the problem of interactionbetween the expert community andthe law enforcement bodies, whichregulate this area. Such interactionis extremely weakly developed, andno steps have been taken that couldbring it closer to being efficient andeffective in the future. The problemof such expert activities and experts'interaction with the State comesexclusively from the mistrust of thelaw enforcement bodies towardsexperts' competence because theirimpartiality and professional levelare put to doubt since they workdirectly for private companies whosequalification is difficult to check andsometimes impossible to check in aproper way. In addition, the budgetdoes not provide for preparation ofexpert opinions regarding theavailability of the signs of criminalbankruptcy. As a result, case law onthe issue of criminal bankruptcies isin legal limbo, and malpractice inthe area of bankruptcy has been leftwithout due punishment. That is whyit is so important to considercriminal bankruptcy withoutseparating it from oligarch crime,which represents a great danger forthe development of a viable andcompetitive economy.

In practice, it is rather difficultto prosecute the perpetrators forcriminal activities in the sphere ofbankruptcy, including bankruptcy asa method of illegal seizures,especially when these activities are

masterminded behind the scenes byoligarchic cells [7].

Subjective causes affectingdetecting and resolving illegalbankruptcies committed by oligarchcriminality are acquiring anincreasingly relevant meaning. Suchcauses could and should include thesymbiosis of the State economicsector and criminal business sector,due to which the latter can use thevaluable complex of theadministrative resources of the Stateon the most advantageous terms foritself. In their turn, the investigativebodies often decline to prosecuteciting the smallest doubts in favourof the alleged perpetrator.Investigators and junior detectivesgenerally have insufficientknowledge of the main provisionsof the tax and civil legislation, whichcannot but tell on the effectivenessof their professional activities.

The lack of finely tuned judicialpractice in criminal bankruptcy casesaccounts for the fact that in recentyears the actual level of overalleconomic crime has, on the whole,increased.

Uneven periods of developmentof economic criminality have led inthe long-term to changes inconditions and causes of thedevelopment of a criminal personalityon a scale more dangerous for theeconomy, of a certain "fast-track andbetter quality" course of developmentof the economic criminal mind.

Based on the afore-said, it ispossible to make a conclusion thatprosecuting a perpetrator for

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criminal actions related tobankruptcy in reality is rathercomplicated. When carrying outillegal bankruptcy the oligarchcriminality possesses sophisticatedmethods and ways of distorting theaccounting information, which, asa consequence, requires conductinga most vigorous analytical study aswell as additional checking measures.This shows that detecting the signsof such a type of bankruptcy requiresa thorough analysis of the financialschemes of the debtor as well as theways of their implementation. Theintellectual level of such a type ofeconomic crime should not beunderestimated. Overall the level ofprotection of economic relations isfar from the mark, and the extremelatent character pertaining toeconomic crime, the inadequatelegislation in the sphere ofbankruptcy as well as the crime-driving "symbiosis" of criminal andState economic structures do nothelp to achieve any significantimprovement of the situation.

There should not be anydiscrepancy between the letter ofthe law and the d i rectimplementation of this letter. TheState should not, at the samet ime, d eclare war on i l legalse iz ure s on the one hand,prot ect in g t he owner andadopting for that purpose variouseconomic leverage, and, on theother hand, come to agreementswith corporate raiders, using forthat methods of an extra-legalnature.

Oligarch crime and, going hand-in-hand with it, criminal bankruptcymost directly constitute strategic,often uncontrolled, destabilisationof the economic sector of anydeveloped or developing State. Sinceancient times humankind has notexisted without criminal activities ofvarious types, and therefore it wouldbe naive to believe that crime cancompletely be eradicated. Nobodysets him/herself such a task.However, the State and society mustexert all tangible efforts of both anacademic/intellectual and apractically applicable level, to arealistic degree and without harm toother sectors of economy. It isimportant to take into considerationthe best practices of other developedcountries, and build on the basis ofthese practices the most suitablesystem of methods combating theeconomic outrage of criminalentities, taking into account thepeculiarities of the Republic ofKazakhstan and its economy [7].

Thus, premeditated illegalbankruptcy, especially on the partof the developed network of oligarchstructures, creates a threat toeconomic security not only of theState but also of every individual,impacting him/her in a direct andlong-term way. Bankruptcy is causingdamage to the property interests ofState and non-State business entities.Social consequences of oligarchcrime and expanding criminalbankruptcy are not just negative,they are catastrophic, especially ifdue attention is not paid to them.

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Refereenges

1 V.V. Bandurin, V.Y. Laritsky. The problem of administration of bankrupt businessesunder the conditions of transitional economy. Moscow, 2015, 200 pages.

2 A.R. Mikrosh. "The Conservative": "The State and oligarchs", No. 18 (34) of 30.05.2015,100 pages.

3 I.Y. Mihkalev. Criminal bankruptcy. St.Petersburg: "Legal Centre Press" Publishinghouse, 2011, 115 pages.

4 N.A. Lopashenko. Crimes in the sphere of economic activities. Rostov-on-Don,1999, 14 pages.

5 V.V. Luneyev. Criminality of the XX century. World, regional and Russia's tendencies.Moscow, 1997, 239 pages.

6 A.A. Zemtsov, T.Y. Osi pova. Basic economic-and-financial knowledge as thefoundation of the economic-and-financial competence of laypersons. // Problems of financeand accounting. 2016, No.1, pp 24-31.

7 O.N. Makarova. Economic analysis as a tool of counteracting criminal phenomena inthe economy. Abstract of a dissertation for a PhD in economics. St.Petersburg, 2016.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-14

LANGUAGE AND CROSS BORDER FREE TRADE:AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH

Dr. Chander Bhushan Nagar is Associate Professor, Department of Political Science,

National Defence Academy, Khadakwasla, Pune affiliated to Jawaharlal NehruUniversity, New Delhi, India. He is associated with writings on International

Relations at South & Southeast Asia and interdisciplinary work.He can be contacted at [email protected]

Dr.Barnali Bhowmick is Assistant Professor at Department of Bengali, Dasaratha Deb MemorialCollege, Khowai-799201, Tripura (Government of Tripura) affiliated to

Tripura University (A Central University), Suryamaninagar, Tripura, India.She is active on the issues of linguistics and has several publications to her

credit. She can be contacted at [email protected]



Abstract: Language is a bridge which works to interact between the states across theborder. It is so because language is a mode which helps one to feel and express their views,thereby acts as a medium to integrate the two sovereign states. The provision of borderhaats at international border in the Indian state of Tripura between India and Bangladeshis a set example which justifies the above mentioned fact. These haats provides an opportunityto flourish local economics along border areas of the concerned state in view of the fact,that such interaction has been possible with the use of a common language as it leads tothe exchange of ideas between two different states. Also, several new kinds of words,phrases, loan words, borrowings, hybrid and symbolic words are being used by communitiesduring business. Further, the interaction at border haats often come across new sentencesthose ought to be legitimate expressions with a follow up of its linguistic parameter ofphonology, morphology and syntactic structure. With this, lexicography can also be builtup with this interaction. The development of any language is based upon its pace ofinteraction, its course of continuation during interaction among the speakers whichtends to identify opportunity for its development. In this way such kind of professionaldevelopment is very much relevant that's why the socio, economic and cultural developmentoccurs across the border.This research paper is an interdisciplinary approach which triesto analyse how language acts as a tool for the development of socio, economic andcultural issues across the border. To prove this hypothesis, following module shall needsto investigate: (a) How two different ascents of language could be used in a properformat? One can find these variations in the use of language being at the haat duringbusiness hours. (b) A survey of border haat during business hours shall be carried out toobtain data to prove this hypothesis.

Keywords: Border Haat, Corridor, Language, Socio, Economic, Culture

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Recommended citation: Dr. Chander Bhushan Nagar, Dr.Barnali Bhowmick. LANGUAGEAND CROSS BORDER FREE TRADE: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH. 3-4.American Journal of Research P. 160-168 (2019).

Introduction:The North Eastern region of India

shares land border with Bangladesh,Bhutan, China, Myanmar andNepal and has agreements ofoverland trade with these countriesthrough Land Custom Stationsnotified under Section 7 of theCustoms Act, 1962. While for tradingthrough Land Custom Stationssituated on Bangladesh and Bhutanborder, there is a Free TradeAgreement (SAFTA). Whereas,Border Trade Agreement have beenentered into with China andMyanmar. Border trade is differentfrom trade through air, land or seaports as trade through ports involvesclearance through customs and haslarge volume. Border trade in contrastis "over-land trade" by way of"exchange of commodities" from a bi-laterally agreed list by people livingalong both sides of the internationalborder. For permitting locallyproduced commodities, to be tradedas per prevailing customary practiceson both sides of the India-Myanmarborder, an agreement on bordertrade between India and Myanmarwas signed on 21st January, 1994 andoperationalized on 12th April, 1995.The Agreement envisages that theborder trade will take place throughCustom Posts at Moreh in Manipurand Zowkhathar in Mizoram,corresponding to Tamu and Rhi in

Myanmar. 40 items are permitted forthe border trade between India andMyanmar, with 5% duty. Presently,most of the border trade takes placeonly through the Moreh Post. Thispaper has been focusing on bordertrade between India Bangladesh whilediscussing its relevance based on aninterdisci plinary approach thatborder trade is an inclusion ofdifferent factors like culture, languageand other issues while one discussthe nature of trade relations. Out ofthese factors, language playsimportant role in the developmentof border trade with a fact that, bothIndian State of Tri pura andBangladesh have Bengali speakingmajority of population. To look intoit, there is a need to look into India-Bangladesh relations.

India-Bangladesh Relations:India and Bangladesh share a long

history of enduring economicpartnershi p and bi-lateraldevelopment. The relationshi pbetween the two countries has beenone based on mutual trust andcooperation. Our multi-facetedeconomic relations encompass trade,credit arrangements, soft transitfacilities and joint ventures in energyand connectivity. Both the countrieshave benefitted largely through thegrowing economic ties. It hasexercised an overall stabilizing effecton our political relations too. Over

"The first point we must make about language, than, is that it is a social, rather than abiological aspect of human life. "Fransis.W. Nelson". 'The Structure of American English'.

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the last fifteen years, the annualdevelopment assistance toBangladesh from India has rangedbetween 20 million to 700 millionrupees and now a landmark 2 billiondollars recently extended duringPrime Minister Modi's visit in June2015. This is double the Line of credit(LoC) of $1 Billion extended duringPM Manmohan Singh's visit inSeptember 2011. At that time, thiswas the single biggest LoC India hadever extended to any country in oneannouncement (and the single largestthat Bangladesh had received fromany single donor). For bothcountries, it reflected a newconfidence in each other inadvancing and expanding theirbilateral relations after over fourdecades of latent mutual suspicionand ups and downs. Of the earliertranche, $200 million was convertedinto a grant (announced by PresidentPranab Mukherjee when heundertook his first trip abroad, andthat too to Bangladesh, after heassumed the nation's highest office),which was used by Bangladesh tocommence ground breaking on itsambitious Padma Bridge project,designed to exponentially facilitateeast-to-west connectivity acrossBangladesh. The remaining 80% wasentirely used on rail/roadconnectivity up gradation andmodernization. The relationship nowappears to be acquiring a newmomentum in the recent times totake it to greater heights in tune withPrime Minister Narendra Modi'sneighbourhood outreach initiative.

Some of the related and importantaspects of the outreach include grantof visas and the historic LandBoundary Agreement andBangladesh's effort to provide Indiawith a "Power Corridor". The protocolon reciprocal visa facilitation wasrevised after over 13 years in 2013 -again a reflection of increasing trustand confidence in each other.Concomitant with this has beenIndia's permission to Bangladesh toopen Consular offices in Mumbaiand Guwahati while India will open2 additional offices in Bangladesh.

The trading relationship betweenIndia and Bangladesh is currently ofspecial interest in both countries fora number of reasons. Firstly, thereare urgent and longstanding concernsin Bangladesh arising from theperennial, large bilateral trade deficitwith India, and from the largevolumes of informal imports fromIndia across the land border whichavoid Bangladesh import duties.These concerns have beenparticularly acute on the Bangladeshside in the context of discussionsbetween the two governments of thepossibility of a bilateral free tradeagreement along the lines of theIndia-Sri Lanka FTA. Secondly, eventhough (because of the disparity inthe size of the two economies) India'strading relationship with Bangladeshis much less significant for it than itis for Bangladesh, closer economicintegration with Bangladesh isnevertheless seen as a very importantway of reducing the economic andpolitical isolation of the seven Indian

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eastern and north eastern states fromthe rest of the country. Finally, bothcountries have long shared commonobjectives for closer economicintegration within the South Asiaregion, and these have recently beenreemphasised by signing on toSAFTA, which is to come into forcein January 2006. Under SAFTA, thepreferential tariffs agreed in thevarious rounds of SAPTA-- so farlargely ineffective in generating muchintra-regional trade-- will continue,but a number of ambitious newobjectives have been enunciated.These include the eventualelimination of tariffs and non-tariffbarriers on trade between themembers, the harmonisation ofCustoms procedures anddocumentation, the facilitation ofbanking relationshi ps, andcooperation and improvements in theinfrastructure for regional trade andcross-border investments. India'sDevelopment Assistance toBangladesh between 2006-07 &2015-16 out of total of INR 13 billionwere distributed over a number ofkey sectors as indicated. As a matterof fact bulk of the developmentassistance to the tune of 74% wentinto multi-sectoral projects and thecrucial transport sector. Need/eventbased emergency assistance camethird in terms of quantum at about12% of the total package. The mainprojects undertaken from the USD200 million grant included SmallDevelopment Projects (SDP's),Community Development Projects(COP's) and connectivity related

projects such as construction ofAkhaura - Agartala Rail link, settingup an inland port at Ashuganj andsetting up a manufacturing unit forrailway coaches.

Trade Relations:While developmental and

infrastructure projects are important,it is universally recognized thebilateral trade plays an extremelyimportant role in promoting andstrengthening economic relationsbetween countries. In this area, Indiaand Bangladesh bilateral tradepresents an extremely complex anddisappointing scenario. As immediateneighbour, India with long landboundary, size, population, growingmarket and a huge consumer market,presents an ideal opportunity forBangladesh to sell its products. Butthe key question is whetherBangladesh produces the goods thatcan sell easily and competitively inthe Indian market. Since 1982 andparticularly after Bangladesh movedon the path of economicliberalization, bilateral trade has beenimproving steadily. In 2011-2012,India's total export to Bangladeshreached 5.84 billion US dollars. Thisdoes not obviously take into accountthe substantial volume of 'illegal orinformal' exports that takes placecontinuously and is estimated at asubstantive figure. A high percentageof BD's import from India is in thenature of inputs (cotton) meant forthe production of its main export item(readymade garments); an area inwhich the country has championeditself. India's annual earnings from

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trade with Bangladesh is somewherenear 14 to 15 billion dollars. On theother hand, in contrast, Bangladesh'sexports to India have been significantlyless. In 20112012, Bangladesh's exportsto India reached only 584.64 millionUS dollars. In 2014-15, BD exportfigure further dropped down to USD396 million. In the current scenariothe total bilateral trade volume ofUSD 6.5 billion looks impressive butthe sheen is lost when one looks atthe country's exports to India thataccount for a mere USD 500 millionleaving a high trade deficit.

Informal and illegal trade betweentwo counties:

Ever since Bangladesh'sindependence there has been asubstantial informal unrecorded tradeacross the India-Bangladesh landborders. Much of this trade is quasilegal and is best characterized as"informal" rather than illegal,because there is wide participationby local people in the border areas,and the trade generally bypassesCustoms posts. At the other extremethere is trade which goes in largerquantities-mostly by truck-throughthe formal legal Customs and otherchannels, but which involvesexplicitly illegal practices such asunder invoicing, misclassificationand bribery of Customs and otherofficials, and which in Bangladeshis sometimes called "technical"smuggling. All the literature on theIndia-Bangladesh informal tradeconfirms that this trade is essentiallyone-way, from India to Bangladesh.Leaving aside gold, silver and

currency which is smuggled into Indiain part to pay for Indian goods,smuggled "bootleg" merchandiseexports from Bangladesh exports toIndia have been estimated at onlyabout 3% of smuggled bootleg Indianexports to Bangladesh. Thus, it is verymuch significant for both thecountries to find out ways so that thiskind of illegal trade could be lessenedout. One such policy option is toenhance border along trade. A fewfactors seem in case of India-Bangladesh so far as border trade isconcern. In other words a newapproach in the form of identificationof a few factors responsible for theenhancement of border trade is "issueof common language i.e. BengaliLanguage across Indian State ofTripura and Bangladesh". Language isa bridge which works to interactbetween the states across the border.It is so because language is a modewhich helps one to feel and expresstheir views, thereby acts as a mediumto integrate the two sovereign states.The provision of border haats atinternational border in the Indianstate of Tripura between India andBangladesh is a set example whichjustifies the above mentioned fact.These haats provides an opportunityto flourish local economics alongborder areas of the concerned statein view of the fact, that suchinteraction has been possible with theuse of a common language as it leadsto the exchange of ideas between twodifferent states. Also, several newkinds of words, phrases, loan words,borrowings, hybrid and symbolic

165



words are being used by communitiesduring business. Further, theinteraction at border haats oftencome across new sentences thoseought to be legitimate expressionswith a follow up of its linguisticparameter of phonology,morphology and syntactic structure.With this, lexicography can also bebuilt up with this interaction. Thedevelopment of any language is basedupon its pace of interaction, itscourse of continuation duringinteraction among the speakers whichtends to identify opportunity for itsdevelopment. In this way such kindof professional development is verymuch relevant that's why the socio,economic and cultural developmentoccurs across the border.

