ambiguity of avalokiteśvara and the scriptural sources

8/12/2019 Ambiguity of Avalokiteśvara and the Scriptural Sources

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中華佛學學報第 010 期 (p409-464)： (民國 86 年)，臺北：中華佛學究所研，http://www.chibs.edu.tw

Chung-Hwa Buddhist Ju!na"# $. 10# (199%)&aipei: &he Chung-Hwa 'nstitute Buddhist tudies

'$: 101%*%1+,

Ambiguity of Avalokiteśvara and theScriptural Sources

for the Cult of Kuan-yin in China

Y Chn-fang Associate Professor # Rutgers University

p. 409

Summary

The bodhisattva Kuan-yin is also known as Kuan-shih-yin or Kuan-tzu-tsai#among other names. The bodhisattva is described as princely and heroic in

some scriptures# although in the otus !utra there is reference to his feminine manifestations. The paper discusses the ambiguous of the bodhisattvas name#

gender # and status by e"amining the main scriptural sources for the cult of Kuan-yin as developed in China. #mportant sutras such as the otus# the !urangama#

the Pure and Kuan ching as well as a few esoteric sutras will be discussed.

$istinctive beliefs shall be e"amined together with ritual practices as well as art historical evidences. A comparison between the popular ++ forms of Kuan-yin

with those mentioned in the scriptures will be made in order to suggest some possible processes through which this originally #ndic bodhisattva became

transformed into the Chinese %oddess of &ercy.

關鍵詞 1.Kuang-shih-yin ,.Kuan-shih-yin +.Kuan-tzu-tsai 4.Kuan-yin .thirty-three manifestations

p. 410

http://www.chibs.edu.tw/

http://www.chibs.edu.tw/



Avalokite'vara is commonly known as Kuan-yin (Perceiver of !ounds) or Kuan-

shih-yin (perceiver of the (orlds !ounds) in China. 213 A Chinese saying aptly

describes the great popularity of this savior bodhisattva: )verybody knows how

to chant A-mi-to-fo 2 Amitabha3# and every household worships Kuan-yin.

*either Kuan-yin nor Kuan-shih-yin# however # corresponds to Avalokite'vara# but rather to Avalokita'vara# a name not used in the +uddhist world. That was why

,san-tsang (60,64) considered them as mistakes and suggested the right translation as Kuan-tzu- tsai (the Perceiving ord). #n a note e"plaining the name

of the bodhisattva which he transliterated as 5 A-fu-lu-che-to-i-shih-fan-lo5 in his Records of the (estern Regions (Ta Tang hsi-y chi# T. no. ,08%)# ,san-tsang

said# 5This means in Chinese Kuan-tzu-tsai . (hile a-fu-lu che-to 2 Avalokita3means Kuan (perceiving)# i-shih-fan-lo 2isvara3 means tzu-tsai (lord). The old

translations of Kuang-shih-yin (#lluminator of the (orlds sounds)# Kuan-shih-yin

or Kuan-shih Tzu-tsai are all wrong. 5 (T. 1: 88+b). ,san-tsang therefore used

kuan-tzu-tsai in all the sutras he translated# including the ,eart !-tra# a scripture

as important to Chinese +uddhists as the otus !-tra# in which the bodhisattva is called Kuan-shih-yin. +ecause of the great authority and prestige of these two

scriptures# both names have become familiar to +uddhists in China# although theyhave consistently preferred Kuan-shih-yin or Kuan-yin. +ut which name is the

correct translation of the !anskrit name of the bodhisattva (as ,san-tsang

right in re/ecting the earlier translations as wrong

Aside from the ambiguity of the name# we are also confronted with the ambiguity

of the bodhisattvas 5forms5 and gender . !ince the period of 0ive $ynasties#around the 10th century# Kuan-yin has been increasingly represented as a

feminine deity (Y 1994). +eginning with the &ing (1+681644)# if not earlier # sets

of paintings depicting Kuan-yin indifferent forms# be they five# thirty-two# or

p. 411

fifty-three have been created (a point to be discussed later ). There is also the

e"pression 5thirty-three forms of Kuan-yin5 in !ino-1apanese +uddhist art. 2,3 These multiple forms of bodhisattva are supposed to be illustrations of the thirty-

three manifestations of Kuan-yin in the otus s-tra# or the thirty-two in the

!urangama s-tra. +ut they in fact do not bear muchresemblances to the

scriptural sources# as we shall see later .

A final ambiguity is Kuan-yins status. Although most scriptures refer to Kuan-yinas bodhisattva# some# however # present a different view. The Pei-hua ching

(Karandapundarika# T. no. 1%)# a sutra translated during +9%4+9# tells a story stressing the father -son relationship between Amitabha and Avalokite'vara.