This research paper is aninterdisciplinary approach whichtries to analyse how language acts asa tool for the development of socio,economic and cultural issues acrossthe border. To prove this hypothesis,following module shall needs toinvestigate: (a) How two differentascents of language could be used ina proper format? One can find thesevariations in the use of language beingat the haat during business hours. (b)A survey of border haat during

business hours shall be carried out toobtain data to prove this hypothesis.

Border Haat:A hitherto defunct Mughal era

border haat (weekly border market)was reopened by CommerceMinisters of India and Bangladesh inMeghalaya in 2011, marking a newhigh in the on-going bonhomie andtrade links between the twoneighbouring countries. Border haatmeans makeshift bazaar/ market at acertain point on zero lines of theIndia-Bangladesh borders allowingvillagers of both the countries tomarket and shop each other'sproducts once a week. Border haatsare in high demand by people onboth sides, living in remote enclavesand hilly areas, as they find it difficultto buy and sell products needed inday-to-day life. The two nationsstarted border trade in April 1972 -only months after Bangladeshbecame independent. However, it wascancelled a year later because oframpant smuggling along the 4,096kilometres of border that the twocountries share.

General Characteristics of BorderHaat:

1. The border haat is a commonmarketplace for both countries toboost local business and trade betweenthe two neighbours. The commoditiessold here are free of duty while traderscan use Bangladeshi Taka (BDT) andIndian Rupees (INR) and/or bartersystem for the transaction. The traderscan exchange their currencies inbanks operating along the two borderdistricts.

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2. Border haat at first wasoriginally scheduled to be launchedon April 14 of 2011, coinciding withPauela Baishakh, the first day ofBengali New Year. However, Indiaand Bangladesh opened their firstborder haat on July 23, 2011 locatedat Tura in Meghalaya, India. Thesecond border haat started operationat Dolura in Sunamganj district inBangladesh on May 01, 2012. Set onthe zero line along the North-EasternState of Meghalaya in India, itoccupies an area of 70-square metersand serves the villagers living insidefive kilometre radius on both sidesof the border. The haat starts workingon every Tuesday from 10:30 am to5:00 pm while it sits from 9:30 amto 4:00 pm from November toMarch during the winter. Close to1,800 individuals, visit the haat forthe purpose of purchases. Theenthusiasm and participation is morepronounced among Bangladeshisthan it is with Indians. Well beyondthe 25 registered pass holding vendorsof each nation are seen selling goodswithin the haat premises. That isbecause the original pass-holdersublets his space and adjacent aisleto non-pass-holders.

3. Haats are equipped with marketsheds to facilitate trade by 25 vendorsfrom each side, who have beenidentified and trained by both countriesto sell their produce, medical andsecurity booths, and fencing of theborder haat areas. However, thefacilities are inadequate to cater thelarger number of consumers residingin the border areas.

4. A border haat, by definition,is managed by a five-member HaatManagement Committee,constituted by the two nations. Itmaintains a list of the authorizedvendors and buyers as per theMemoranda of Understanding (MoU).The haat is held on a fixed day of theweek, and for transaction thecurrencies of the two nations are used.The designated border haat areas areexempted from regulations ofpassport and visa.

5. The haat markets generally havetwo entry and exit points, one fromBangladesh territory for Bangladeshisand another from the IndianTerritory for Indians. Only theresidents of the border districts areallowed to sell their products in thehaats and the number of vendors istypically limited to 25 from eachcountry. However, on anaverage1,000 people from each sideare allowed to visit the haat withpasses.

6. Locally produced vegetables,food items, fruits, betel leaf, betelnuts, spices, fish, chicken, bamboo,and bamboo-made materials, grass,gamchha, lungi, dao, plough, axe,spade, chisel, locally producedgarments, melamine products,processed food items, fruit juice,handicraft items are the general itemsbeing sold in the haats. A detailed tablecovering aspects of type and volumeis included as a part of the appendix.Newer offerings are elaborated in therecommendations.

7. As per rules of business at itsinception, a given buyer is able to

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shop here worth up to USD 50.00or equivalent to BDT 4,200.00, oneach market day in a week. However,in June 2013, the buying limit at theborder haat was raised. Bangladeshisliving in the border areas with Indiaare now able to buy goods worth upto USD 100.00 in local currency atborder haats (weekly markets) onany given day. The Foreign ExchangePolicy Department of BangladeshBank has accordingly coordinatedwith their Authorized ForeignExchange Dealers (ADs) toaccommodate the revised purchaselimit.

Linguistic relevance of BorderHaat:

To understand the role oflanguage in the management of crossborder trade with reference toborder haat a case study ofKamalasagar border haat situatedat Sipahijala district of Indian Stateof Tripura has been taken up. Aborder haat has been setup betweenSipahijala District under India andBrahamanbaria district, ChittagongCentral Division under Bangladeshat Kamalasagar international border.It is important to note that peopleliving with in the 5 kilometre radiusof the international border speaksdialect of Bengali language. Thoughmultilingual speech is an identifiedfeature provided, entire interactionhas been based upon understandingof common Bengali expressions.Following is the nature ofmultilingual exchange between thecommunities of India andBangladesh:

Effective expressions:Border haats are cultural boost up

centres for both communities livingalong the borders. The commongrowth of cultural assimilations,societal contacts and multilingualconjunctions occurred. The borderhaats are a way by which linguisticexpressions plays a very important rolein the development of confidencebuilding measures between twocountries. The traders and consumersoften use dialects during business inthe form of loan words, borrowing,hybrid and symbolic words those arean exclusive feature of border haatconversations. As a matter of fact, thisentire exercise is conceived of Bengalilanguage as mother language.However certain exclusive identifiedremarks of socio linguistic expressionduring business hours are as follows:

1. Borrowed word, loan words areadopted by speakers from each otherduring interaction. A loan word canalso be called as borrowing. It is aconsequence of cultural contactbetween two language communities.For e.g. some words of Noyakhali

India Bangladesh

1. The South Tripura area of 1. The Bengali is being used Tripura State uses as dialect as well as Noyakhali language (It’s a standard language at dialect of Bengali). Bangladesh.

2. Kokborok is another tribal 2. The Brahamanbaria district language being used at has certain expressions of Tripura (It’s a language of Noyakhali language (It’s a Tibet Burmese origin). dialect of Bengali).

3. The security agencies 3. At some adjoining areas of especially personnel of the international border Border Security Force people may use Shelletti (BSF) uses Hindi (India’s version of Bengali national language) for language. (Shellette is a conversation. Although due district of Bangladesh). to diversity of identity 4. Some way the Noyakhali among the personnel other language is mixed up with languages of different Shelletti words. regions of India may also be 5. The officials of Bangladesh in use. Border Guard (BBG)

converse in Bengali and English language.

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Cultural relations

Confidence building measures

Business tourism

language were adopted by theShelletti version of Bengali speakers.

2. Phonal borrowing (Phoneticborrowing) may also be adopted bypeople across the border.

3. Since the area of border haathas been dominated by Noyakhalipattern of dialect therefore, sentencepatterns are mixed up with otherdialects of the adjoining areas whichare called as Code-Mixing. Thepattern of code mixing comprise oftwo or more dialects at same time.

4. The border haat area oneperceives as feeling motive (there aretwo types of motives: feeling motiveand prestige motive). This is sobecause traders have adopted variouswords from local dialects thereby tomake themselves expressive forbusiness purpose.

5. A lexical gap, a hole in thepattern (sentence) is a word or other

form that does not exist in the samelanguage but shall be permitted onthe basis of grammatical rules of theconcerned language. This lexical gapis an identified feature of the borderhaat conversations.

Concluding remarks:Language has been used as catalyst

to boost up:

References

1. Position Paper on Border Haat Markets. Bangladesh Enterprise Institute, House # 2,

Road # 54, Gulshan-2, Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh.2. Declaration between Bangladesh & India during joint visit of Prime Minister of India

to Bangladesh- Notun Projonmo- Nayi Disha.

3. Sharmadha Srinivasan - Assessing India's Infrastructure aid diplomacy Indian council

on Global Relations, Gateway House.

4. India-Bangladesh Relations: An Enduring Economic Partnership 20 of 21. Vivekananda

International Foundation. Source: http://www.vifindia.org

5. Nafees Imtiaz Islam - Bangadesh India Relationship: A new Dimension in the region.

6. Joint statement by India &Bangladesh on First Meeting of the India Bangladesh Joint

Consultative Commission May 7, 2012.

It leads to socio-economicdevelopment of border regionthrough cross border trade.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-15

SOLID WASTE TRANSPORTATION PRACTICE ANDCHALLENGE OF ADDIS ABABA CITY

Massreshaw Assnakew AbebeAddis Ababa city Cleansing Management office, Addis Ababa,

Ethiopia; email: [email protected]



Abstract: Uncontrolled growth of the urban population in developing countries inrecent years has made solid waste management an important issue. Very often, a substantialamount of total expenditures is spent on the waste transportation of solid waste by cityauthorities. Optimization of the routing system for collection and transport of solid wastethus constitutes an important component of an effective solid waste management system.The transportation system of waste management must be effective to solve 3 importantthings one was the amount of waste to transport fast; timely and minimum cost. Secondtransportation the waste with protective and managing of the environment and the wastegeneration area.Thridly always transporting waste publitization waste generation reduceas the source and segregation was applicable because of keeping your car mantainacetime long. In Addis Ababa the waste transportation system happened always two things:-1.the inefficient carried amount of waste, 2.due to traffic jam, car maintenance andworker discipline problem around 25% of the city waste did not transported. So to solvethose problem to use different practical measure:-1.To change the transportation systemfrom government to privatization with incentive.2.To apply strong law of waste collection,storage and transportation system to save our environment and the minimum capital ofthe country.3 To appreciate the waste recycling and reusing waste from the source toindustrazation practice in the city because of we cost more than 70 million dollar toused the transportation of waste in Addis Ababa city to change this modality by usingsound resource society principle and methodology. In Addition to this advanced thecollection and transporting waste control system by using GIS and other controllingtechnology to determine the minimum cost/distance efficient collection paths fortransporting the solid wastes to the landfill or recycling center. The transport trips savetime, money(maintenance, fuel e.t.c) ,energy, health of the car, sound environmentalimpacts (emission of waste transportation) and increase efficiency and effectiveness ofthe work practice definitely and changeable.

Keywords: efficient, transport, short path, clean city, cost effective, emission

Recommended citation: Massreshaw Assnakew Abebe. SOLID WASTE TRANSPORTATIONPRACTICE AND CHALLENGE OF ADDIS ABABA CITY. 3-4. American Journal of ResearchP. 169-181 (2019).

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1. IntroductionSolid waste management (SWM)

may be defined as the disciplineassociated with the control of thegeneration, storage, collection,transfer, transport, processing anddisposal of solid waste in a mannerthat is in accord with the bestprinci ples of public health,economics, engineering,conservation, aesthetics, and otherenvironmental considerations, andthat is also responsive to publicattitudes [3].

It is an essential service that isprovided for the protection of theenvironment and public health, aswell as to promote hygiene, recovermaterials, avoid waste, reduce wastequantities, emissions and residuals,and prevent the spread of diseases [11].

The capital city of Ethiopia isAddis Ababa ("New Flower"),located almost at the centre of thecountry. Addis Ababa is thediplomatic capital for Africa (OAU,ECA), regional headquarters likeUNDP, UNICEF, UNHCR,FAO, ILF, ICO, and ITU.According to the Central StatisticalAgency, the population of the cityis 6.6 million inhabitants in 2017 thatlive in 10 sub-cities1 and 119 woredadivided for administrative purposeAddis Ababa is a centre for moderneconomic and social activities thatinfrastructure services are foundrelatively in better situation thanother cities of Ethiopia.

As in many African cities, AddisAbaba suffers from insufficientinfrastructure and deficient servicesto guarantee sanitation and waste

management for the level ofdevelopment expected by its statusof diplomatic Capital city of Africa.The level of coverage of refusecollection is estimated at around75%, while the remainder of thewaste ends up on streets, publicareas, water courses and thesurrounding environment.

Like in most future megacitiesunder fast development, in AddisAbaba the fate of postconsumermaterials, organic waste and otherresiduals are not well known. This isa result of the lack of a system of datacollection along the whole wastemanagement chain. Since in the pastyears there were no systematicrecording and assessment of theamount of waste collected andtransported by the municipal orprivate enterprises, and the finaldisposal site is lacking a weighingbridge to register the amount ofresidues landfilled, almost no robustdata that helps assess the performanceof the waste management, or todetermine to what extent the streamsof valuable materials recovered andrecycled is available.

The previous situation iscompounded by the fact that largeamounts of recyclables are recoveredby an army of informal wastepickers, which is practically invisibleto the waste managementauthorities, who buy materials fromhouseholds or scavenges forrecyclables on the streets and at thefinal disposal sites.

However just collecting the wastefrom different parts of city does notsolve the problem; it requires

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disposing the waste inenvironmentally safe andeconomically sustainable Poorcollection and inadequatetransportation are responsible forthe accumulation of MSW at everynook and corner. The managementof MSW is going through a criticalphase, due to the unavailability ofsuitable facilities to treat and disposeof the larger amount of MSWgenerated daily in metropolitan cities.Unscientific disposal causes anadverse impact on all componentsof the environment and humanhealth manner. An effective solidwaste management system is neededto ensure better human health andsafety.

In general, an effective solidwaste management system shouldinclude one or more of the followingoptions: waste collection andtransportation; resource recoverythrough waste processing; wastetransportation without recovery ofresources, i.e., reduction of volume,toxicity, or other physical/chemicalproperties of waste to make itsuitable for final disposal; anddisposal on land, i.e.,environmentally safe and sustainabledisposal in landfills (19&20; 9; 3).

Most often, it appears difficult tominimize two variables - cost andenvironmental impact -simultaneously. Hence, the balancethat needs to be struck is to reducethe overall environmental impact ofthe waste management system as faras possible within an acceptable costlimit. The new Paradigm forsustainable solid waste management,

as it stems from the need forresources conservation and is bestexpressed in the EU policy fromthose stated that to increase levelof service will need to be providedat the minimum possible cost, as thepublic will not be able to bear largeincreases in its waste charges.Therefore, the sector of wastecollection and transport (WC&T)attracts particular interest regardingits potential for service optimizationas: (a) waste management systemswith more recyclables' streamsusually require more transport [17];and (b) this sector already absorbsa disproportionably large fraction ofthe municipal budget available towaste management [10]. Serviceoptimization, both in terms ofquality and costs can only beachieved using advanced decisionsupport tools, modeling the manydifferent components of anintegrated waste management system[1, 12, 16and 18]. Optimization ofWC&T making use of the GIS (fleetmanagement method) may providelarge economic and environmentalsavings through the reduction oftravel time, distance, fuelconsumption and pollutantsemissions [18], [2],[4,7,8,13,14,15],but in our case we selected the fleetmanagement collection andtransporting service management.

The aim of this work was todevelop a methodology for theoptimization of the waste collectionsystem from house to house,institution to institution andtransportation system based on ourresource, our waste amount and

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fleet management technology. Thestrategy consisted of replacing andreallocating the waste collection binsas well as rescheduling wastecollection via the resource of the city,the amount of waste concentrationand using fleet management routingtechnology optimization and itsbenefits of practice suchtransportation solving technology. Tominimize the collection speed ofwaste time, to use short pathdistance travelled to transport waste,To adjust the man power, To getprimary continuous data and etc.General consequently, to reduce thecost or financial budget about it,To protect the society in the rightway and To clear manage theenvironmental costs To scarify bythe waste transportation system.

2. Material and method2 .1.The Municipality of Addis

Ababa and its waste collectionscheme

Geographically, Addis Ababa islocated between 8055'and 90 0 5'NLatitude and 380 40' and 38050' ELongitude. The city is located at thecenter of Ethiopia with an area of540 km2 of which 18.174 m2 is ruraland its altitude ranges from 2000m- 2800 masl (6).

Addis Ababa is a seat both forFederal Democratic Republic ofEthiopia (FDRE) and OromiyaNational Regional StateGovernment. It is bordered withOromiya National Regional State inall directions. There are 10 sub-cities(Kifle ketema) and about 119 woreda(AACA 2010).

2.2. Waste collection in theMunicipality of Addis Ababa city

Waste amount, way of collection,method of collection used and otherrelated activities to list them. A betterdevelopment of the recycling systemin the future will require arestructuring of both collection andtransportation systems in order tominimize costs and optimize wastecollection resources andtransportation activities and itsdefault [3]. The system was to identifyhow the waste easily collected andtransported at the initial point orthe optimum scenario for wastecollection and transportation fromstored waste, in terms of minimizingcollection time, travelled distance,man-power, and other costs toprotect our life.

Finally, The researched believedthat to modified the collection andtransportation system in the newmodality from compared as thecurrent practice from the city of

Graph 1:-Addis Ababa was thecentral part of Ethiopia and its saw map

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Addis Ababa might be importantbecause the new ideology could bechanged the waste collection andtransportation modality from thehouse level and there is no soil andair direct contamination andminimize transportation, disposingand other side cost may be reduceddirectly and indirectly more than thissave the health of society and theenvironment surely.

2.3. MethodTo develop the collection, the

transportation system, the wholeinformation of the system andpresent primary data generated

3. Result and Discussion3.1. Practice of waste

transportation system3.1.1 Government practice

From the above table the shareenterprise numbers were 74 in 119woreda and 10 subcity to tal of wastewithout private instutions 7826.26 m3waste transported daily by using 132cargo conaing cars,7 side loader,3reanolet rolling and 44 compresscompactors cars.No to understandthat the number of car was almostnice but the transportation wasineffient because of differentexpression what the system was inactive from those I explain somepractice and problem in Addis Ababa.:

1.The maintanace system that wasthe car mantained when they stoped

Table 1. types of car in each subcity either side loading container orcompactors and its generation

Types of care to transport waste s.no subcity woreda Share enterprise and

skip point

Generation solid

waste m3 Cargo carrier Side

loader

renolet compactors

1 Arada 10 3 606.27 3 1 0 5

2 lideta 10 3 575.14 1 1 1 5

3 kirkose 11 3 634.18 1 1 0 6

4 Addis

ketma

10 6 731.83 6 1 1 5

5 gulele 10 5 767.00 23 3

6 yeka 14 10 970.88 20 2 0 4

7 Akaki 11 6 519.47 15 3

8 nefassilek 14 10 906.6 19 0 0 4

9 kolefe 15 15 1229.17 19 1 1 4

10 Bole 15 13 885.72 25 0 0 4

total 119 74 7826.26 132 7 3 44

before that nothing to pre-mantanace,washing,greace andother practice not to do so the cardisfinctioning than working time.Tosolve this problem the transportationsystem simple privatazation toreduce the goveremental brocracy ,inefficent follow up andundesciplene workers,other way toincrease the number of compactorscar this way was waste oftime,money and enviroment so toused the 1st sytem to change businessbased work and clearly difine theresponsiplity body take off and paidsituation and follow

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strongly,contiousely and straight.2.To appreciate and prepare

incentive the waste reduction andrecycling applicable technologyproducers

3.To strictly negotiate the take offorganazation to change the manualsystem to technological system andeasily acess in the citezen.in additionto this to prepare waste road mapand when and where to change fullsystem and creat clean city howthe moter and how to drive the carin what speed to reach the plan

4.To change the payment systemand way of waste handling practiceto minimize the transportationcost,the disposing and mitigation

cost of the enviroment at theschool,household and eachinstitutional responsiplity to dosomething to produce waste and howto hand or to pay the handlers howmuch cost it before started anyactivities like other mandatoryinstrument.that means to appliedpollutor pay principle and extendedproduce responsibility of theirproducing or generated waste.

5.To change the eductionalmodality of enviroment to minimizethe biodaversity pollution by wastegenerated,collected,transported,recyledand disposing sound law andpuanali ty must be measeredproperly

Figure 1:-when waste stored the consequence environment pollutionand how used the compactors

Figure 2:-Loading of side loader cars and the problem of theenviroment

Figure 3:-Old model waste load and rolled it

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Table 2:-Waste transportation by monthly average and the vehicle trip

From the above table the total routine trip was 42,185 time it average citywise and the amount of waste transported by 184 cars was 22,962,678 m3 or6,062,147 tone waste collected and disposed from this those amount of wastetransported by compactors it took 119 trip daily the cost of transportation wasthe minimum 5 millions and maximum 20 millions. Understanding from thetable to increase the size of the car minimize the trip and the transportationcost and kept the emission of waste production gas and the fuel of the transportedcar also decreased at the same times clean the storage and house hold wastetimely and efficiently. Changing the transport system mean to reduced pollution,the cost of transportation and Energy. So the relation between handling,collection, maintenance of the cars, the cost, the trip and the emission of theenvironment by the carrying material and the car emission simple minimizedthe whole waste management and operational activities.

The case of used advance and practical technology increased thetransportation efficiency, effectiveness and clear nd quality informationhow much carried, transported and cost to compare day today to manageand organize when and where the mistake happed.

3.1.2. Private practiceTable 3: private association types of car, institution number

no subcity Total waste dispose Average used car

Trip of the average

Use of resource average

1 Arada 214314 8 521 22,286,305 2 lideta 152148 8 3600 20,681,332 3 kirkose 235032 8 5484 25,152,880 4 Addis ketma 20120400 13 2160 30,120400 5 gulele 235472 26 2880 25,127,480 6 yeka 299127 26 10440 40,921,454.5 7 Akaki 159056.1 18 2520 25,315049 8 nefassilek 563698.8 23 3960 65,702,892 9 kolefe 523800 25 4860 60,140,000 10 Bole 459630 29 5760 55,366,700 total 10 22,962,678 184 42,185 370,814,493

no Private Ass.name

#of cars

Trip of cars for one month

Working institution #

Disposing waste average

Payment monthly average

1 Dynamic 9 571 115 17474 1568466.24 2 Rose 9 837 71 17067 1531933.92 3 Solomon G/kidan 2 72 47 233.76 210038.40 4 ATE 3 128 66 3552 318827.52 5 Serkalem

&Aschalew 2 144 40 3068.18 302940

6 yes 5 449 118 6986 627063 7 Hedas 2 72 51 1297.53 116777.76 8 Anteneh 6 655 122 14022 1258614.72 9 Tigest &muleya 4 230 79 11240 1011600 10 Helen 2 33 47 259 23247.12 11 Melekamna

AMAN 2 104 44 1812 162645.12

12 Adoliyan 2 252 33 7387 663057.12 13 Gedelawit 2 85 25 3043 273139.68 14 Yesakore 4 122 34 976 87605.76 15 Ach.ti.Ach 5 196 91 8176 734057.28 16 Ach.As.Af. 2 48 40 1936 173775.36 17 Eteyoland 2 61 48 2095.4 188585.76 18 konjet 1 24 44 911 81771.36 19 Genet 2 57 37 3752 336779.52 20 Webet 2 145 40 6154 552383.04 21 Dawit 2 82 42 2767 249030 22 Amae &tekele 4 51 40 2070 185803.2 23 Selamawite 2 5 4 156 14002.56 24 Haile Alemayhu 2 69 57 2173 195048.48 total 24 86 4,492 1,335 118,607.9 10,867,193

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From the above table the privateassociation to contribute the wastecollect and transport in theminimum standard of their paymentmeans the share enterprise paid thegovernment only the waste fromhouse to temporary place 90 birrfor 1 m3 and the same payment paidthe private association to collect andtransport to disposal site. Therefore4492 trip and 1,335 institution and118607.9 m3 waste collected andtransported from each institutions inbelow twice a week. So thegovernment to save two things thewaste collection and transportationshould be privatized and paiddepending of the efficiency andquality of service upgrade thepayment to solve the trip and anystorage waste collect and transporttimely and save way.

3.1.3. The Division of the car andthe transport system

Divided the vehicle into 3 types:1. A-type vehicle: far from the

disposal and recycling center areselected from the Temporary storagearea. The order in which storedwastes have to be visited and iscalculated based upon the proximityof stored wastes. Then the optimalpath is generated for each vehiclefrom the specific storage and pileareas. In this process, clusters ofstored wastes are formed and eachcluster is allocated to a vehicle. Theclusters are made by taking the timeinto account, which may be plusor minus the total working hoursfor the day. In such cases, the lastcluster may be merged with otherclusters by increasing the total

working hours. The subcity undersuch circumstance yeka, Bole,Akaki and Gulele total skip pointsin those area are 34.they needed thetypes of car more waste car becauseof far from the disposing area So theyhad to use more that 100 m3containers collected waste from 34near far area easily transported moreamount of waste to analyze the costeffective and the efficiency of wastetransported means to change thepayment system based on distanceand effectiveness of the wastecollected and transportation eitherrecycling and disposing centers. TheProposed payment will be 1.8 birrby 1 kg or 180 birr for 1 m3. Theallowed car types were larger sizebecause of collection andtransportation of the waste majoreffect for cost, Time and quality.

2. B-type vehicle: meddle of thedisposing area is performed as donefor the A-type vehicle. Based uponthe distance of the stored waste areformed, which is the maximumcapacity that a B-type vehicle canclear at a time because of near thedisposing place. The total timerequired to clear each clusterthrough the optimal path iscalculated and displayed to the user.Now the user can select a subset ofclusters to be cleared by a vehicle.Once the user enters the group ofclusters to be cleared, a final optimalpath between these clusters isgenerated. The total time requiredand other results are calculated. Inaddition to this the cluster used lowcost of transport because it near tothe disposing or recycling center

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and including Kirkos,lideta,Aradaand Addis Ketema. Totally, they had15 transfers station and skip point.It also far from the disposing centerthinks the cost effective and theefficiency of waste collected andtransported timely and protects theenvironment. The payment systemalso differs from the far and thenearest because of their own costto demonstrate and production ofwaste due to the market area andinternational sound activit ieshappened. The proposed paymentpractice will be 1.6 birr by 1 kg or160 birr by 1m3.The allowed cartypes was medium size because ofcollection and transportation of thewaste major effect for Time andquality.

3. C-type vehicle: the optimal pathis calculated for each C-type clusterattached each other. Based upon thetotal working hours, the number ofvehicles required to clear the C-typestored waste is then calculated. Inaddition to this the cluster used lowcost of transport and the quality oftransporting because it near to thedisposing or recycling center andincluding Nefasselek and kolef.Totally, they had 25 transfers station

and skip point. It also closed to thedisposing center thinks the costeffective; the efficiency of wastecollected, transported timely andprotects the environment. Thepayment system also differs from thefar and the medium because of theirown cost to demonstrate andproduction of waste due to the mostdense and life area of the societyhappened. The proposed paymentpractice will be 1.45 birr by 1 kg or145 birr by 1m3.The allowed cartypes was medium or small typessize because of collection andtransportation of the waste majoreffect for speed, Time and quality.

3.1.4. Financial expenditureBeing a ''public utility'' and an

essential service, investment in solidwaste management does not requirea justification in terms of ''positivereturn on investment'' or ''minimumprofits''(5). Such an investment,however, needs to be justified onthe basis of being ''the least costtechnologically feasible option'' forachieving the required degree ofefficiency and paid to maximize thecollection, transportation, timely,clear environmental and otherpractice clearly applicable.

3.2. Challenges of Transportation3.2.1. Governmental transportation challenges3.2.1.1. Efficiency

Figure 4:-waste stored and not yet transported timely

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From the above figure observedthat the waste collected from eachhousehold by using cars, pushcartsor other means. Now the wastealready collected and stored nextstep to transport either disposingor recycling centers in this case andother occasion in Addis thosehappening occurred due to sixpractice 1.the poor management ofactivities, 2 the inefficiency of thepresent drivers, 3.the unmanageablewaste storage area, 4.Theinefficiency of the car workinghours, maintenance and types of carused time, 5.The distribution of carin the subcity because in somesubcity the cars idle in some casesevere so to amend it due to thewaste generation, the distance fromdisposing and the number oftransfer station.6.The participationand awareness of the public still nowpoor and low practice appreciation.From this observation to increase theefficiency of waste handling,collection, transporting recycling,reusing and disposing wastemanagement system must be planedand road map preparation andchange the whole mind set of thesociety and institutional arrangementof the sectors and used technologydepending up of our effort andappreciate the new inventedtechnique practice and applied lawand regulation without interruptionstrongly and seriously.

3.2.1.2. Poor Resource manage-ment

1 car:-The maintenance part ofthe government bought car very indangers because of weak follow and

control, the brocracy of theprocurement system, the budgetmanagement and general noattention to give value after buyingthe cars due to the continuouschecked and test the maintenanceof those resources

2. Fuel:-In the government carpaid more money for subsidiary theShare enterprise to share the subsidesof either of the transportation cost.The consumption of fuel is 3different situations like higher 20million years used, minimum 5million per years. It is the practicalmanagement of fuel andmanntainace under question ingovernmental cars so to solve thisproblem used two chose:-

1. Used the previous system andstrongly managed, organized andfollowed up with effectively andefficiently

2. Privatized the transport systemand add some payment to theprivatization activit ies .Theresearcher observation in thatappreciate the privatizationmanagement of waste collection andtransportation because of strictcontrol, follow up and effectiveefficiency management applicable ifused the first chose the sound cleancity vision did not attend the reasonbehind the poor follow up, controland management system ofimportant the transportation motorsof mantainace and fuel availabilityunsolved so it is important to showthe nice city to practice and giveresponsibility the whole system toprivatization or partial method alsopossible.

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3.2.2 Private3.2.2.1. Distribution of waste

the distance of the transported areaand the production time of the carwas importance to determine the sizeand types. Now the privatizationappreciation was happened theprivate association must haveenough preparation and capacity totake off the city waste collection andtransportation activities properly.

3.3. Finding of the paper1. To change inefficient waste

collection and transportation systemby changing altitude, sytem andstrict control and follow up activities

2. To integrate the waste systemwithout interruption managementand organization that is fromhandling to recovery (disposing orerecycling activities

3. To improve the poor resourcemanagement in the institution likethe car fuel, the maintenance of thecar, the payment of workers, thehealth protective material ofworkers, the whole procurementsystem must be changed otherwiseto appreciation privatization to givethe work from handling totransportation by contractualactivities and strict follow up thatis share of resource managementsystem

4. To appreciate the recyclingactivities to minimize the collection,transportation and disposing wasteat the source by continuous awarethe society during waste collectionor other transferring method ofknowledge and skill.

4. Conclusions and Recommen-dation

4.1. ConclusionResults indicate that the optimal

Figure 5:-The private cars typesFrom the figure observed that the

compactors car used those 33 privateassociation to transport waste from1335 institutions what the problemin heard the amount of waste in theassociation was very small relatedto the Share enterprise that is 18%of the city waste transported by thoseassociation but in the city has morethan 91 goveremental and privetinstitution the agency provided only1335 institutions due to this the wasteamount collected and transportedvery small is that the paymentamount also different company withcompany .To solve this problem usedto way:-

1.To give additional 91 institutiondistribut for those associations

2.To Change the system of wastecollection and transportation systemas privatazation either method usedto increse the waste collection andtransportaion effeciency to creatclean enviroment and clean city orworld.

3.2.2.2. Car typesThe recommended car for

private association all havecompactors from small to biggersize, but selection the size and typesof cars depending of the waste types,

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sytem is more efficient in terms ofcollection waste time and distancetravelled or waste transportationsystem. These savings are highlyrelated to waste collection speed, gasemissions, car maintenance costand fuel consumption. The 3 typesof car arrangement based on theoptimal activities such as populationdensity, waste generation capacity,road network and the types of road,storage bins and collection vehicles,etc., is developed and used to tracethe minimum cost/distance efficientcollection paths for transporting thesolid wastes to the landfill. Theproposed efficient management ofthe city was daily operations formoving solid wastes, load balancingwithin vehicles, managing fuelconsumption, manitenace andgenerating work time schedules forthe workers and vehicles in eitherwas governmental orprivatazation.Due to this practiceeffective transportation wasapplicable in the city theenvironment sound situation mustbe observed unless otherwise thewaste management ineffective likethe present practice the environmentpolluted the health of life endanger

for the city, Africa and the worldbecause Addis Ababa the capital cityof Ethiopia and Africa and the 3rdtourism center of meeting country.So we are luck to think more approvalof waste management special thetransportation practice must beimproved it is mandatory continuesor back.

4.2. Recommendations1. Future work should focus on

reduction the waste at source tocover wider waste collection areas,based on spatial analysis rather thanempirical approaches, as well asadaptation of the collection systemto the introduction of separatecollection schemes for differentwaste streams and quantification offuel and emission savings.

2. Appreciate privatation of wastecollection and transportationactivit ies both case might bepracticed.

5. AcknowledgmentI am acknowledgement for

helping and responsiring to work thisresearch the city Administration ofAddis Ababa cleansing managementoffice and my Family MerryGurmu, Euale, Aledana and yafetMassreshaw to practical helping.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-16

TASHKENT EXCHANGE OF CUSTOMER DESIGN ANDLANDSCAPE DESIGN

Oybek Sadikjanovich KasimovNamed after Kamoliddin Behzod

National Institute of Arts and Design3rd PhD doctoral degree



Abstract: Improvement of the living environment, the cardinal change of life conditionsof population have been one of the most pressing problems. In article reflected the real-life problems with attention to every small detail. Besides, by author were worked out andprojected the solutions to these problems and planned for implementation in life.

Key words: Bozsuv, Chauli, Urda, district, neighborhood, guzar.

Recommended citation: Oybek Sadikjanovich Kasimov. TASHKENT EXCHANGE OFCUSTOMER DESIGN AND LANDSCAPE DESIGN. 3-4. American Journal of Research P.182-187 (2019).

Speaking about housing, we haveto focus on improving the livingconditions of the population, whichis the only and most importantaspect. People always live up to theirown and live, but they also createthe necessary conditions for them.Because nobody comes from theoutside and does nothing for us. Itis primarily for us and for the futuregenerations, not to do any good orharmful things. Our goal is to makethe right use of the humancapabilities provided to us, to bringnature to the next generations. Thisis the ultimate goal of every humanbeing. If our ancestors, nature andour ancestors have made the beautyof nature beautiful, we should be

able to convey that promise to thenext generation.

Look at Tashkent's history.Tashkent, the most beautiful city inCentral Asia, dates back to severalperiods:

1) The period of the khanates,2) The period of the Tsar Russia,3) The period of the former SovietUnion, 4) The period ofindependence. The khanate was one-storeyed, and the villagers lived inthe courtyard. The courtyards weredivided into two parts: the interiorand exterior courtyards. Entrance tothe exterior of the yard was theentrance door. There was a pool inthe middle of the courtyard. The poolis a water reservoir and microclimate.

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The outer courtyard is quitedecorated and designed toaccommodate guests. For thisreason, here are planted spices, aswell as spruce and willow trees. Inthe courtyard there were used kaleyards and vegetables. There weredone with flap of homes. Willow treeis planted and later planted withorchards, mulberry and grapes fromfruit trees. People have been pets orengaged in some sort of craft. In thecourtyard, more women spent theirtime. On the street, mostly nuts andcereals are planted.