(hen Amitabha was a cakravatin in the past# he had 1000 sons# the eldest was named Pu-hsiun. (hen the latter became a monk# he took the name

Avalokite'vara. #n the future# when +uddha Amitabha enters into nirvana#

Avalokite'vara would succeed him and will be known as 5Universal ight-issuing

http://www.chibs.edu.tw/publication/chbj/10/chbj1018.htm#nf1






Tathagatha King of &erit &ountain5 (Pien-chu #-chieh Kuang- ming Kung-te-

shan-wang 1ulai# T. +: 18c186b). The same idea is found in Kuan-yin-shou-chi-ching (!utra of Avalokitesvara receiving prediction# T. no. +%1) which was

translated into Chinese during 4,04%9. #t is stated there that when Amitabha

passes away# Avalokite'vara will succeed him and he will be known as

5Tathagata King of &erit &ountain of Universal ight5 (T. 1, : +%a)# a title similar to the one above. The close relationship between Amitabha and

p. 412

Avalokite'vara might be the reason why the Ta-le chin-kang pu-kung chen-shi san-mei ye ching pan- /o po-lo-mi-ti li-chu shih (T. no. 100+)# an esoteric sutra

translated by Amoghava/ra (%0%%4)# e2uates the two and regards them as

manifestations of the same reality. 5 A dharmata tathagata who has realized the pure self -nature is /ust another name for Perceiving ord Tathagata King (Kuan-

tzu-tsi (ang 1u-lai). ,e is also no other tha Amitayus. (hen he is active in the

pure and wondrous buddha land# he manifests in the body of the buddha. +ut when he dwells in the polluted samsaric world during the five kasaya periods of decay# he appears as Avalokite'vara bodhisattva5 (T. 19: 61,a). 3n the other hand# there are also sutras which see the bodhisattva as a buddha independent of

his relationship with Amitayus／ Amitabha. Another esoteric sutra translated by

Amoghava/ra# Ta-fang-kuang &an-chu-shih-li ching (T. no. 1101)# for instance#

predicts that Avalokite'vara will become a buddha known as 5Tathagata

Universal #lumination of )2ual +rightness5 (Ping-teng Kuang-ming pu-cho /u-lai#T. ,0: 40b) without mentioning the other buddha. A third and certainly most radical view is that Avalokite'vara was already abuddha in the past under whom

!akyamuni +uddha studied. !akyamuni +uddha declares in Chien-kuang-yen-

Kuan-tzu-tsai Pusa pi-mi fa-ching (!utra of secret method taught by +odhisattva Perceiving ord of Thousand !hining )yes# T. no. 106)# a sutra translated during

the Tang.

# remember that in the past +odhisattva Perceiving ord became a

buddha before #. ,is name was +rightness of True $harma (Cheng-fa-

ming). # was a disciple of ascetic practices under him. +ecause of his

instruction # eventually became abuddha. All tathagatas of the ten

directions achieve the !upreme (ay and turn the wheel of wonderful law in all the wondrous buddha lands as a result of receiving instructions

from him (T. 20: 121a).

The idea that Avalokite'vara was already a buddha long ago and is right now

appearing as a bodhisattva in order to save beings is e"pressed enigmatically by

the two sharing the same name as stated in the !urangana:

p. 413



# still remember that long before numbers of aeons countless as the sandgrains in the %anges, a +uddha called Avalokite'vara appeared in the

world. (hen # was with ,im, # developed the +odhi &ind and, for my

entry into !amadhi, # was instructed by ,im to precise meditation by the

organ of hearing (uk 135).

#t is a great parado" that although Kuan-yin is probably the best known and most beloved +uddhist savior in China# it is not at all clear that we know him 4 her that well. There are indeed a number of ambiguities about this bodhisattva in the

case of China.

# have chosen to discuss in this paper the scriptural sources for the cult of Kuan-

yin in China in the hope that some of the ambiguities can be reduced. 0or in the

introduction and dissemination of the faith in this bodhisattva# scriptures definitely

played an important role. +ut the Chinese did not simply adhere to the scriptural depictions and definitions of Kuan-yin# nor did they strictly follow the scriptural

stipulations and directions for worshiping Kuan-yin# for otherwise there would not have been any Chinese transformation. 3n the other hand# # would argue that many of the changes can still be e"plained on the basis of some scriptural sources. )ven the indigenous scriptures were not created out of thin air # but are

elaboration or modifications of some famous sutras such as the otus (Y 199).

#t is in e"amining the innovations and comparing them with the scriptural models

that we can begin to trace both the sources and the development of the cult of Kuan-yin in China.