At the time of Tsar Russia,flowers in roosters of the outercourtyards began to plant rose andpurse. Ornamental trees are brought

and scattered. Construction of two-storied high-rise buildings has beenstarted.

During the Soviet era, the speciesof flowers began to grow. Ornamentaltrees were planted. In the courtyardsfigs were planted and planted on theoutside of the yard, and the localpopulation was widely used in theconstruction. Multi-storeyed; four,five, seven, even nine-story buildings.

During the years of independencethe construction of public buildingsincreased. In recent years Tashkenthas been undergoing a radicalrenovation. Different species of trees,shrubs and flowers from abroad areimported and adapted to the localclimate.

Periodic change of trees and flowers№ The name of

the term Type of

accommodation Flower and

shrubs Trees

1 Khanates Yard Tulips Willow, poplar, sycamore

2 Tsar Russia yard Nasturtium , rose, purse

Oak, weeping willow

3 Former Soviet Union

Multi-storey building, yard

Rose, jasmine,

Fir tree, chestnut

4 Independence Multi-storey building, yard

Nargiz flower, gladiolus, hydrangea

Fir tree, kiparis, koster, juniper

The information about the historyof the Tashkent House was very low,and most of them burned. In themajority of Uzbek homes, fruit treeswere planted until the time of ChorRossy. Later, ornamental trees wereplanted.

Officer A.P.Horoshikhin writes:"Tashkent was surrounded bygardens, and the local populationwas widely used for the constructionof trees and houses, and the wallswere neighbors, and there were 12

gates in the city. The Kokandenclave, where new houses werebuilt here, with the arrival of theRussian Empire, was the home ofthe first European architecturehouse, General MG Chernyaev,built in Tashkent."

"Population growth has reachedthe present-day Tiflis, Tbilisi," wroteElize Reklyu. Looking at the cityfrom a distance, it reminded the thickforest because there were not manystorey houses.

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At that time, NN Karazindescribed, "Tashkent is the onlyCentral Asian developing city wherethe poplars have a special appearancein the city's appearance."

In 1988, V.A. Looking at Nielsen'sbook The Origin of Modern City inUzbekistan (19th-20th Century), wesee that large cities in Uzbekistan,including Tashkent, have their ownwords in a number of spheres suchas urbanism, architecture,landscaping, gardening, and so on.

With the arrival of Tsarist Russia,the first construction project inTashkent was developed by engineerKolesnikov in 1865, and the generalplan of the new Tashkent city(gen.plan) was developed byengineer Makarov in 1870.Accordingly, this project is plannedfor Boszwoo and Chauli arches.

There were eight lakes in the cityof Tashkent during that time. Theyinclude: Burjar, Boz-Su, Ankhor,Kalkauz, Kukcha, Chigatoy, Kara-Su, Salar, Scream, (Late-and-winter).

Some of them are now closed,while others have a smaller share.Therefore, the water leakagecapacity has decreased considerably.

From the History There are manyforms of government and societygovernance. Unique system ofmanagement of the Uzbek people isMAXALLA(local committees)system. Makhallya manages himself.Therefore, despite the above-mentioned changes, the concept ofmahalla in Uzbek households did notdisappear. On the contrary, at anygiven time, he had a positiveoutcome. Mahalla's management,Guzar's conception, has been builton centuries-old traditions ofhumanity based on the spirit of ournation. We need to learn more andimplement this system more closely.Studying and using these traditionsmakes a great contribution to thedevelopment of modern architectureand town-planning. It is desirable topreserve the ancient cities, mahallas,guzars and their centers representingthe local culture and traditionsduring the development of therestoration of historic towns.

In Tashkent, most of themakhallya population engaged inagriculture and horticulture. T.Burashev and M.Pospelov wrotethat "the export of dried fruit fromTashkent increased by 44% in 1930and by 85% in 1950." This indicates

The first construction project in Tashkent.Designed by engineer Kolesnikov in 1865

General Plan of Tashkent city (gen.plan).Designed by engineer Makarov in 1870

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that agriculture in Tashkent is verywell developed.

The neighborhoods of the citycenter are very ancient, and newsettlements are connected to theoutskirts. Lt. Col. V.V. Krestovskywrites that "later the people ofTashkent began to embark on thenortheast-eastern part of the city."

Most of the mahallas around theChorsu Bazaar (Eskijuva) wereengaged in crafts and trade. Due tothe large number of shops,workshops, the dwellings weresmaller than the yards in theoutskirts of the city. We have justlearned very little about Tashkent.Scientific research will continue.

On April 17, 1932, for the firsttime in Uzbekistan, the Regulationon local committees was developed.In the years of the Second WorldWar, the makhallya has beenexploiting the undergroundmovements. The neighborhood hasbeen solved, a number of issues,such as mobilization, propagandistpropaganda, army recruitment,placement of children from the front.

In the work of N.G. Mallitsky's"Tashkent neighborhoods andsettlements", there are about 280mahallas and 170 surroundings inTashkent in the 19th century.

In recent years, self-governancehas been very popular with thetraditions and values of our people.

Under the initiative of the FirstPresident of the Republic ofUzbekistan I.A Karimov, 2003 wasdeclared the "Year of the Mahalla"in Uzbekistan. In this regard, theCabinet of Ministers of the Republic

of Uzbekistan adopted a number ofimportant tasks aimed at raising theprestige of mahalla in accordancewith the February 7, 2003 program"The Year of the Mahalla".

Now the President of theRepublic of Uzbekistan Sh.M.Mirziyoyev's press service quoted thePresident's reference to the mostimportant priorities for 2019 as theyear of the beginning of the greatwork on the prosperity of our villagesand neighborhoods, which is thesymbol of our Motherland in 2018,"In particular, The "Obod mahalla"programs were welcomed with greatpleasure by our people and this year3 trillion soums were allocated forthe construction and improvementworks. " . As you can see, "Mahalla"is the heart of the people ofUzbekistan.

So, we have to make sure thatthe living standards of multi-storeyhousing are truly managed by thecommunity. If we do not know theneighbor, who is not a neighbor, andwho does not know who he works,what problems he or she isexperiencing in life, and if we arenot indifferent to the upbringing ofour children, such a state willcollapse. When neighbors get to knoweach other and help each other tothe extent possible, theneighborhood is a real neighborhood.We can achieve progress andprosperity through endless hard workand dedication.

"We need to move from buildingstandard housing in rural areas tostep-by-step construction of multi-storey houses in towns and

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settlements, and through this newsystem we will be able to furtherimprove the appearance of ourregions and improve the wellbeingof the population". Mirziyoyevdesignated new plans in his appealto the Oliy Majlis.

At the same time, the peculiaritiesof the city development in Tashkentare largely due to the fact that largeamounts of housing constructionand limited resources in the regiondepend on their subsequent growthand require a new and moredeveloped form of residentialplanning and landscape designplanning. We need to carry out suchresearch to answer a number ofquestions, such as improving theliving conditions of the population,improving the architectural-artisticappearance of the housingdevelopment, intensifying the use ofthe area, and explaining creativeideas to human and nature.

As it is evident, today, thecomplex improvement of the livingconditions of the population is oneof the pressing issues. There are a lotof things to do, especially in multi-storey residential buildings.Formation of living conditions inresidential areas and creating amodern landscape design based onaesthetic requirements have been aproblem for many years. Thedemands of people's livelihoods,living conditions, and theenvironment change.

Thus, the multi-storey buildingenvironment and the landscapedesign in Tashkent depend on anumber of specific factors.

1. Geographical location2. Climate conditions3. Demographic factors4. Household and cultural needs

of the population5. Centers of mahallas6. Psychological factors7. Ecology8. Aesthetic requirements9. Domestic flora and fauna.The construction of multi-storey

buildings in recent years and theefforts made to improve thelivelihoods of the population aredefinitely worth the effort, but it hasbecome clear that there is not asignificant link between nature andman. For example, children livingin multistoried settlements do notknow exactly what kind of tree theyare looking for, just because theyare ordinary trees and fruit trees.Even the simplest details; do notknow how to use ax, shovels. Petscan not be separated from each other.Of course, the rapid developmentof technology is appealing toeveryone, but we are far away fromphysical activity. As a result, there isa physical, mental, psychologicalvulnerability among young people.Our aim is to bring our homes tothe paradise, to create the minds ofpeople with the emphasis onlandscape design.

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Literature

1. Press Service of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan addressed to the OliyMajlis of the Republic of Uzbekistan on the most important priorities for 2019

2. V.A. Nielsen "Origin of modern city in Uzbekistan" (beginning of the XIX-XXcenturies) 1988y.

3. Guidelines for a comprehensive set up of the towns of Uzbekistan. Tashkent, 19704. Q.X. Muxamedjanov Formation of the architectural and planning structure of

residential areas and neighborhoods(for example, large and large cities of Uzbekistan)5. Pulatov X.Sh. Architectural and planning structure of old Tashkent (the end of the

nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century's. Tashkent 1994)6. O.S.Kasimov Garden Legasy of East and West 2017y. LAP Lambert Academic

Publishing.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-17

THE ROLE OF BIOCHIPS IN MEDICALINSTRUMENTATION: TERMINOLOGY AND

COMPONENTS

Eng. Fadi T. AlasasfehRoyal Medical Services, Amman - Jordan



Abstract: A biochip is defined as a combination of microarrays coordinated on arobust substance or layer which allows a lot of tests to be utilized simultaneouslyin orderto obtain more throughput as well as speed. A biochip can execute thousands of biologicalprocesses in a very short time.Different kinds of biochips become one of the mostsignificanttechnologies in several biomedical areas[1, 2].

Keywords: Biochip, Transponder, Microchip,Microarray and Reader.

Recommended citation: Eng. Fadi T. Alasasfeh. THE ROLE OF BIOCHIPS IN MEDICALINSTRUMENTATION: TERMINOLOGY AND COMPONENTS. 3-4. American Journal ofResearch P. 188-191 (2019).

1. Components of BiochipsThe evolution of this technology

began with preliminary labor on theimplied sensor technology. In 1922,Hughes innovated the glass pHsensor. After a while, the k+electrode was invented by integratingvalinomycin into a tender film.Twowell-known scientists in this field,Watson and Crick, produced thefamous double spiral framework ofDNA molecules and this inventionwas the ignition spark for geneticresearch which keeps going toimprove until these days[3].

In fact, the biochip system isconsidered a radio frequencyidentification system. This systemperforms low-frequency waves to

connect the biochip to the reader.This low amount of frequency wavesensures the safety of its usage.Thedistance between the biochip andthe reader ranges between 5 and 30centimeters.The biochip implantsappliance involves two importantcontents which are:

a) The transponder.b) The reader or the scanner[4].The first component (i.e. the

transponder) is the de facto biochipimplant. The transponder iscategorized into two forms. Thepassive transponder which ischaracterized by not having a battery.This kind of transponders is capableof working for at least 99 years. Italso does not require any

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maintenance.It works only when itreceives a small-power electricalcharge from the reader. Then,communication will happen betweenthe reader and the biochip. Thesecond form of transponders is theactive transponder. Here, thetransponder employs its own energysource which is often a smallbattery.The transponder is made offour components which arecomputer microchip, antenna coil,capacitor and the glass capsule.Figure (1) below illustrates thecomponents of the biochip, the sizeof biochip and the perspective ofthe actual size. The size of thebiochip is about 11.5 millimetersfrom end to end. This small size isthe same as the size of an uncookedgrain of rice. The size is suitable forbiomedical applications and toensure safety to the human body[5].

abbreviated as AVID asserts that itsmicrochips have the ability of morethan 70k million unique numbers[6].The identification number is beingengraved using a laser at the exteriorsurface of the microchip.Then, itwill be very difficult to change. Thiscomponent involves also the circuitsneeded to forward the identificationfigure to the reader.The secondcomponent is the antenna coil. It isusually a plain, coil of copperfilament round an iron rod. Theteeny antenna can receive and sendwaves from the reader.

The third component is the tuningcapacitor. As its name implies, thiscomponent can store <0.001 wattswhich sent from the reader thatfires the transponder. The processenables the transponder to returnthe identification number etchedin the microchi p. The tuningcapacitor uses the same frequencyas the scanner.Al l the threecomponents are housed inside aglass capsule. Indeed, it is a verysmal l house in size. I t ismanufactured main ly frombiocompatible materials. Aftercomposition, the glass capsule ishermetically closed. Then, theelectronic components becomevery safe inside the human body.To ensure that the biochip is in apersistent position inside the body,a polypropylene polymer envelopeis connected to an end of the glasscapsule.The biochip is injected tothe body using a hypodermic syringe.The injection process does notrequire any anesthesia and is an easy,unharmed and plain process[7].

Figure (1): Components of the Biochip

Having considered thecomponents of a biochip in general,it is also reasonable to look at thesecomponents delicately. The firstcomponent which is the microchipcan store a singular identificationnumber with a length of 10 to 15digits. The American VeterinaryIdentification Devices which is

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It is important however tooveremphasis the importance of thereader. It is composed of a coil thatproduces an electromagnetic fieldwhich using radio waves that cansupply the needed power to fire thebiochip. Furthermore, it holds areceiving coil which draws thetransferred code. The activation andreceiving processes happen in a veryshort time which may reachmilliseconds. This component has thesoftware and electronic chips neededto decode the received code andshow the outcome in a display.Moreover, it can be connected to acomputer.

2. Microarray TechnologiesThis technology is not restricted

to DNA analyses which was the firstform of microarrays. There aredifferent types of these microarrayssuch as protein ones, antibodiesones and chemical ones. These typesof microarrays can be used toproduce biochi ps. In proteinmicroarrays, the biochip supersedesthe ELISA layer as the reactionplatform.This system analyzes therelevant tests at the same time onthe same sample and then creates apatient profile. Consequently, thisprofile can be utilized to implementa full image of the patient and his/her diagnoses and prognosis[8].

Moreover, executing many testsat the same time permits to reducethe time required to diagnose andtreat the patient as well as reducingthe number of tests needed. In fact,Biochip Microarrays Technology isconsidered a significant methodologyinherited from a well-known system.

This technology utilizes antibody-capture immunoassays.These novelimmunoassays are characterized inits framework where the captureligands are denoting chemical bondsformed by the sharing of electronsbetween atoms connected to the toplayer of the biochip in a consistentarray.Biochip Array Technologywhich implemented in sandwichplatforms uses an enzyme-labeledantibody. The antibody-antigenbinding executes a chemical reactionthat generates light. A high-resolutioncamera is used to detect the light[9].

Another form of microarrays istissue microarrays. These microarraysare composed of paraffin blockswhere about one thousand distincttissue cores are gathered in an arrayplatform in order to permit multiplexhistological analyses. When thistechnique is applied, a special hollowneedle is utilized to extract tissuenuclei which are only 0.6 millimetersin diameter. The extraction isperformed in tissues embedded withparaffin like clinical biopsies ortumor samples.

The tissue microarrays have beenused widely to analyze and estimatecancer biomarkers in addition toimmunohistochemistry technology.This association between the twoforms of microarrays succeeded indefining cancer biomarkers indifferent defined cohorts.

3. ConclusionThe biochi p technology has

achieved successive successes inmany medical fields and thebiomedical engineers have beenupdating this technology and taking

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advantages of the digital revolutionto develop and improve thistechnology. These systems are safefor patients and do not take long to

References

1. Xiong, Q., et al., Magnetic nanochain integrated microfluidic biochips. Naturecommunications, 2018. 9(1): p. 1743.

2. Ali, S.S., et al., Supply-chain security of digital microfluidic biochips. Computer,2016. 49(8): p. 36-43.

3. Pardatscher, G., et al., Gene Expression on DNA Biochips Patterned withStrand?Displacement Lithography. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2018. 57(17):p. 4783-4786.

4. Li, Z., et al. High-level synthesis for micro-electrode-dot-array digital microfluidicbiochips. in 2016 53nd ACM/EDAC/IEEE Design Automation Conference (DAC). 2016.IEEE.

5. Lin, P.C., D. Weinrich, and H. Waldmann, Protein biochi ps: oriented surfaceimmobilization of proteins. Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics, 2010. 211(2): p. 136-144.

6. Chakrabarty, K., Design automation and test solutions for digital microfluidic biochips.IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I: Regular Papers, 2010. 57(1): p. 4-17.

7. Grissom, D. and P. Brisk. Path scheduling on digital microfluidic biochips. in DACDesign Automation Conference 2012. 2012. IEEE.

8. Schena, M., Microarray analysis. 2003: Wiley-Liss New York.9. Kricka, L.J., Microchips, microarrays, biochips and nanochips: personal laboratories

for the 21st century. Clinica Chimica Acta, 2001. 307(1-2): p. 219-223.

analyze the information taken fromthe patient and do not need to bemaintained periodically.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-18

THE MECHANISM OF REGULATION OF INNOVATIVEFORMS OF SOCIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS IN THE

INNOVATION ECONOMY

Ulugmuradova Nodira Berdimurodovna,Samarkand State University, Economy and Business

Faculty researcherat



Abstract: This article discusses the need for the formulation of innovative forms ofsocial and economic relations, tables and tasks, degrees, synergy and institutional rightsand trends.

Keywords: social and labor relations, regulation, innovation, government regulation,collective bargaining, innovative forms of social and labor relations, enforcement,institution.

Recommended citation: Ulugmuradova Nodira Berdimurodovna. THE MECHANISM OFREGULATION OF INNOVATIVE FORMS OF SOCIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS INTHE INNOVATION ECONOMY. 3-4. American Journal of Research P. 192-201 (2019).