The Chinese Names of Avalokiteśvara

Chronologically# the names of the bodhisattva appeared as Kuan-yin# Kuang-shih-

yin# Kuan-shih-yin# Kuan- shih Tzu-tsai and finally Kuan-tzu-tsai. Kuan-yin was mentioned in a list of attending bodhisattvas in the Cheng-ch Kuang-ming ting-yi ching (!utra on achieving the brilliant concentration of mind# T no. 6+0)# a sutra belonging to the Perfection of (isdom group# translated by Chih-yao# a Central Asian# in 18. (hen !anghavarma translated (u-liang-shou ching (!utra of Amitayus# T. no. +60)# one of the scriptures glorifying Pure and in ,,# he

translated the name as Kuan-shih-yin# who# together with Ta-shih-chih

p. 414

(&ahasthamaprapta)# are the two foremost bodhisattvas. #t is obvious that Kuan-

yin was not a contraction of Kuan-shih-yin made in the Tang in order to avoid the

taboo name of )mperor Tai-tsung (r . 6,%-49)# i !hih-min# as some Chinese

scholars including Ting 0u-pao (18%4-19,)# the compiler of a dictionary of +uddhist terms claimed (Tay 1%). #t is also clear # as %o to $aiyo pointed out# thatKumara/iva was not the first translator who used Kuan-shih-yin# for he did not translate the otus s-tra until 406# some one hundred fifty years later (%oto 4). #n



these two earliest sutras where the bodhisattva is mentioned# there is no

e"planation about the meaning of the name. 0or that# we have to turn to the

otus s-tra.

The otus s-tra was translated into Chinese si" times# and three have survived.

The first is Cheng fa-hua ching (!utra of the lotus of the true law# T. no. ,6+) #translated by $harmaraksa# a native of Yeh-chih (+actria) in ,86. Chapter ,+ is

entitled 5Universal %ateway5 (Pu-men) and is devoted to Avalokite'vara who is called Kuang-shih-yin (#lluminator of the (orld s !ounds)# a savior who delivers

people from seven perils# frees them from the three poisons of lust# hatred and ignorance# and grants infertile women either sons or daughters. The relevant passage concerning the name states:

The +uddha told the +odhisattva #ne"haustible #ntent, "#f sentient beings

encounter hundreds, thousands, millions difficulties and disasters and

their sufferings are unlimited, they will be delivered right away when they

hear the name of Kuang-shih-yin and be free from all pain. That is why he is called Kuang-shih-yin. #f someone keeps the name in his heart and falls into a fire which rages through the hills and fields, burning

forests, shrubs and houses, the fire will immediately die down when he

hears the name of Kuang-shih- yin. #f a person enters into a river and

becomes frightened because of the swift current, when he calls the

name of Kuang-shih-yin and takes refuge in him single-mindedly, the

authority and supernatural power of the bodhisattva will protect him from drowning and enable him to reach safety. [This is followed by the

bodhisattva's saving people from the perils of winds, weapons, demons,

imprisonment and robbers, all resulting from calling his name.] The

realm of Kuang-

p. 415

shih-yin is without limit because it has his authority, supernatural power and merit. +ecause he is full of illuminating light (Kuang), he is therefore

called Kuang-shih-yin (T. 9: 129a).

This earliest surviving version of the otus s-tra makes it clear that hearing and

calling the name of the bodhisattva are the chief reason the faithful is saved# and that the bodhisattva is closely associated with light. As 1ohn ,olt noted in

+uddha in the Crown # one of the most distinctive feature of Avalokite'vara is

indeed the strong presence of the light symbolism (,olt +1+4). +ut it leaves the

connection between the bodhisattva and 5sound5 unspecified. The ne"t surviving translation of the sutra known as &io-fa lien-huaching (!utra of the lotusflower of the wonderful law# T. no. ,6,)# made by Kumara/iva# the famous

translator from Kucha# in 406# as well as the third version known as Tien-pin mio-



fa lien-hua ching (!utra of the lotus flower of the wonderful law with an additional chapter # T. no. ,64) translated by 1nanagupta and $harmagupta in 601 removed

the uncertainty. +oth versions give the name of the bodhisattva as Kuan-shih-yin

(Perceiver of the (orlds !ounds). The 5Universal %ateway5 is chapter , in

Kumara/ivas translation and Chapter ,4 in 1nanagupta-$harmaguptas version.