In the modern economy, theregulation of innovative forms ofsocial and labor relations candevelop in several areas: marketself-regulation, governmentregulation and collectivebargainingregulation.

Understanding the limits of stateregulation of innovative forms ofsocial and labor relations implies arecourse to the category of "self-regulation". In our study, self-regulation is understood as anindependent and initiative activity ofworkers and employers (subjects ofinnovative forms of social and laborrelations), as well as non-stateeconomic institutions to establishrules of conduct and monitor their

observance. Government regulationdue to the need to ensure thesolution of the followingissues:

- firstly, to ensure the publicinterest ("the theory of publicchoice");

- secondly, to maintain certainsectors of the economy and stabilizecompetition between pressure groups(Chicago regulation theory);

- thirdly, to increase the degreeof efficiency of resource allocationin the sphere of production andconsumption and streamline theprocess of obtaining by the publicauthorities a political rent-incomedividend.

Thus, government regulationensures the interests of employees

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and employers of distance and agentlabor relations, support for newsectors of the economy, increasingthe efficiency of the distribution oflabor resources between businessareas, organizations.Outsidegovernment regulation may be self-regulation.

In Uzbekistan, the problem ofregulating social and labor relations,and in particular, the regulation ofinnovative forms was addressed quiterecently and already when a growingimbalance in the interests of workersand employers, the state,threatening the further socio-economic development of thecountry, became apparent. As wehave already noted, the modern fieldof innovative forms of social andlabor relations is quite mosaic.

The specificity of the "format" ofnew social and labor relations, aswell as the general socio-economicconditions for their development inthe country, will also determine thespecifics of legal, economic, andorganizational measures to regulatethem.

Under regulation of innovativeforms of social and labor relationswe understand the impact of thesubject of regulation on constituentobjects of social and labor relations(guarantees and terms ofemployment, labor organization,remuneration) in order to ensuretheir orderliness, balance theinterests of business and employeesand improve the quality of workinglife, maximize positive effects. Thesustainability and effectiveness ofstate regulation of innovative forms

of social and labor relations in theeconomy will depend on finding newnorms, forms, mechanisms, andmethods of interaction betweenvarious subjects about the specialequipment. The result of regulationcan be both a change in the scale,structure, dynamics, and qualitativecharacteristics of innovative formsof social and labor relations (balanceof "security-efficiency", "flexibilityand security").

Among researchers, a holisticunderstanding of the concept ofregulating non-standard, innovativeforms of social and labor relationshas not yet emerged [2, 3, 5].

One of the conditions forensuring the balance of new formsof labor relations in the aspect of"flexibility-security" is thestrengthening of their stateregulation by legal and economicmethods. The state regulation ofinnovative forms of social and laborrelations is, on the one hand, theresult of multi ple interactionsbetween the subject and the objectsof regulation, on the other hand,constant process of exposureandcorrection of behavior of thesubjects of these relations.

Solving the problems of regulatingthese forms of labor relations impliesthe development of new principlesand regulatory measures, includingon the basis of the assimilation andpractical application of existingforeign experience. However, theproblems of importing institutionsand possible institutional trapsshould be taken into account. In thiscase, the priority in choosing forms

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and methods of regulation shouldbe to ensure a balance of decent workconditions for employees and theinterests of modern business andsociety.

The analysis shows that with theadvent of innovative forms of socialand labor relations essential theimportance of the flexibility factor.So, shift ing emphasis fromemployment protection toensuringthe efficiency of the labor markethas led to a reassessment of thecomponentsstate regulation of laborrelations, including legislation onemployment protection, theunemployment insurance system,regulation of private employmentagencies, active employmentprograms, etc. Secondly, thesituation of workers and the degreeof their social protection oftendeteriorates compared to employeesof "traditional" labor relations.Thirdly, the very model of"traditional" labor relations [4] is putinto question, especially whenapplying the loan labor format. Itshould be noted that developedcountries (USA, Australia,Germany, Austria, the Netherlands,etc.), despite the initial rejection ofnew flexible forms of labor relationsby trade unions, still take intoaccount the increasing role offlexibility of social and laborrelations in the conditions ofinnovative development of theeconomy . Recognition of theimportance of regulating innovativeforms of labor relations abroad isreflected in the creation ofmechanisms and institutions for

regulating both contingent labor anddistance employment; in thedevelopment of the regulatoryframework; in the allocation of fundsfor the creation of research centersand organizations involved inmonitoring and studying theproblems associated with new formsof employment, etc.

The principles of a decent workprogram depend on the economicpolicies of the states, first of all, thedegree to which they want to workand to seek employment. This is notabout the case, but about the workof the International LaborOrganization in the GlobalEmployment Program. According tothe International LaborOrganization (ILO), the number ofemployees covered by unprotectedforms of employment in the worldis $ 1.53 billion. one person. This ismore than half (50.1%) of the totalnumber of employed people. Forthis reason, experts from theInternational Labor Organizationrecommended evaluating the decentworkforce in 11 countries for decentwork [1].

The main tasks in regulatinginnovative forms of social and laborrelations are: giving the necessaryvector of development of innovativeforms of social and labor relationsby creating an effective mechanismfor their regulation, choosing thebasic principles of regulation andforming a scientifically andeconomically sound program(recommendations) for theirdevelopment in our country, takinginto account the experience of

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foreign countries in the regulatoryprocess.

Innovative entrepreneurship is amodern form of labor relations andcan be implemented both as a joint-stock company and a small enterpriseas an individual entrepreneur.Particularly, there are advantagesand disadvantages of innovativeentrepreneurshi p as smallinfrastructure - small innovationenterprise [1].

The mechanism of regulation ofinnovative forms of social and laborrelations is considered by us fromthe standpoint of an open systemand includes the purpose andobjectives of regulation; levels,subjects, principles and subjects ofregulation; The new composition ofinstitutional and organizational,socio-economic, information andanalytical blocks, new regulatorytools. It should allow to maximizethe positive effects of thedevelopment of new forms of socialand labor relations and reduce therisks of their subjects.

For the mechanism of regulationof innovative forms of social andlaborrelations, the main subjects willbe employers, hiredemployees andthe state, which in the process ofinteraction havethe ability to makeconscious decisions regardingpreparationpersonnel, recruitment,employment, work organization,labor incentives, etc. Byessence, themechanism of regulation ofinnovative forms of social andlabor,includes the whole range ofsocio-economic relations betweenthese subjects, as well as legal,

organizational and psychologicaltechniquesand methods that ensuretheir functioning in the system ofsocial and laborrelationshi p. Itshould be noted that the key valueof the regulatory processinnovativeforms of social and labor relationsis precisely hismultisubjectness. It isclear that it is impossible toeffectively influencetheirdevelopment in the case of theimplementation of regulation byonly one entity(by the state), whilenot using the potential of otherparticipantsregulatory process. Theeffectiveness of regulation of distanceand agent forms of labor relationswill depend on the coherence ofactions of all subjects of this process.However, in our opinion, in a givenperiod of time in the emergingpolitical, economic and socio-cultural conditions, the priority rolein regulation (from among varioussubjects) should be with the state,which defines strategic goals,develops laws, programs, projectsrelated to structuring innovativeforms of social and labor relations.At the same time, the possibilitiesof their self-regulation are somewhatlimited.

Improving the mechanism forregulating new forms of social andlabor relations of the labor forceshould involve the definition of levelsof regulation.

1. Global (international) level. Atthis level, the subject regulation ofinnovative forms of social and laborrelations is favored first of all by theInternational Labor Organization,governments, international

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organizations, etc. Conventions andRecommendations MOT areadopted, setting guidelines forregulating new forms of laborrelations as a whole, as well as fromblocks at the national level.

2. National level. The entities thatregulate at this level will bedepartments and ministries, regionalauthorities, representative offices ofemployees and employers, etc. Theimportance of this level is due tothe fact that the level of clarity andliteracy and clarity of the policy ofregulating new forms social andlabor relations will depend on theefficiency and quality of their dutiesat lower levels of regulation.

3. Regional level of regulation ofservice stations. The subjects ofregulation of social and laborrelations at the regional level arelocal authorities, as well asbranches, branches of largecompanies, and territorial unions oftrade unions. In the conditions of therapid spread of distance and agentsocial and labor relations and giventhe high regional differentiation oftheir distribution, specialrequirements should be placed onthe regional level of management. Itis at this level that the "new" laborrelations will be "actually" regulated,labor disputes will be settled, thepolicy of creating an effective labormarket, the implementation ofdecent work programs will bepursued.

4. The micro level of regulation isone of the most important, becauseit is at this level that employerschoose which profile of new forms

of social and labor relations willcorrespond to the stage of developingtheir business and maintaining highcompetitiveness. Employees at thislevel carry out their work activities,choose the type of employment, theorganization of labor and theworkplace, the wage model. Ensuringthe safety of workers, the promotionof labor, the possibility ofparticipation in social dialogue, theavailability of benefits and guaranteesfrom the organization, the term ofthe employment contract, etc. areof great importance. The quality ofthe working life of an employee andthe effectiveness of the organization'swork depend on how clearly andcorrectly social and labor relationsare built at the local level.

In the structure of the regulatorymechanism should be highlightedInstitutional, organizational, socio-economic and informational andanalytical components, theinterrelation of which, together withtheir interaction, determinesspecific measures to regulateinnovative forms of social and laborrelations:

1. Institutional and organizationalcomponent - there is a combinationof bodies and institutions,enterprises and institutions of varioussubjects (both state and non-state)involved in the regulation ofinnovative forms of social and laborrelations, as well as the mechanismof their interaction in the processof organizing and regulatinginnovative forms of social - laborrelations. The functions of thiscomponent of the regulation of new

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forms of social and labor relationsare the adoption of relevantlegislation, legally formulating,permitting (prohibiting), stimulating(restraining) certain new forms oflabor relations and creating relevantinstitutions that monitor and controlsocial and labor spheres . Thiscomponent of the mechanismrequires careful study of foreignexperience, since Uzbekistan doesnot yet have special legal actsregulating "non-standard" forms oflabor relations.

2. The socio-economiccomponent involves thedevelopment of specific measures ofsocial and economic support(restriction) and support of theregulatory processes of innovativeforms of social and labor relations(financing of institutions andorganizations involved in theregulatory process, research of newforms of social and labor relations;programs of special taxation ofemployers using new forms,protection and support ofemployees, their status and rights,determination of insurancecontributions, etc.). This componentof the mechanism is still poorlydeveloped. The socio-economiccomponent occupies an importantplace in the mechanism of regulationof innovative forms of social andlabor relations, along with its otherelements. Its basis is a set of social

and economic measures, withinwhich there is both stimulation ofthe development of innovative formsof social and labor relations, andthe containment of certain negativeeffects of their use. In terms ofimproving this component, attentionshould be paid to the followingaspects:

- implementation of the policy ofprotection of various categories ofworkers included in social and laborrelations of an innovative nature;

- taking into account in thedevelopment of tax policy issues ofsupport for employers who applymodern forms of technical service;

- determination of the size of theauthorized capital of a privateemployment agency (PRA);

- development of a system of finesfor employers who violate theregulatory parameters of theconditions and labor protection ofsubjects of innovative forms oftechnical service stations;

- Consideration in the corporatesocial policy of the interests ofemployees, teleworkers, etc.

3. Information and analyticalcomponent of the mechanism forregulating the new forms of technicalservice stations. In the context ofrapid changes in the modern socialand labor sphere, special attentionshould be paid to: the collection ofstatistical data on innovative formsof social and labor Figure. 1.

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The components of the mechanism of regulation of innovative forms ofsocial and labor relations

The relationshi p and interaction of the regulatory mechanismcomponents described above determines specific measures to regulateinnovative forms of social and labor relations. Direct measures includemeasures that directly affect the possibility of developing new forms oftechnical service stations, the dynamics of growth or reduction in thenumber of employees, and the direction of regulation. This category should

Unions

Levels

Components

Institutionalorganizational

Socio-economic

Information and analytical

Government of the Republic of Uzbekistan

Ministry of Employment and Labor Relations of

PEGS

Employer associations, business community

Special associations of workers in defense of rights at

Determination of efficiency

Results monitoring

Financing institutes and organizations governing SLRIF

Financing programs for the development and popularization of remote stations

Tax policy in relation to organizations that use SLRIF Social protection some workers

Collection of statistics on SLRIF

Informing about the benefits / risks of

SLRIFfor employees and

Creation of state programs for familiarization and popularization of remote stations

Creation of databases, combining information and enterprises and workers IFSTO and

Informing about the possibilities of collective contractual

Global Маcro Mezo Micro

Regulatory mechanism innovative forms of social and labor relations

Subjects

Purpos

Specific regulatory measures

Legal regulation (legal), certification and licensing of PEA, administrative (prohibition / permission of SLRIF), economic (incentive and restricting SLRIF), psychological and informational

The object of regulation of service stations

Result: Ensuring decent work, balancing the interests of service stations, the ratio of “flexibility-security” and stimulating progressive shifts in the economy

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include, for example, legislativemeasures (certification and licensingof PEA); administrative concerningthe permission / prohibition ofspecific forms of technical servicestations in Uzbekistan (legalization(prohibition) of the tripartite modelof labor relations and activities ofprivate employment agencies,legalization of remote social andlabor relations, including e-balance), etc.

We take indirect measures asmeasures that do not have a directimpact on the development of newforms of social and labor relations,but they form certain prerequisitesand possibilities for their futuredistribution. These include economic(stimulating and limiting theinnovative forum of social and laborrelations (SLRIF)); psychologicaland informational (governmentprograms for the promotion ofdistance employment among thepopulation and employers, etc.)measures. These measures, affectingvarious socio-economic aspects ofthe life of citizens, affect the processof regulating social and laborrelations.

It is important that it is necessaryto analyze not only the quantitativeside of the components included inthe mechanism, but also thequalitative filling of the mechanism,i.e. the degree of involvement insolving the problem of regulatinginnovative forms of social and laborrelations and the degree of effectivecombination of several activities.

All the above allows us to presentthe components of the mechanism

for regulating innovative forms ofspecial relativity (Figure. 1). The mostimportant role in the regulation ofinnovative forms of technical servicestations in the republic should beplayed by the State EmploymentService at the regional level.However, it is worth noting that,within the framework of thisinstitution, attention has not yetbeen paid to remote work, E-lance,etc. These forms of social and laborrelations "fall out" from the field ofview of the most important formalinstitutions for regulating laborrelations. There are no contactsbetween the State Service ofEmergency Situations and the PEAin terms of the directions for theexchange of information base andcooperation.

Organizations representing theprotection of the interests of workersin the implementation of their workactivities in the format of new formsof technical service stations should beactively involved in the work onregulating these forms. The FNPR andother trade union organizationsshould develop an effective systemof interaction with each other inorder to develop a unified programfor the protection of rights andguarantees of workers in non-standardforms of employment in order toprevent a decrease in the level ofprotection of Russian workers.

Measures to improve theinstitutional and organizationalcomponent of the mechanism forregulating innovative forms of socialand labor relations, in our opinion,should be as follows:

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1. Inclusion of the maininstitutions (ministries, depart-ments, organization services, tradeunions, employers' unions) in theregulation of innovative forms oftechnical service stations. At the sametime, it is necessary to ensure thecoherence and efficiency ofinteractions between the institutionsfor regulating innovative forms ofsocial and labor relations, theresponsibility of the employer in theframework of new forms of laborrelations, their control, etc.

2. Creation of organizationsrepresenting the interests of workersand employers within certain typesof innovative forms of technicalservice stations (teleworkingagencies, E-lancers, borrowers'organizations, etc.).

3. Expansion of the functions of theState Service of Emergency in theregulation of new forms of technicalservice stations (involvement of thepublic employment service indisseminating information aboutemployment opportunities within thedistant form of technical servicestations to the public, collecting data,conducting research, calculatingdevelopment forecasts for thissegment of the labor market, coverageof competitive activities achievingdecent work conditions, etc.).

4. Improving the coherence andefficiency of interaction of actionsbetween all administrative and otherbodies involved in the regulation ofinnovative forms of social and laborrelations.

5. Modernization and improve-ment of the system of informationinteraction between the institutionsparticipating in the regulation ofsocial and labor relations, the

development of a single mechanismof interaction in the exchange ofinformation, decision making.

Improving the efficiency of theenforcement and operation ofinstitutions for regulating innovativeforms of social and labor relations.The informational and analyticalcomponent of the organizational andeconomic mechanism in the field ofregulating innovative forms of socialand labor relations is an importantelement of it, since its main taskshould be quality and constantmonitoring of the labor market,creating current and future pictureof the development of theproliferation and development ofnew orientation, and in the future,and accompany the processes ofregulation of new forms of technicalservice stations.

The information and analyticalcomponent of the mechanism forregulating innovative forms of socialand labor relations in the republicis not worked out at all. Therefore,in this case, it is worth payingattention to the following:

1. Establishment of researchcenters involved in monitoringdistance employment, extra work inthe republic.

2. Implementation of programs tofamiliarize with the possibilities ofparticipation in innovative forms ofsocial and labor relations in thecountry.

3. Creation of programs (surveys)and implementation of feedback withemployees interested in solvingvarious social and labor problemsin the field of new forms of technicalservice stations.