3riginally# neither Kumara/ivas nor $harmaraksas version contains the gatha section at the end of the chapter . #t is found only in the translation made by

1nanagupta and $harmagupta. 3f the three# Kumara/ivas translation has

always been the most popular version in China# and therefore the gatha section

was added to his version from the latter . (hen the +uddha is asked by

+odhisattva #ne"haustible #ntent why Kuan-shih-yin is called this name# the +uddha answers# 5%ood man# suppose there a re immeasurable hundreds#

thousands# ten thousands# millions of living beings who are undergoing various trials and suffering. #f they hear of this bodhisattva Perceiver of the (orlds

!ounds and single- mindedly call his name# then at once he will perceive the

sound of their voices and they will all gain deliverance from their trials5 ((atson

,98-9# italics mine). ,ere# /ust as we read before# the only re2uirement for a person to be saved is to call the name of the bodhisattva. A crucial sentence

which # underline above# however # is missing in $harmaraksas translation:

thebodhisattvas perceiving of the sound uttered by those who call his

p. 416

name. The name 5Kuan-shih-yin5 now makes perfect sense. 3n the other hand# the light symbolism connected with him is still intact. The gatha praises

the bodhisattva thus:

,e of the true gaze, the pure gaze,

the gaze of great and encompassing wisdom,

the gaze of pity, the gaze of compassion ─ ─

constantlywe implore him, constantly look up in reverence.

,is pure light, free of blemish,

is a sun of wisdom dispelling all darkness.

,e can 2uell the wind and fire of misfortune

and everywhere bring light to the world.

. . . . . . . . . . .



Perceiver of the (orld's !ounds, pure sage ─ ─

to those in suffering, in danger of death,

he can offer aid and support.

)ndowed with all benefits,

he views living beings with compassionate eyes ((atson 305~306).

Chinese commentators interpreted the name by emphasizing the connection between the bodhisattvas perception or observation and the sounds made by the

faithful who called out his name. !eng-chao (+%4414)# a brilliant disciple of Kumara/iva# wrote in his Commentary on the 5imalakirti !-tra#

Kumara/iva said that when anyone meets danger , he 4 she should call the name and takes refuge in the bodhisattva. As the bodhisattva

perceives the sounds, the person will receive deliverance. ,e is also

named Kuan-shih-nien (Perceiver of the (orld's Thoughts), or Kuan-tzu-

tsai (Perceiving ord) ((an-tzu hsü-tsang-ching 27: 350a).

#t is interesting to note that Kumara/iva knew that the bodhisattva was also called

Kuan-tzu-tsai# but used the other name in his translation instead. Chi-tsang

(496,9)# the founder of the Three- treatise !chool# wrote a commentary on the

p. 417

otus and e"plained the name Kuan-shih-yin this way: 5Kuan is the wisdom whichcan perceive and shih- yin is the realm which is perceived. (hen realm and

wisdom are mentioned together # we have the name Kuan-shih-yin5 (T. +4: 6,4c).

,e also repeated an earlier commentator 0a-yn (46%,9)s elaborate four -fold

scheme of interpreting the name. #n his commentary on the otus# 0a-yn says#

Kuan-shih-yin may be named four ways. The first is Kuan-shih-yin

which means that he delivers by perceiving the sounds of the world. The second is Kuan-shih-shen [body] which means that he delivers by

perceiving the bodily karma of the sentient beings. The third is Kuan-

shih-yi [intentions ] which means that he delivers by perceiving the

mental karma of the sentient beings. The fourth is Kuan-shih-yeh

[karma] which contains the previous three names. #f you ask me why

we only use the name Kuan-shih-yin, my answer is that to create karma

by speech is easy, but to do good with regard to body and intention is

hard. &oreover , in the !aha world of ours, we usually worship the



+uddha with our voices. That is why Kuan-shih-yin becomes the

established name ((an-tzu hsu-tsang ching 42: 37la).

The Kuan-wu-liang-shou 0o ching (5isualization of the +uddha Amitayus sutra# T.

+6 )# translated by Kalayasas# a monk from the western regions# in 4+0# has

always been considered one of the three main scriptures of the Pure and !chool (together with the%reater !ukhavativyuha and the !maller !ukhavativyuha

sutras). This sutra offers si"teen topics for visualization which is the meaning of Kuan. The tenth topic deals specifically with the visualization of Kuan-shih-yin. The passage instructs the mediator to visualize the bodhisattvas features in such

great detail that some scholars have suggested that it might be based on the

model of an actual image (Pas +8). The minute icongraphical description# on the

other hand# serves as a standard for later artistic rendition and identification of thebodhisattva. The light symbolism which is already present in the outs receives

even stronger emphasis.