One of the most important tasksfor creating a high-quality system of

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state monitoring and control of theregulation of innovative forms ofsocial and labor relations is, first ofall, the problem of forming a list ofkey indicators that should beconstantly monitored by nationaland regional authorities. Such a listshould fully cover various aspectsof the application of innovativeforms of social and labor relations(in terms of labor organization,ensuring its safety, employment,wages, labor protection, access tocollective bargaining, terms oftemporary contracts, etc.) ), whichin turn will help to identify problemareas and predict possible risks inthe future. The improvement of thestatistical base in this area shouldmake it possible to calculate thefollowing indicators: the share ofemployed labor to the equivalent offull employment, the number ofpersons performing work at home ingeneral, and teleworkers, inparticular; the average monthlyaccrued wages of these categories ofworkers in the whole country andin the regions; educational andvocational qualification structure ofparticipants in innovative forms ofsocial and labor relations; a

comparative rating of regions andindustries in which new forms ofsocial and labor relations are used,etc. It is possible to calculate theintegral indicator of decent work forsubjects of new forms of technicalservice stations.

The set of measures to regulateSLRIF, in our opinion, should include:

1. Legislative regulation ofinnovative forms of technical servicestations - i.e.the decision on therecognition of the legality of the newforms of serviceuse of borrowedlabor and the development of aprogram for their effective

regulation.2. Permission / prohibition of new

forms of service stations, dependingontheir influence on the state of thesocial and labor sphere, the labormarket,the degree of protection ofthe rights of workers.

3. Stimulation and developmentof new forms of special relativity,positively affectingon thedevelopment of the economy as awhole, business, increasing itsflexibility andcompetitiveness.

4. Stimulation of formation ofconditions for creation in therepublicdecent work for workers.

Bibliography

1. AbdurahmonovQ.H. Labor economy: theory and practice. - T.: "FAN", 2019. 452-p2. Andrukovich, L.N. Agency employment as an objective reality of the Russian labor

market // Social and Labor Studies. Release XXII. // Ed. Col .: Andrukovich L.N.,Vedeneeva B.T ..- M .: IMEMO RAN, 2009.-p.17;

3. Warsaw, EL. Employment flexibility: international experience and Russian practice./ EL. Warsaw. - Kemerovo State University. Kemerovo, 2009.- p.45.

4. Krivoy, I V. Legal regulation of loan labor: international legal, comparative andnational aspects. Diss. Cand. legal Sciences / Ya.V. Curve.- Moscow, 2006.p. eight.

5. Nurtdinova A. Loan Labor: Features of the Organization and Possibilities of LegalRegulation // Economy and Law. 2004, No. 9, p.23.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-19

PICKY EATER CHILDS, TERMINOLOGY ANDHANDLING CASES

Zakaria Sharadgah MD, Mayada Migdadi MD, Mustafa Al-Haji MD,Hala Sweidan MD, Sondos Alharahsheh MD

Royal Medical Services, Amman - Jordan

LIFE SCIENCE


Abstract: Parents suffer from children who are considered picky eaters. Feedingdifficulties are problems experienced by communities in general and households inparticular.Moreover,evaluations of picky eating are reasonablyextraordinary between youngchildren. Despite, definitions and measures vary, evaluations of picky eating are littlegreatin the preschool age group [1].

Keywords: Picky eaters, nutrition, fussy eating and growth.

Recommended citation: Zakaria Sharadgah MD, Mayada Migdadi MD, Mustafa Al-Haji MD,Hala Sweidan MD, Sondos Alharahsheh MD. PICKY EATER CHILDS, TERMINOLOGY

AND HANDLING CASES. 3-4. American Journal of Research P. 202-206 (2019).

1. BackgroundCambridge Dictionary defines the

term "picky eater" as the terminologyof "someone who is very carefulabout choosing only what he/shelike"[2]. In fact, kids are consideredsuch picky eaters. Carruth BR, et alreported that this aspect won theattention of parents to their childrenaged between one and ten years oldto be as high as 50% [3]. Statisticsabout this problem are scary.Anthony et al illustrated thatchildren reported being picky eatersat any given age with a percentagethat range between 13% and 22%.Recently, the incidence of thisproblem has decreased over time,but on the other hand, the rate of

outbreaks has increased. Thus, pickyeating is always a chronic problemwith 40% having a duration of morethan two years [4].

The problem is concentrated ongrowth. Parents often concern whentheir kids' weight and height are notmaintaining with their age. Thedespondency of parents about theirpicky kids is legitimate. This isbecause kids can suffer from serioushealth troubles such as episodes ofinfections and inconvenient foodintake. These healthy issues with foodare well-documented reasons forinterrupted growth. Hence, nutritiousinsufficiencies may causeinappropriate growth. The immunesystem may be suffered because of

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loss of food leading to swellingopportunities for illness andinfection. Other problems mightoccur which are impaired cognitiveand emotional development. Theseproblems might lead to impropergrowth. Moreover, according tohealthcare princi ples, there aresome common manners of pickyeaters such as the following:

1- Eating small amounts of food.2- Taking only specific kinds of

foods.3- Eating very little fruits and

vegetables.4- Denying to attempt new forms

of foods.5- Demanding food made in

particular ways.6- Presenting potent likes and

dislikes for food.7- Expressed tantrums when

denied foods[5].Considering the factors that have

an effect on growth is based on thegolden rule that determines the firstfive years of a person's growth willdetermine 60% of final adult height.

2. Literature ReviewThis section presents a general

literature review and previousresearchers related to the objectivesof this study. Many studies wereconcerned about picky eating. But,there is no standard framework tofollow during the execution ofstudies. The studies vary in someaspects such as the ages of childrenunder study and the period of pickyeating needed for a case. Dubois etal reported that the attribution ofchildren for every behavior classkeep completely stable during the

interval of study. The age of childrenconducted in the study was 4.5 yearsold. The study illustrated that pickyeaters were twice as likely to beunderweight at 4.5 years as childrenwho were never picky eaters.Adjusted odds ratios exposedovereaters were six times more likelyto be overweight at 4.5 years thanwere children who were neverovereaters [6]. Another study wasestablished by Jacobi et al to validatethe notion of parent-reported pickyeating utilizing objective andlaboratory-based measures. In thisstudy, 135 infants were observedfrom birth to 5.5 years.Developmental measures of pickyeating were gathered from patternedfeedings at ages of 3.5 and 5.5 yearsin the laboratory as well as at home.The results were evaluated based onStanford Feeding Questionnaire andChildren's Behavior Questionnaire.The results obtained were significantsuch as picky eaters ate less foodand refuse having vegetables.Besides, picky girls decreased theircaloric intake during ages 3.5 and5.5, unlike all other children wherethey increased their caloric intake.At the end, picky children presentedmore parent-reported negative affectthan non-picky children [7].

A recent study held by Cardonaet al in 2015 suggested that pickyeating is often a transient attitude andconsidered part of plaindevelopment in preschool children.The study group was involving about4,018 participants of a population-based cohort. Records frompregnancy onwards were concluded.

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Picky eating was evaluated bymaternal report at three ages forchildren which were 1.5, 3 and 6years old. The relations of child andfamily characteristics with

trajectories of picky eating weretested utilizing logistic regression.Never picky eaters were utilized asthe reference group. Table (1) showsthe prevalence of picky eating.

Category Age Prevalence 1 1.5 26.5% 2 3 27.6% 3 6 13.2%

Table (1): Prevalence of Picky Eating

The study outlined four primarypicky eating trajectories which were:

1- Never picky eating at wholeestimations. In fact, this categoryrepresents the higher percentagewhich was 55% of children.

2- Remitting: this categorycontains the children until 4 yearsold. Indeed, the percentage was 32%of children.

3- Late-onset: this categorycontains children of age 6 years oldonly. The percentage of this groupwas 4%.

4- Persistent: this categorycontains children of all ages. Thepercentage was 4%.

This concludes that the categoryof never picky eating at wholeestimations is the one with thehighest percentage. Besides, thesecond category was remitting withan intermediate percentage. The thirdand fourth categories obtained equalpercentages [8].

In 2017, a study made by Waltonet al to argue for areconceptualization of picky eatingwhereby child agency is deemedaccording to eating preferencesrather than grouped as compliant ornon-compliant behavior. Moreover,the study aimed to defend the

utilization of bi-directionalrelational approaches of causalityand convenient framework forrealization the parent-child feedingrelevance. The study revised thepresent feeding literature andanalyzed the core of childsocialization literature. The authorsconclude that a reconceptualizationof picky eating might illustrate theimpact that parental feedingbehaviors and child eating attitudeshave on each other. Hence, thismight permit specialist in healthcareto advocate in improving healthyeating behaviors between children.This will result to minimize tensionduring mealtimes as well as interestsof picky eating [1].

3. Discussion (Dealing with PickyEaters)

Children of an age less than tenyears old have a feeling of fussy eating.The responsibility is based onparents who have to be good rolemodels of healthy eating. Parentsshould inspire eating environmentscharacterized by inviting and withno tension. Researchers in healthcarestudies advice that food have tonever be made to reward, compel,or be a portion of a power fightamong children and their parents.

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Specialists advise parents to obviateconfusions during mealtimes suchas watching televisions and playingwith toys. Parents should present aneutral behavior and praise the childfor self-feeding skills. Somebehaviors might lead the child tounwanted results such as dealingwith food as a prize, for comfort,or as an expression of parents'emotion to children . Thesebehaviors w ill increase thepreference for specific kinds offoods just. Further, specialists tendto advise parents to make a schedulefor meals as well as for snacks. Notonly this, they do not hesitate toask parents to learn their childrento identify and distinguish hungerand eat accordingly. One of theimportant advises in this issue isrestricting the duration of meals.Parents have to finish meals aftertwenty or thirty minutes, even ifthe child has eaten so little ornothing of the meal presented. Parentsshould present foods that are suitablefor their children' ages. Meanwhile,avoiding presenting many types offood at the same time. Then, improvethe attitude in children to ask for extrahelpings. Moreover, there are somebad behaviors practiced by childrenduring eating their meals such asplaying with served food as well asopening a lot of topics to talk aboutinstead of eating. Specialists call on

parents to promote independentfeeding values for their children.This behavior will learn the childto ask for food and be independent[1, 3, 9, 10].

Saw Bee Suan, a dietetics assistantmanager in Sunway Medical Centerillustrated that picky eaters do notgrow as per the growth chart. Oneof the things that she would ask theparents to do is giving their kids acomplete and balanced nutritiousmilk. This is due to the fact thatduring the period of building uptheir food tolerance, children canconsume nutritious milk to helpthem grow better. Saw illustrated thatthere is no single food that can giveall the nutrients that the children'need for development. The need forcarbohydrate is for energy. Proteinsfor the building blocks of the body.Hence, balanced nutrit ion isimportant to support growthoptimally. The advice is to make thefood interesting in different shapesand different colors [11].

4. ConclusionIt ought to be observed that there

has been some key, pioneering,steps toward a bidirectionalperspective on parent-child feedinginteractions including providingchildren with choice, discussingrules and boundaries surroundingfood and emotional support duringfeeding interactions.

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References

1. Walton, K., et al., Time to re-think picky eating?: a relational approach tounderstanding picky eating. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and PhysicalActivity, 2017. 14(1): p. 62.

2. University, C., in Cambridge Dictionary. 2018.3. Malaysia, A.N., PediaSur. Abbott, 2018.4. Mascola, A.J., S.W. Bryson, and W.S. Agras, Picky eating during childhood: a

longitudinal study to age 11 years. Eating behaviors, 2010. 11(4): p. 253-257.5. Steinsbekk, S., et al., Child and parent predictors of picky eating from preschool

to school age. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 2017.14(1): p. 87.

6. Dubois, L., et al., Problem eating behaviors related to social factors and bodyweight in preschool children: A longitudinal study. International Journal of BehavioralNutrition and Physical Activity, 2007. 4(1): p. 9.

7. Jacobi, C., et al., Behavioral validation, precursors, and concomitants of pickyeating in childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,2003. 42(1): p. 76-84.

8. Cardona Cano, S., et al., Trajectories of picky eating during childhood: a generalpopulation study. International journal of eating disorders, 2015. 48(6): p. 570-579.

9. Nederkoorn, C., K. Houben, and R.C. Havermans, Taste the texture. The relationbetween subjective tactile sensitivity, mouthfeel and picky eating in young adults. Appetite,2019.

10.Lumeng, J.C., et al., Picky eating, pressuring feeding, and growth in toddlers.Appetite, 2018. 123: p. 299-305.

11.PediaSure, Handling Picky Eater Child. 2018.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-20

THE ROLE OF SPIROMETER IN EARLY DIAGNOSISOF COPD

Eng. Aktham Ali Al-OmarRoyal Medical Services, Amman - Jordan

LIFE SCIENCE


Abstract: Parents suffer from children who are considered picky eaters. Feedingdifficulties are problems experienced by communities in general and households inparticular.Moreover,evaluations of picky eating are reasonablyextraordinary between youngchildren. Despite, definitions and measures vary, evaluations of picky eating are littlegreatin the preschool age group [1].

Keywords: Picky eaters, nutrition, fussy eating and growth.

Recommended citation: Aktham Ali Al-Omar. THE ROLE OF SPIROMETER IN EARLYDIAGNOSIS OF COPD. 3-4. American Journal of Research P. 207-211 (2019).

I. IntroductionChronic obstructive pulmonary

disease (COPD) is one of the mostcommon disease related to lungfunction. COPD can be defined aschronic inflammatory disease affectshuman lung and prevent completeairflow. Leading to partiallyirreversible airway obstruction whichmakes limitation and difficulty toperform ideal emptying air of thelung. COPD is linked to otherdifferent clinical complicationsincluding increase the risk of heartdiseases and lung cancer. Mainly,Emphysema and chronic bronchitisare the two main conditionsinfluencing COPD developing.Chronic bronchitis is inflammation

of the bronchial tubes, which carryair to and from the air sacs (alveoli)of the lungs. While emphysemaleading to destroy alveoliat the endof bronchioles. Unfortunately,COPD symptoms don't appear untilsignificant damages of lungs haveoccurred. Particularly, symptomsincluding wide variety of clinicalindications such as; shortness ofbreath, wheezing, chest tightness,chronic cough and mucus. TheWorld Health Organization (WHO)declared that the main cause ofCOPD in developing countries issmoking. While exposed to fumesfrom burning fuel in industrialcountries is the main reason forCOPD. In addition to that, research

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studies showed that COPD canaffect not only adult, but also infantsand children. Around 1% of COPDcases resulted from genetic disordersassociated with low level of certaintype of protein known as alpha-1-antitrypsin. Moreover, other factorsplay a significant role in to influenceCOPD. Smoker people with asthmausually are at higher risk to developCOPD, as well as, workers whoexposed to dust and chemicalcompounds for long time regardingto their occupational job areconsidered at high risk to irritate andinflame their lungs. Also, agingfactor contribute to develop COPDslowly over years [1].

Consequently, patients withCOPD are suffering from differenttypes of clinical complications. COPDpatients are associated to developrespiratory infections more likely thannormal people. Leading to maketreatment of infection much harderand difficult. Therefore, it isrecommended to take annualvaccination of flu. On other hand, therisk of cardiac problems and lungcancer may increase with thepresence of COPD. Also, pulmonaryhypertension may occur regardingthat COPD increase blood pressurein lung arteries. Furthermore, difficultyin breathing and dealing with chronicpain among COPD patients leadingto prevent doing physical and socialactivities and may affect patient lifenegatively. Therefore, COPD isassociated in some cases tohopelessness and depression.

Hopefully, most patients withCOPD can achieve excellent

symptom control and good qualityof life by proper management andmedication [2].

II. MethodologyDiagnosis of COPD based on full

review of medical history andsymptoms combined with medicalinstrumentation of pulmonaryfunction test by spirometer. Lungfunction tests are used to diagnoseCOPD based on measurement of theamount of air during inhalation andexhalation. Spirometer measures theamount of air that can be hold inlungs during respiration process. Thepatient will be asked to blow fast andcompletely into a specific tubeconnected to sensor. The resultedmeasurement of spirometer detectsthe volume of exhausted air in onesecond and the total amount ofexhale air in one forced breath. Afterthat the resulted measurement arecompared to standard chartaccording to patient age. Beside that,chest X-ray image can be useful todiagnose infections or lung cancer.Also, blood tests can be performedto determine any other clinicalconditions that may produce similarsymptoms of COPD.

II. DiscussionSpirometry technique is the most

common diagnosis tool for COPDas shown in figure 1. Spirometermeasurements cover all pulmonaryfunction tests including thefollowing:

FEV which is the forcedexpiration volume per one-time unit(one second).

FVC, the forced vital capacity oflung that represents the maximum

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amount of exhaled air blown out asfast as possible.

VC, the vital capacity which isrelated to the maximum volume ofair that can be blown out as fast aspossible.

PEFrepresents the maximum flowof exhaled air when blown out atsteady rate.

IVC, inspiratory vital capacitancerepresents the maximum volume ofair that can be inhaled after fullexpiration.

Figure 2: Cross-sectional Viewof Ultrasonic Transducers

Consequently, the obtainedmeasurement of lung function iscompared to reference values.Usually, the reference values whichwill be used to diagnose COPD areobtained via researches studies by oneof the following: National Healthand Nutrition Assessment Survey(NHANES III), EuropeanCommunity of Steel and Coal(ECSC), and Global Lung Initiative(GLI). However, these referencevalues are categorized according toheight, weight, age, sex, ethnicorigin, smoking habits,environment, working conditionsand physical fitness. The below figureshows a resulted graph of spirometerfor normal and abnormal patient [1].

Figure 1: Spirometer for LungFunction Tests

Electronic spirometer shown infigure 1 measure the speed of airflow by ultrasonic transducer, thedevice consists of tube and obliquechannel. cross sectional figure 2shows the two ultrasonic sensorsinside the tube mounted in oppositedirection. Ultrasonic pulses withshort intervals generated by patientbreath and measure directly by thetwo ultrasonic transducers as emittedand receiving pulses in bothdirections.

Figure 3: a- Spirometer graph for Healthy Patient

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Figure 3: a- Spirometer graphfor Healthy Patient b- Spirometer

graph for Non-Healthy PatientIn addition to that, FEV

measurement is used to predictnormality of lung functions. The ratioof 80% or higher represents healthypatients. While the ratio between(50%-79%) predicts moderateconditions. As well as, ratio below30% predicts sever conditions asshown in below table [2].

In addition to that, restriction oflung is described as loos in lungvolume due to pulmonary fibrosis,oedema, obesity and chest walldisorder known as kyphoscoliosis. Itcharacterized by decreasing in FVCvalue and high ratio of FEV/FVC.Besides that, mixed conditions basedon spirometer measurement may beresulted when patients are heavysmokers and have fibrotic disease.Making it harder to interpret themeasurements of spirometer.Therefore, further lung tests arerecommended to obtain the correctdiagnosis.b- Spirometer graph for Non-Healthy Patient

FEV % Prediction ≥ 80 Healthy

70-79 Mild 50-69 Moderate 30-49 Sever ≤ 30 Very Sever

Table 1: Prediction of COPDaccording to Forced Expiratory

Volume (FEV1) %Pulmonary obstruction is

characterized by limitation in airflow resulted from poor musclecontraction, inflammation, mucusor airway collapse. Regardingspirometer measurements there willbe decrease in FEV, VC, FVC andFEV/FVC ratio [3].

Figure 4: Spirometer graph forHealthy, Restriction, Obstructionand Mixed pattern of COPD [4].

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The above figure illustrates fourexamples of resulted graph byspirometer, showing four possiblediagnosis based on spirometermeasurements.

IV. ConclusionSpirometer is a significant tool to

perform measurement of lungfunction tests. Promoting the

detection of early symptoms orindications for COPD. The correctutilization of spirometer leads tocorrect diagnosis and improvetreatment options. In addition tothat, early diagnosis is a key pointfor ideal management of COPD.

References

1- GOLD, 2015. Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD).Pocket Guide to COPD Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention, pp.5-10. Available at:http://www.goldcopd.org/guidelines-pocket-guide-to-copd-diagnosis.html.

2- Kunik, M., Veazey, C., Cully, J., Souchek, J., Graham, D., Hopko, D. Stanley,M. (2008). COPD education and cognitive behavioral therapy group treatment for clinicallysignificant symptoms of depression and anxiety in COPD patients: A randomized controlledtrial. Psychological Medicine, 38(3), 385-396. doi:10.1017/S0033291707001687

3- Quanjer PH. Standardization of lung function tests. Report of working party. BullEur Physiopathol Respir 1983; 19: 1-95.

4- Pellegrino R, Viegi G, Brusasco V, et al. Interpretative strategies for lung functiontests. Eur Respir J 2005; 26: 948-968.

5- National Clinical Guideline Centre. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease:management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in adults in primary and secondarycare, http://guidance.nice. org.uk/CG101/Guidance/pdf/English.

6- Cooper BG. Letter: Spirometry standards and FEV1/FVC repeatability. PrimaryCare Respiratory Journal (2010); 19(3): 292-294

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-21

THE FUNCTIONAL-SEMANTIC AND TRANSLATINGPECULIARITIES OF "AS SOON AS" INCHOATIVE

PHASEME

Ilkhom JuraevJizzakh State Pedagogical Institute, Uzbekistan.



Abstract: This article considers "as soon as" from the point of traditional and functionalgrammar. It overviews some aspects of conjunction in the complex sentence. Here isoffered several methods of research study. "As soon as" characterized as an independentmeans of inchoative phase, and additional means to express inter-layer, inter-categorical,and inter-micro field means.

Key words: Phase, "phaseme", inchoative, durative, terminative, functional-semantic,translating, starting, onomasiological, semasiological, operator, verbalizer, expressor,polypredicative, inter-category, inter-layer, inter-micro field.

Recommended citation: Ilkhom Juraev. THE FUNCTIONAL-SEMANTIC ANDTRANSLATING PECULIARITIES OF "AS SOON AS" INCHOATIVE PHASEME. 3-4.American Journal of Research P. 212-215 (2019).

INTRODUCTIONAt the beginning of the analysis

of the inchoative phaseme, it shouldbe noted that, as the first task of theEnglish language study, we definethe inchoative phaseme as languagephenomena, and then explore waysof translating them into Uzbek fromthe point of view of translationpractice.At the same time, we focusour attention on the actualizationofidentified Englishphasemeswithinchoative semantic into theUzbek language and transformationin translation.

METHODOLOGYIn the course of the research, we

use onomasiological andsemasiological methodsthat arethemost commonly and widely appliedin the functional grammar,functional-semantic and grammar-lexical theories (fields). Thus,according to V.G. Gak, thesemasiological andonomasiologicalapproaches allow,without breaking the integrity of theanalysis, to change the starting pointand initial orientation of theresearch, (Gak, 2001).Also,analytical, transformation,substitution, and componentanalysis methods are alsosystematically involved.

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MAIN PARTAs soon as the light in the

bedroom went out there was a stirringand a fluttering all through the farmbuildings (George Orwell, 1945). Assoon as is the lexical-grammaticalphaseme (operator, verbalizer,significator, expressor), that means"fact" (in a broad and generalmeaning is any act, action, process,event, situation, detail, etc.), whichinchoative phase in syntaxconstruction (ñomplex sentence)actualized by concerning to mainsentence(clause).As soon asphasemeis an adverbial modifier of timesubordinate clause conjunction ofthe complex sentence, whichmeansinstantaneouscont inuitybetween the final phase of thefactand the starting phase of the anotherfact. In this regard, it serves toactualizethe second fact continuity(linear) starting phase in the poly-predicative construction. It isimportant to remember that in suchstatements, as soon asthe lexical-grammatical phaseme will beactualized to emphasize the second,otherwise the main clausefactstarting phase.

One of the options for translatingthis English phrase into Uzbek canbe as follows: ¨òî³õîíàäà ÷èðî³´÷èøè áèëàí, ôåðìàíèíã áàð÷àáèíîëàðè á´éëàá ³´ç²àëèø âàòàµëèêà (áåñàðàíæîìëèê)áîøëàíäè (-As soon as the light inthe bedroom went out there was astirring and fluttering all through thefarm buildings). In this translation,in the translation into Uzbek has alsobeen retained the syntacticpattern

(i.e., syntactic equivalence) -adverbial modifier of timesubordinate clausehas beenexpressed by identical construction.So that, the English language assoon asstartingphaseme is translatedinto Uzbek with "áèëàí"lexeme(lexical options, áèëàíî³, çàµîòè(-¸³), îí(-äà), òîá(-äà) and etc.). Inthe translation into the Uzbeklanguage, the adverbial modifier oftime subordinate clause auxiliary"áèëàí" serves to highlight, assertand emphasizethe expressed startingphase of the fact in the main clause.So, it would be appropriate toappend the Uzbek language "áèëàí"and its synonymic lexemes with thesame meaning, in the line of startingphasemes and specificators.

In traditional grammar "as soonas"fulfils the role of a linker(conjunction) that connectsubordinate clause of time with amain clause. For example:I shallstart verbalize my statement, as soonas you finish to verbiage. As soon asthe material is ready, I will publishthem. I fulfilled my task, as soon asyou had carried out yours.Infunctional grammar, temporal (thetime - the past and future tenses'operators) and taxis (the order -differentiated semantics verbalizer)are considered as a means ofexpression. It is worth to mentionthat from the point of view offunctional-semantic field, just onemeans (operator, verbalizer, etc.)can serve as a means for multiplefields (macro-categories). Theanalyzed "as soon as" can serveas agood example to adduce the

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hypothesis. This syntax-semacan alsoserve as thephase, the tense, andthe taxis categories' verbalizer. It canonly be determined by the speaker'sor writer's speech intention whichcategory it exactly actualizes in theexpression.In the case of such amultitask feature, this unit receives astatusof universal inter-categoryoperator. It has also been revealedduring the analysis that as an inter-category or just a category verbalizer,or within the same category canserve as aninter-layer (inter-paradigm, inter-micro filed)means.Just as a single means(verbalizer, operator) can act as theprimary means of the category itbelongs to, and a specificator of thisprimary means as well. "As soonas"phaseme occupies the peripheryofphase field. Although as anindependent tool, it expressesstarting meaning, "as soon as"(uzbekequivalent: çà?îòè, áèëàíî?)basically serves to expressinstantaneousaction of the phasecategory. For example: As soon asyou continue to write, I shall be ableto dream on.We also define therelationship between the Englishlanguage continuous tense with itsverb form and functional semanticsdurative paradigm. Otherwise, in theEnglish language after theconjunction "as soon as" the present,the past or present perfecttense verbforms may follow. So, from the pointof view of functional grammar, onemust notfocus attention on theverbin the form of the continuoustense, but it should concentrate onthe verbal and non-verbal additional

means that support and assisttoexpress inchoative, durative, andterminative phases of the phasecategory.

It should be noted that "as soonas" and "áèëàí" and othersynonymic lexemes within thiscategory, for instance,through themeans of English "start" and Uzbek"áîøëàíìî?"verbs expressed as thecentralphasemes, specificator, canbe evaluated as an emphaseme.As itis commonly found in manyfunctional-semantic fields, the verbis often detected in the centre ofafield and micro-fields. This is alsocan be overlooked in the Phase FSF(functional-semantic field)(specifically, in the English andGerman languages).According towidespread opinion, themorphological means (category)always occupies close-nucleus ornucleus position of the field (itfunctions as a dominant)(Bondarko, 1987). Consequently,theintense focus on verbal phasemeswill be made in the research.

CONCLUSIONSo, we analyzed and defined

(parsed) different roles of"as soonas" from the point of traditionalgrammar and functional grammar.Traditional grammar applies theconjunction "as soon as" to connectthe adverbial modifier of time(subordinate clause) with themainclause. As to functional grammar,proceeding from theonomasiological and semasiologicalapproaches (methodology) in thestudy, it can be referred to as theoperators of the Category of Phase.

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To recapitulate, "as soonas"retainsits feature (function) tolink clauses, and (from thefunctional-semantic standpoint) itpresupposesinstantaneous action(fact, event, etc.) in the statement."As soon as" may be regarded as an

independent inchoative phaseme,and it may functionas an additionalmeans to actualize(verbalize,represent, etc.) instantaneous fact.The research adduced that "as soonas"is localized in the periphery ofthe Phase FSF.

REFERENCES:

1. Áîíäàðêî À.Â. Òåîðèÿ ôóíêöèîíàëüíîé ãðàììàòèêè: Ââåäåíèå. Àñïåêòóàëüíîñòü.Âðåìåííàÿ ëîêàëèçîâàííîñòü. Òàêñèñ. - Ë.: Íàóêà, 1987. - 348ñ.

2. Ãàê Â.Ã. Ñëîâàðü Â.È. Äàëÿ â ñâåòå òèïîëîãèè ñëîâàðåé. Âîïðîñû ÿçûêî çíàíèÿ,2001, ¹3, - Ñ. 2.

3. George Orwell, Animal farm, A fairy story. Signet Classics, UK, 1945.-P. 144.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-22

PLACE OF PHYSICAL CULTURE IN THE COMBATTRAINING OF PERSONNEL

Abduazimov Sabirjon,The Academy of Armed Forces of the Republic of Uzbekistan

Teacher, Colonel Tashkent, Uzbekistan



Abstract: In this article some aspects of the physical culture role and place in thecombat training of personnel are considered. It is very important because the professional,modern mobile army according with modern requirements is forming now. Militarypersonnel in this case must be not only professional but clever, physically developed,mobile, having experience in modern weapon, tactics and strategy of fighting.

Key words: physical culture, health, valeology, sanology, sanogenesis, militarypersonnel, army, military reforms, mobility, professional army, combat training.

Recommended citation: Abduazimov Sabirjon. PLACE OF PHYSICAL CULTURE IN THECOMBAT TRAINING OF PERSONNEL. 3-4. American Journal of Research P. 216-219 (2019).

Formation of a professional armyin our country and itsmodernization based on modernrequirements are one of the mostimportant tasks of the militaryreforms, which are beingimplemented gradually. President ofthe Republic of Uzbekistan,Supreme Commander-in-Chief ofthe Armed Forces of UzbekistanIslam Karimov on the occasion ofthe 24th anniversary of the ArmedForces of the Republic of Uzbekistanas a festive greeting to the Defendersof the Motherland as one of the tasksof the National Defense Army: "Thegradual provision of the nationalarmy with modern weapons andtechnology, its combat composition

and changes in structure , taking intoaccount the changing nature ofarmed conflicts, the structure ofspecialties, methodology andtechnology of teaching militaryscience bee and a list of trainingprograms are constantly beingupdated, they clarified the desirablenoted that increasing the combatreadiness of the personnel of theusual sights.

At the same time, it is one of theimportant factors to ensure thecombat readiness of the personnel,and to increase their physicaltraining. Indeed, Amir Temur'screative approach to theorganization of the army, thestructure of its personnel, and the

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methods of military art use. Indeed,it is proved that Sahibkiran's strategyand tactics are both harsh andaggressive, and that he is a martialart expert. Physical training,exercise, and exercises have servedto increase combat andpsychological training of the military.It is also desirable to mention theteachings of Abu Ali Ibn Sino(Avicenna). Basic physical exerciseswere "small and large, very strongor weak, fast, calm, or slow". IbnSino's scientific significance todayis that he has been physicallyinvolved in physical exercises suchas pulling rope, hand fighting, bulletshooting, fast walking, spearfishing, fencing, horseback riding,swinging, swinging, boat rafting,rock climbing and so on.

If we go from one scientific pointof view to the approach, it isdesirable to learn valeology - as ascience of individual health inincreasing the combat readiness ofthe personality. Consequently,valeology is an integrative science,based on the theory of physicaleducation, psychology, medicine,anatomy, genetics and ecology. Inthe late 60s of the XXth century,Russian scientists S.M. Pavlenko andS.F. Oleynik laid the foundations forthe scientific direction called"sanology". Sanology is defined as"the general doctrine of the organismagainst disease". The basis of thiscontradiction lies in the dynamiccomplex of adaptive mechanisms thatarise under the influence of a"sanogenesis", i.e. an emergencyactiator. Military medicine specialists

engaged in emergency medicalemergencies (divers, cosmonauts)have made a significant contributionto the development of sanogenesis.As a result of research in this field,I.I. Brechman, who worked inVladivostok in 1987, wrote in hismonograph, "Valeology - TheIntroduction to Health Science",valeology health science is notlimited to single medicine [2].

Indeed, human health can befound in three main sections: itsstructure - functional health,physical health and psycho-emotional-spiritual health. From thispoint of view, valeology is a scienceabout individual healthimprovement and learns theindividual's activities, includingphysical education. If we look intothe matter more deeply, the remarksmade at the regular meeting of theBoard of Trustees of the Children'sSports Development Fund at theOqsaroy (Uzbekistan's Presidentialresidence) held on February 11,2016, under the chairmanship ofPresident Islam Karimov, areremarkable: "Another importantoutcome of our work is that theyoung men from 63.4 per cent in2000 to 86.3 per cent in 2015,whose height increased by 5.9centimeters in the same period,reaching an average of 171.7 cm,and weight increased by 6.2kilograms to 67.8 kilograms rummy"[3]. Therefore, the involvement ofyoung people in sports in this regard,undoubtedly, involves thepopularization of sports on the basisof valeology, raising the combat

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readiness of the human body in ageneral or separate dynamicassessment, its category of qualityand self-understanding.

Therefore, training of physicalculture in the Samarkand HigherMilitary Command School ofEngineering, training of cadres onthe chosen profession, attraction tophysical training and sports, trainingof physically strong young men inthe defense of independentMotherland, preparation of strongathletes for various militarycompetitions, special attention ispaid to the development ofprofessionals who can promotephysical education and sport in theirfuture career. is being called. In orderto provide the physical andpsychological training of theirpersonnel, to educate physically andspiritually healthy professionals, topromote national sports, to preventvarious diseases through physicaltraining, to teach self-control insports, one of the main objectivesis to encourage regular engagement,and to master perfect areas.

It is noteworthy that the followingfactors play a crucial role in theemphasis on physical education inraising their combat readiness, takinginto account the above circumstances:

1. Mastership (fast). A variety ofsituations and acceleration in anysituation is a key factor in increasingthe combat readiness of theindividual team. The basis of this isthe quick tactics and timelyfulfillment of individual tasks.

2. Professional. In fact, theepilogue of personality is formed on

the basis of the speed of the spirit,not the rush of the spirit of thebattlefield. In other words, thealternative option is based on themost appropriate (optimally)decision that will enable you toachieve the goal of completing andcompleting a variety of complex taskswith a small number of personnel,with the use of professional skills.

3. Relativity. Stage-by-stageimplementation of various complex,tactical tasks will lead to a clearstrategic goal. That is, the will of theindividual content becomes a keyfactor in its consistent, targeted andeffective management.

4. Mobility. In doing so, mobilityplays an important role in increasingthe combat readiness of thepersonnel through the managementof specialized military units andmilitary equipment.

5. Battle-shay. Of course, courageis one of the traits of the military. Itis a fact that courage does not requireproof at the military level, whichprovides a high level of combat onthe battlefield and does a great jobof improving the combat readinessof its personnel.