(ithin the circle of light emanating from his whole body# appear illuminated the various forms and marks of all beings that live in the five paths of e"istence.

p. 418

3n top of his head is a heavenly crown of gems like those fastened (on #ndras

head)# in which crown there is a transformed +uddha standing# twenty-five

yo/anas high......The soft hair between the eyebrows has the colour of the seven /ewels# from which eighty-four kinds of rays flow out# each ray has innumerable

transformed +uddhas# each of whom is attended by numberless transformed +odhisattvas6 freely changing their manifestations they fill up the worlds of the ten

2uarters6 ( their appearance) can be compared with the colour of the real lotus-flower . (,e wears) a garland consisting of eighty-thousand yays# in which is seen

fully reflected a state of perfect beauty. The palm of his hand has a mi"ed colourof five thousand lotus-flowers. ,is hands have ten (tips of ) fingers# each tip has eighty-four thousand pictures# which are like signet-marks# each picture has

eighty-four thousand rays which are soft and mild and shine over all things that e"ist. (hen he lifts up his feet# the soles of his feet are seen to be marked with awheel of a thousand spokes (one of the thirty- two signs) which miraculously

transform themselves into five hundred million pillars of rays.

+uddha# especially addressing Aananda# said#

(hoever wishes to meditate on +odhisattva Avalokite'vara, must do so

in the way # have e"plained. Those who practice this meditation will not suffer any calamity6 they will utterly remove the obstacle that is raised by

Karma, and will e"piate the sins which would involve them in births and

deaths for numberless kalpas. )ven the hearing of the name of this



bodhisattva will enable one to obtain immeasurable happiness. ,ow

much more will the diligent contemplation of him7 (Takakusu 182~184)

This sutra is one of si" visualization sutras which originated in Central Asia#

probably Turfan# and translated into Chinese from the end of the fourth to the

middle of the fifth century. 2+3 All of them teach the practitioner to engage in

p. 419

visualization so that a vision of the buddha or bodhisattva can be created. &ental concentration# not calling of the holy name# is therefore the central focus.

The obtaining of the divine vision guarantees the meditator s salvation. Kuan in

this case is better understood as contemplation or visualization than observation#

perception# orinvestigation.

The !hou leng-yen ching (!urangama s-tra# T. no. 94)# translated by Paramiti in

%0# also calls the bodhisattva Kuan-shih-yin or Kuan-yin# but offers a different e"planation for the name. #t provides yet a third meaning of Kuan. The

bodhisattva began by describing how he obtained samadhi by meditating on the organ of hearing as instructed by a buddha also named Kuan-shih-yin under whom he studied:

At first by directing the organ of hearing into the stream of meditation,

this organ was detached from its ob/ect, and by wiping out (the concept of ) both sound and stream-entry, both disturbance and stillness became

clearly non-e"istent. Thus advancing step by step both hearing and its

ob/ect ceased completely, but # did not stop where they ended. (hen the awareness of this state and this state itself were realized as non-

e"istent, both sub/ect and ob/ect merged into the void, the awareness of which became all-embracing. (ith further elimination of the void and

its ob/ect both creation and annihilation vanished giving way to the state of *irvana which then manifested (uk 135).

The sound mentioned here in the meditation is not that made by the faithful who

cry out his name# but any sound which# when e"amined (Kuan) with penetrating

insight# leads to the realization of sunyata. Although the bodhisattva saves

beings from various dangers and grants fourteen kinds of fearlessness in

p. 420

this sutra# the reason he can do so is different from that given in the otus.

5!ince # myself do not meditate on sound but on the mediator # # cause all sufferingbeings to look into the sound of their voices in order to obtain liberation5 (uk 1+9).

243 The bodhisattva concludes by once more linking his name to his meditation

on hearing: 5That +uddha praised my e"cellent method of perfection and gave







me# in the presence of the assembly# the name of Kuan-shih-yin. +ecause of myall-embracing (absolute function of ) hearing# my name is known everywhere5 (uk14,). #n the !urangama s-tra# therefore# Kuan is understood neither as perceiving

and responding to the cries for help uttered by the faithful# nor visualizing the

divine visage of the bodhisattva# but as investigating the real nature of sound and

realizing it as being void.

et us continue with the survey of the chronological appearance of the bodhisattvas names. +odhiruci combined the two names and called the

bodhisattva Kuan-shih-tzu-tsi (The ord (ho 3bserves the (orld) in 0a-hua

ching-lun (Treatise on the otus s-tra # T. no. 1,0) which he translated in 08. The name Kuan-tzu -tsai# was used for the first time in Ta-Pan- /o po-lo mi-lo-to

ching (The great Pra/na-paramita s-tra# T no. ,,0) translated by ,suan-tsang in

66+# and the eighty-volume version of ,ua-yen ching ( Avatamsaka s-tra# T. no.