6. Patriotism. In fact, though thefoundations of the above five factorsare examples of patriotism, it isnatural that military situations orsituations in the battlefield can notbe overlooked. "Patriotism is a social,moral and ethical attribute thatexpresses its relationship with itsnative land, its place of residence,the land, the land, and the country"[4]. Indeed, the dedication of theintellectual capacity in the personal

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composition is the main feature ofpatriotism.

As a result, physical trainingclasses are mainly the case withpractical exercises. This includesenhancing the knowledge of cadetsand enhancing the combat readiness- mastershi p (M1), expressingcourage in defending and timelyassault on competitors, endurance,self-sacrifice, professionalism (P1),relativity (R), training in mobility(M2), courage - battle-shay (B) andthe patriotism (P2) as a patronageof intellectual potential, whichserves to ensure the combatreadiness of the personalcomposition of the Physical Culture= M1 + P1 + R + M2 + B + P2 inphysical training. In this regard,athletics, gymnastics, handicrafts,other sports, competitions, variousphysical exercise exercises and sportsgames are essential in increasing thecombat readiness of the cadets. Inparticular, the national struggle, theEastern Individual struggle has beena symbol of courage, honesty,friendship and peace for centuries.

In this regard, sport, such asnational wrestling, eastern wrestlingand hand-to-hand combat, helps toimprove the physical fitness of theindividual team.

It is noteworthy that this systemis currently being used to counteractthe growing threats such asinternational terrorism, extremismand radicalism, with a variety ofcontradictions, contradictions,conflicts and bloodshed in the world.Therefore, military, medicaleducation, as well as the study ofvaleology as one of the militaryissues, not only increase the combatreadiness of the personality, but alsolead to the introduction of newmethods and techniques for thefurther improvement of physicaleducation in the development oftheir spirituality. As a result, today,young people have the ability toperceive the diverse ideas anddestructive ideologies that contradictthe rich spiritual values, culture andtraditions of our people, makecomparative analysis and formimmunity to not being deceived.

References:

1. Karimov I. Greetings to Defenders of the Motherland on the occasion of the 24thAnniversary of the establishment of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Uzbekistan. //Publication of the newspaper "Xalq so'zi", January 14, 2016, ¹9.

2. Basics of Valeology. -Tashkent, TDIU, 2007, Pages 16-17.3. Karimov I. A Healthy nation, a healthy nation, will be able to do great things. //

Publication of the newspaper "Xalq so'zi", February 12, 2016, ¹30.4. Independence explanatory scientifically-popular dictionary. -Tashkent: "Sharq"

publishing, 1998, Page 34.5. Nick Caddick, Brett Smith. The impact of sport and physical activity on the well-

being of combat veterans: A systematic review. // Psychology of Sport and Exercise. -Volume 15, Issue 1, January 2014, Pages 9-18.

6. Suzanne Peacock, David Carless, Jim McKenna Inclusive adapted sport and adventuretraining programme in the PTSD recovery of military personnel: A creative non-fiction. // Psychology of Sport and Exercise. - Volume 35, March 2018, Pages 151-159.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-23

THE ROMANTIC POEM OF A.S. PUSHKIN"BAKHCHYSARAY FONTAIN" IN THE UZBEK

LANGUAGE

Kenjaev A.L.,Samarkand State Institute of Foreign Languages



Abstract: This article briefly considers the translation into Uzbek language the romanticpoem of A.S. Pushkin "Bakhchysaray fountain" translated by Uzbek poet Usman Nasyr. Inthe content is given a literal and translation analyses of the romantic poem from theRussian language into the Uzbek languages

Key words: romantic poem, original, translation, rhythm, recreation, intonation,poetic, line, rhyme.

Recommended citation: Kenjaev A.L. THE ROMANTIC POEM OF A.S. PUSHKIN"BAKHCHYSARAY FONTAIN" IN THE UZBEK LANGUAGE. 3-4. American Journal ofResearch P. 220-222 (2019).

This oriental poem was written byA.S Pushkin in the time of his Eastexile in 1821-1823yy. The palaceexternal decoration and legends ofCrimean khans inspired the poet oncreation of the work.

By the Event devoted to the hundredyears of A.S. Pushkin death, inUzbekistan A.S. Pushkin's works weretranslated by talented Uzbek poets andwriters, and as a result were createdthe collection of 4 volumes publishedin the Uzbek language in 1937.

We may assert with confidencethat the poem "Bakhchysarayfountain" which was translated byUzbek translator Usman Nasyrbecame a belles-lettres heritage of theUzbek people.

The translations of A.S. Pushkin'sworks widely considered in differentconferences, but the translation of"Bakhchysaray fountain" was highlyestimated and discussed in massmedia of that time. Exactly, in thattime, the newspaper "The RedUzbekistan" published an article"Pushkin in the Uzbek language"where was written: "Besides thetranslations into the Uzbek languagethe work "Bakhchysaray fountain"took a special place. The translatorUsman Nasyr retained not only theplot and the gist, but also the literalcharacteristics of this work..."

In the treatise of the academicianNaim Karimov "Pushkin in theUzbek poetry" published in 1988 the

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following words can be read: It isnecessary to remind that the work"Bakhchysaray fountain" wastranslated by twenty-four years oldyoung poet with outstandingproficiency and as a fact in 1937 waspublished the translation of the bookin twenty-five thousand copies. Inthat time, and even these days itwas a measurable number of printedcopies. If it did not take inconsideration that Pushkin's shortstories was published in thirtythousand copies, "The captain'sdaughter" narrative story in fifteenthousand copies, "Eugene Onega"romance in ten thousand copies,"Selected lyrics" was published infive thousand copies, we could be awitness of that the work"Bakhchysaray fountain" was spreadin an extremely huge amount besidespeople of that time.

Even the translator UsmanNasyr felt that the translation of"Bakhchysaray fountain" took theimportant place in his creativity. Hestudied thoroughly the work historycreation and literal characteristics,the time and the period represendtedin the work, the relation betweenthe historical and fiction images. Thepoet in the passage titled "Thetreasure of literal art" wrote: "I wasaknowleged directly with thecreativity of the Russian poet A.S.Pushkin a long time before I hadtranslated the work "Bakhchysarayfountain" and had some sense of thepoetry spirit of the poet less or more.

Before to start the translation ofthe poem "Bakhchysaray fountain"I had studied the history of creation,

and deeply researched the workliteral-form characteristics. I wasastonished by the bright flight of themastery fantasy, and I was amazedby the colours of the colourfulimages."

As the translations of UsmanNasyr was highly estimated inthirties of the twentieth century andnowadays, so it is requred tomention about the success andadequity of these translations.

The original version consists offive hundred seventy-nine lines, themethod of rhythm: a-b, a-b.

Ãèðåé ñèäåë, ïîòóïÿ âçîð, aßíòàðü â óñòàõ åãî äûìèëñÿ; bÁåçìîëâíî ðàáîëåïíûé äâîð, aÂêðóã õàíà ãðîçíîãî òåñíèëñÿ. b

In the translation of UsmanNasyr the poem consists of sixhundred sixty-five lines. Thetranslator used in translation nine-syllabic line by other words "áàðìàêâàçíè" (4+5):

£îâî³ ñîëèá / ´òèðàð Ãàðîé4+5 a

Ëàáëàðèäà / £àµðàáî ÷èëèì4+5 b

Äàµøàòëè õîí / àòðîôèäà æèì4+5 b

Áîø ýãèá òåê / òóðàðäè ñàðîé4+5 a

With a few traits, Pushkin gave awell-defined artistic characterizationof the hero: "everyone read the signsof anger and sadness," "on a gloomyface," "sovereign proud," "with animpatient hand."

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The poet-translator UsmanNasyr managed to preserve intranslation these qualities of theportrait of the hero:

¥àììà õîííèíã õàôà þçèäàíÏàé³àð ýäè ìóá²àì íèøîíà....Àììî ìà²ðóð ñîµèáè ôàðìîí,£´ëëàðèíè áèð ñèëòàá ñîëäè...

The author of the poem,unevenly dividing it into separatestanzas, thereby highlights the mostimportant transitions from onethought to another. Usman Nasyralso maintains such a division intostanzas, however, in some places hedeviates from this rule in order topreserve poetic harmony. For thesame reason, the translator adds,as necessary, in separate stanzas afew lines to complete the poeticthought. For example:

Îäèí â ñâîèõ ÷åðòîãàõ îí;Ñâîáîäíåé ãðóäü åãî âçäûõàåò.Æèâåå ñòðîãîå ÷åëî

Âîëíåíüå ñåðäöà âûðàæàåò.Òàê áóðíû òó÷è îòðàæàåòÇàëèâà çûáêîå ñòåêëî.

This six-line stanza Usman Nasyrtranslates in seven lines, but inUzbek this change remainsunnoticed because, in translation,this stanza, like the original, vividlymetaphorically conveys theemotional state of the hero:

Ê´øêëàð àðî áèð ´çè ³îëäè;Ýðêèí íàôàñ îëäè ñèéíàñè,Ò´ë³èíëàíèá, áèëìàé ñóêóòíè¤éíàá òóðãàí ê´ðôàç îéíàñèÀêñ ýòãàíäàé ³îðà áóëóòíèÓíèíã æèääèé ìàíãëàéè à¸í

while translating "Bakhchysarayfountain", Osman Nasyr likedPushkin's artistic world. From theabove-mentioned examples andcomparative texts, it is known thatOsman Nasyr managed to rebuildPushkin's thoughts and feelings,artistic ideas, and original tones intranslation.

References:

1. Pushkin A.S. A full collection of works. -M.: "Pravda" publisher, 1954. 3volume, p.198.

2. Pushkin A.S. The selected works. 1 volume. -T.: Uzdavr publisher, 1949, p.287.3. Sharipov J. Some aspects of poetical translation from the Russian language into

the Uzbek language. - Tashkent. AS UzRSU publisher, 1958, p.148.4. Salomov G. The basis of the translation theory. Tashkent - "Ukituvchi" - 1983.5. Karimov N. Pushkin and Uzbek poetry. Tashkent, "Fan" publisher, 1988.6. Kholbekov M.N. The traditions of the world translatology. - Tashkent, Navruz

publisher, 2016.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.26739/2573-5616-2019-2-24

CONTRIBUTION OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING INTHE HEALTHCARE FIELD

Eng. Manal A. AlsharayaRoyal Medical Services - Amman, Jordan



Abstract: Recently, chemical engineering has presented an active contribution in thevarious fields of medicine. Where the community of chemical engineers participated inthe development of the use of biocompatible materials, which had a significant impact onthe renaissance of modern medicine.

Key words: Medicine, Chemical Engineering.

Recommended citation: Manal A. Alsharaya. CONTRIBUTION OF CHEMICALENGINEERING IN THE HEALTHCARE FIELD. 3-4. American Journal of Research P. 223-226 (2019).

1. INTRODUCTIONMedicine has developed

melodramatically in recent times,where evolution has been in everypossible field. Usually, doctors,nurses as well as pharmacists arehighlighted with the exception ofchemical engineers, who, of course,are not present in hospitals despitetheir partici pation in suchachievements [1, 2]. However,chemical engineers have adoptedmany improvements to life ingeneral and to the medical sectorin particular. This is evidenced bytheir help in the diagnosis treatmentof some diseases as well as thedevelopment of pharmaceutical

industries that reduce the pain ofpatients [3].

2. STUDY MOTIVATIONThis section is organized in two

major parts. The first part isdescribing the biocompatiblematerials which play a significant roleof chemical engineering in inmedicine in general and noveldevices in particular. The second partaddresses the details of thecontribution of the chemicalengineer in calibrating instrumentsin medical laboratories.

2.1 CONTRIBUTION INBIOCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS

Modern medical devices as well

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as prostheses (artificial limbs)consist of more than one substanceso it is not fair to talk about theterm "biocompatible materials" forjust one substance. The process ofdeveloping these materials is not aneasy process at all, since thesesubstances must be non-toxic as theyare present within the human body[4]. These materials should also beunbreakable and last for a long time.

Finding such materials isdifficult, but the most difficult taskfor chemical engineers is to convertthese materials into devices that canbe attached to the patient orimplanted in the patient's body.However, using these biocompatiblematerials, the pharmaceuticalindustry can give a great opportunityto heal many diseases. Not only this,using these substances, specificadditives can be implemented in themedical field such as:

I. Utilize of vasculartransplantation in order to heal andsupport deteriorated arteries andveins.

II.Invention of cardiovascularimplant equipments.

III. Utilize of stents to supportarterial tissue.

IV. Invention of many artificialorgans such as knees and hips [5].

The aforementioned points gavea second chance for patients whowere legless to walk again. Inaddition, these biocompatiblematerials have given patients whoused to go for renal dialysis two orthree times weekly, each time stayfor at least four hours to finally restand enjoy life. In fact, chemical

engineers help patients to live betterand healthier lives [6].

2.2 CONTRIBUTION INMEDICAL LABS

Chemical engineers cancontribute to many tasks related tomedical laboratories such as projectsinvolve tissue culture orcharacterization of biologicalsystems. Having considered theaforementioned tasks of a chemicalengineer, then, it is important toclarify that a chemical engineer canalso contribute to the developmentof analytical instruments. An equallysignificant aspect to tasks assignedto the chemical engineer which isthe leadership of chemical analysislaboratory. Indeed, chemical analysislaboratories are defined as labs thattransact with the placement ofnarcotics, blood analysis such aslipid profile.

Chemical engineers keep playinga key role in the design andimprovement of complicated,innovative equi pments to healhuman ailments. In fact, there are alot of the restrictions actually beingclassified in this potential areacomprise the invention of very smallequipments utilized to reinforcemedical prognosis and therapy. Thetask of chemical engineers in theperception of the contests in proteinstructure has been addressed indifferent novel publications [7-10].

The chemical engineer plays apotential approach in the calibrationprocess of any lab device inside ahospital. In particular, the role isfocused on estimating and setting the

225



precision and accuracy ofmeasurement equi pment. Thus,perfect calibration of equipmentpermits technicians to obtain a saferworking environment and generateadequate data for future reference[11].

There are some basic steps forperforming the calibration of aninstrument by a chemical engineersuch as choosing referenceprinciples with recognized values inorder to comprise the range ofinterest. Besides, measurements onthe reference principles with theequi pment to be calibrated. Inaddition, finding a functionalrelevance among the measured andknown values of the referenceprinciples (normally a least-squaresfit to the data) called a calibrationcurve. In the end, making correctionfor all measurements by the inverseof the calibration curve that madein the previous step [12].

Evidence for in support of thisposition can be found in the frequenttask of a chemical engineer toperform calibration for theinstruments. Instruments need to becalibrated before any measurementsthat need extremely precise data.Moreover, when utilizingequipment for a long time due tothe change of measurementsconditions. Calibration is

recommended after any sudden andunexpected action happened to theinstrument such as hitting theinstrument by mistaken or fallingdown. Not only this, when themeasurements of an instrument arequestionable [13]. In the end, eachequi pment will require to becalibrated sporadically to ensure itcould perform completely and safely.Manufacturers will elucidate howfrequent the equipment will requireto be calibrated. Chemical engineersalways adopt the idea that there are alot of chemicals and substancesexisted in medical laboratories thatneed as accurate as possible ofmeasurements in order to equip themedical team a safer workingsituation.

3. CONCLUSIONSChemical engineers have provided

a great medical service by introducingthese materials to the medical field.Which execute, supplements, orreplaces a natural task. Besides,biocompatible materials may bederived either from nature orsynthesized in the laboratory utilizingseveral chemical approaches. It isimportant however to emphasize thecontribution of chemical engineersin many fields of healthcare especiallyin laboratories. Their influence inobtaining accurate and well-performed tests.

REFERENCES

1. Khademhosseini, A. and R. Langer, A decade of progress in tissue engineering.Nature protocols, 2016. 11(10): p. 1775.

2. Chen, X.D., Scoping biology-inspired chemical engineering. Chinese Journal ofChemical Engineering, 2016. 24(1): p. 1-8.

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3. Sethuraman, S., U.M. Krishnan, and A. Subramanian, Biomaterials andNanotechnology for Tissue Engineering. 2016: CRC Press.

4. Duncan, T.M. and J.A. Reimer, Chemical Engineering Design and Analysis. 2019:Cambridge University Press.

5. Chuang, K.-Y., M.-H. Wang, and Y.-S. Ho, High-impact papers published injournals listed in the field of chemical engineering. Malaysian Journal of Library &Information Science, 2017. 18(2): p. 47-63.

6. Seeberger, P.H. and D.B. Werz, Synthesis and medical applications ofoligosaccharides. Nature, 2007. 446(7139): p. 1046.

7. Carol, K. Thermodynamic and kinetic origins of Alzheimer's and related diseases:A chemical engineer's perspective. in The 2006 Annual Meeting. 2006.

8. Vekilov, P.G., Chemical engineers and the fundamental understanding of humandisease. AIChE journal, 2008. 54(10): p. 2508-2515.

9. Randolph, T.W. and J.F. Carpenter, Engineering challenges of protein formulations.AIChE Journal, 2007. 53(8): p. 1902-1907.

10.Kontogeorgis, G.M., The role of chemical engineering in medicinal researchincluding Alzheimer's, in GeNeDis 2014. 2015, Springer. p. 57-62.

11.Mitra, S. and B. Kebbekus, Environmental chemical analysis. 2018: CRC Press.12.Bakeev, K.A., Process analytical technology: spectroscopic tools and implementation

strategies for the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. 2010: John Wiley & Sons.13.Kamionka, M., P. Breuil, and C. Pijolat, Calibration of a multivariate gas sensing

device for atmospheric pollution measurement. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 2006.118(1-2): p. 323-327.

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