,%9) translated by !iksananda in 69～699. Kuei-chi (6+,～68,)# ,san-tsangs

chief disciple# provided an e"planation for the name in his Pan- /o hsin-ching yu-

tsan (Profound eulogy on the ,eart !-tra) and# following his own master #condemned the older name Kuan-shih-yin as wrong:

[The bodhisattva] practiced the si" perfections in the past and has now

obtained the fruit of perfection. +ecause he is foremost in observing

p. 421

everything with wisdom, he has now accomplished ten kinds of mastery

(tzu-tsai). 0irst, he has mastery over life-span because he can either

prolong or shorten his life. !econd, he has mastery over mind, for he is untainted by life and death. Third, he has mastery over wealth, for he

can materialize it whenever he so desires and this is the result of his

perfection in giving. 0ourth, he has mastery over karma, for he only

does good deed and encourages others to do the same. 0ifth, he has

mastery over life, for he can go wherever he pleases and this is the

result of his perfection in discipline. !i"th, he is the master of superior understanding, for he can change into whatever he so pleases and this

is the result of his perfection in patience. !eventh, he is a master of vows, for he can establish happily whatever he perceives and this is the

result of his perfection in vigor . )ighth, he is a master of supernatural power , for he is fully endowed with paranormal abilities resulting from hisperfection in samadhi. *inth, he is a master of insight, for while following

words and sounds he penetrates into the wisdom. Tenth, he has

mastery over $harma, for his understanding always accords with the

scriptures and this is the result of his perfection in wisdom. ,is position

is ne"t in line to become the buddha, but his realization is the same as



the buddha. There is no obscure place that he does not illuminate. ,e

is thus called Kuan-tzu-tsai (Perceiving &aster , or &aster of 3bservation). #f one calls him Kuan-yin, both the word and the meaning

are lost ((an-tzu hsü-tsang ching 41:439a).

(hy did translators give this bodhisattva two different names $espite the criticisms of ,san-tsang and Kuei-chi# they continued to favor Kuan-shih-yin. There is also no evidence that earlier translation of this names was ever a

mistake. #n fact# these two Chinese names are translations from two different !anskrit originals. Kuan-shih-yin was the translation for Avalokita'vara# whereasKuan-tzu-tsai was the translation for Avalokite'vara which was apparently once

also used though later dropped off from usage. 0a-yn who compiled a dictionary

of translated terms# 0an-yi ming-yi chi (T. no. ,1+1)# commented that the two

names resulted from two different versions in the imported scriptures (T.

p. 422

4: 106,a). #n an article published in 19,%# &ironov confirmed the observation

made by 0a-yn in the fifth century. ,e studied the !anskrit fragments of the

otus s-tra manuscripts brought by 3tanis e"pedition from )astern Turkestan.

5#n one of the three sets of fragments which for palaeographical reasons may be

assigned to the end of the fifth century A. $. he happened to find three fragments

of the twenty fourth chapter # devoted to the praside of Avalokite'vara. The nameof the +odhisattva is spelt Avalokita'vara. As the name occurs five times on an incomplete leaf # the possibility of a clerical error is hardly admissible. The

circumstance is especially important# as the Petrovsky &!. of !P. from Kashgar has the usual form Avalokite'vara. Thus a hereto missing link between the #ndian

and Chinese traditins seems to have been found. #t cannot be doubted that Avalokita'vara was the orginal form# later supplanted by Avalokite'vara5 (&ironov,4+). +asing on this discovery# %oto suggests that Avalokite'vara was used in

scriptures coming into China from Kucha such as those translated by Kumara/iva and other Central Asian missionaries# while Avalokite'vara in scriptures

originating in #ndia such as those translated by ,suan-tsang who obtained the te"ts during his long so/ourn there (%oto 9).

The translators of the Chinese sutras had therefore access to the two different versions of the bodhisattvas name. #t is interesting that despite strong ob/ections against the name of Kuan-yin vocied by ,san-tsang and others# it is

this name that all )ast Asians have come to use in referring to this bodhisattva. Commentators# as # have indicated before# have also come up with fanciful interpretations of the 5sound5 part of the name. 3n the other hand# if Avalokite'vara was originally the name of the bodhisattva# why was it dropped

and replaced by Avalokite'vara in #ndia Are there still traces of the former in non-

Chinese sources which we can use for comparison



The Forms of the Bodhisattva

3ne distinctive feature of Kuan-yin is that he can appear in many forms. +ecause there are a huge number of scriptures in Chinese connected with Kuan-yin# the

sources describing his forms are very rich and diverse. 23 !ince it is impossible

to be e"haustive# we have to select the most representative scriptures for discussion. #n general# we can distinguish two types of his manifestations.

p. 423

The first is a list of thebodhisattvas manifestation in either superhuman# human ornonhuman forms in order to carry out his work of salvation based on the spiritual principle of upaya (skillful means). This is the case found in the otus#!urangama and Ta-cheng chuang-yen pao-wang ching (!utra on the Precious

King of Adornment in &ahayana# Karandavyuha# T. no. 100). The second is

represented by esotoric scriptures in which the bodhisattva appears with multiples

heads and hands holding various symbolic implements and reveals dharanis with marvelous efficacy.

The otus s-tra speaks of the bodhisattva appearing in thirty-three different forms. 263 #t states# 5%ood man# if there are living beings in the land who need

someone in the body of a +uddha in order to be saved# +odhisattva Perceiver of the (orlds !ounds immediately manifests himself in a +uddha body and

preaches the aw for them5 ((atson +01). 0ollowing the same formulae# the bodhisattva manifests himself in the bodies of a pratyekabuddha# a voice- hearer #King +rahma# !hakra# !elf -mastering %od 2#svara3# %reat !elf -mastering %od

2&ahesvara3#2%3 a great heavenly general# 5aishravana# a petty king# a rich man#

a householder # a chief minister # a +rahman# a monk# a nun# a layman believer # a laywoman believer # the wife of a rich man# a householder # a chief minister # or of a

+rahman# a young boy or a young girl# a heavenly being 2deva3# a dragon# a

yaksha# a gandharva# an

p. 424

!everal points need to be made. 0irst of all# the thirty-three manifestions of the

bodhisattva had relevance to a religious universe intelligible only to people living

in ancient #ndia. +rahma# !hakra# and !hiva were ,indu gods. 5aishravana#

Cakravartin# and devas were important fi"tures of the #ndian spiritual cosmos.

)ven the non-human inhabitants of that universe such as the asura# naga (dragon) and yaksha were known only by readers brought up in the #ndian culture.

That was why %oto argued convincingly that the author of this chapter of 5Universal %ateway5 of the otus s-tra must have been consciously addressing

an audience familiar with the 5edic and ,indu mythologies and beliefs. +y

making the +uddhist bodhisattva capable of assuming the forms of all the important pre-+uddhist deities# Avalokite'vara was thus elevated above them all

(%oto ,94～,9). &oreover # the very number of 5thirty-three5 was meaningful









only in the 5edic and ,indu conte"t. #t had reference to the 5edic belief in the

three-tiered universe ( and the e"istence of eleven main gods in each level of the

universe) as well as the thirty-three heavens. The number therefore had a

symbolic# but not literal# meaning (%oto 16%～168). !econdly# the forms

Avalokite'vara assumes in order to preach the $harma more effectively are

generic# but not individualized forms. #t does not say that the bodhisattva appears as a king with a specific name# not to mention a biography# but rather as

a generic king without any identity. #t is more a status than a personality. Third

and finally# of the forms Avalokite'vara assumes# only seven are feminine. # make

these three points now in order to highlight the contrast with the Chinese thirty-

three forms of Kuan-yin which replaced them (to be shall discuss later ). #n the

latter case# all the forms with clearly 5edic and ,indu connotations disappeared.The Chinese forms were predominately feminine# and they often refer either to

some historical incidents happened in China or some legends familiar to a Chinese audience. This was one of several means through which

Avalokite'vara was thereby transformed into Kuan-yin.

+efore we e"amine some of the Chinese forms of Kuan-yin# we have to finish the review of Avalokite'varas manifestations in the !urangama s-tra and the

Karandavyuha s-tra. Although almost all of the thirty- two forms mentioned in the !urangama correspond to those found in the otus# a ma/or difference is that the !urangama provides e"planations about why the bodhisattva chooses to

p. 425

assume each form. %reat careis taken in /ustifying the appropriateness of each form for each type of the bodhisattvas audience so that the importance of upaya

is made clear . # cite some relevant passages for illustration:

#f there are living beings who desire to be lords of devas to rule over the

realms of the gods, # will appear as !akra to teach them the $harma so

that they reach their goals.

#f there are living beings who wish to roam freely in the ten directions, # will appear as #svaradeva to teach them the $harma so that they reach

their goals.

#f there are living beings who en/oy discussing well-known sayings and practice pure living, # will appear as a respectable scholar to teach them

the $harma so that they reach their goals.

#f there are living beings who wish to govern cities and twons, # will appear as a magistrate to teach them the $harma so that they reach

their goals.



#f there are women who are eager to study and learn and leave home to

observe the precepts, # will appear as a bhiksuni to teach them the

$harma so that they reach their goals.

#f there are women who are keen to fulfil their home duties thereby

setting a good e"ample to other families and the whole country, # will appear as a 2ueen, a princess or a noble lady to teach them the $harma

so that they reach their goals.

#f there are young men who are chaste, # will appear as a celibate youth

to teach them the $harma so that they reach their goals.

#f there are dragons (nagas) who wish to be freed from bondage in their realms, # will appear as a nage to teach them the $harma so that they

reach their goals (uk 136～138).

The thirty-two manifestations of the bodhisattva in the !urangama s-tra follow

closely those in the otus# with the omission of 5a/rapani# and the substition of 5aisravana (,eavenly King of the *orth) with the 0our ,eavenly Kings. The

otus clearly was the model for the !urangama. ike the otus#

p. 426

the !urangama promises believers deliverances from various dangers. !haring

a characteristic common to esoteric scriptures glorifying Avalokite'vara which # will discuss below# the !urangama lists the benefits one by one and calls them thefourteen fearless powers bestowed by the bodhisattva. 283 +uilding on its

hermeneutics of 5hearing5 and 5sound5 # the sutra provides a philosophical link

between the insight into the real nature of everything as void and the resultant psychological state of fearlessness. #t is in this way reminiscent of the view put forward in the ,eart s-tra where Avalokite'vara is said to be free from fear

p. 427

because he does not have any thought-coverings as a result of having penetrated

into the voidness of everything (Conze 164～16).

The !urangama s-tra shares another distinctive feature with the esoteric

scriptures in that it refers to Avalokite'vara as having many heads# arms and

eyes:

(hen # first realized the hearing mind which was most profound, the

)ssence of &ind (i. e. the Tathagato store) disengaged itself from

hearing and could no longer be divided by seeing, hearing, feeling and





knowing,and so became one pure and clean all-pervading precious

bodhi.

p. 428

This is why # can take on different wonderful forms and master a countless number of esoteric mantras. # can appear with one, three,

five, seven, nine, eleven and up to 108, 1,000, 10,000, and 84,000

sovereign (cakra) faces6 with two, four , si", eight, ten, twelve, fourteen,

si"teen, eighteen, twenty, twenty-four and up to 108, 1,000, 10,000 and

84,000 arms making various gestures (mudras)6 and with two, three, four ,nine up to 108, 1,000, 10,000, and 84,000 clean and pure precious eyes,

either merciful or wrathful, and in a state either of still imperturbability

(dhyana -samadhi) or of absolute wisdom (pra/na) to save and protect living beings so that they can en/oy great freedom (uk 141).

The Karandavyuha s-tra# translated by Tien-hsi-tsai into Chinese from a Tibetan version around 1000# has a number of esoteric characteristics as well. #t is in factincluded in the section on esoteric sutras in the Taisho canon (T. vol. ,0). This is a very important scriputre for the cult of Avalokite'vara because it is one of the

very few sutras where a mythological account about the life of this bodhisattva is

given. ,olt provides a succinct summary of this sutra# some parts of which # shall2uote below. ,e puts the date of te"t anywhere from the fourth to the seventh

century of the Common )ra. The !anskrit version that he uses may not be

identical with the one the Chinese translation was based on# for there seem to be

a number of differences.

3nce while %autama the +uddha was performing a meditation at the

1etavana monastery in the midst of his disciples and an attendant heavenly throng, a meditation aimed at the 'purification of everything',

bright golden rays began to appear , lighting up the entire monastery and

the surrounding countryside. 5iskambhu, amagzed and filled with great /oy, asked the +uddha about the source of these glorious rays of light.The +uddha responded by saying that they came from Arya

Avalokite'vara, who was preaching the dharma of nirvana to all the

suffering denizens of the troutuous Avici ,ell (dominated by a woeful lake of fire). To an incredulous 5iskambhu, he continued: as a result of

p. 429

Avalokite'vara's preaching of the dharma, the lake of fire in the Avici ,ellwas cooled and turned into a refreshing lotus pond and the sufferings of



all of its inhabitants were thereby overcome. This miracle was then

reported to Yama, ord of ,ell, who wondered what deity this might be.

Recognizing Avalokite'vara, Yama praised his virtues with a long

eulogy.

An"ious for Avalokite'vara's arrival in the human abode, 5iskambhu eagerly asked the +uddha when he might be e"pected in this realm. The +uddha replied that Avalokite'vara had then proceeded to visit pretaloka, where the suffering 'departed' in the form of hungry and thirstyghosts heard his servon on dharman the form of the A%Ks

[ Avalokitesvara-%una-Karandavyuha]. ike the 'rain of dharma', water flowed from each of his pores to assuage their miserable conditions. The pretas were thus disabused of their belief in the permanent self ,which had led them to commit karmic actions of greed resulting in their unfavorable rebirths. They were all thus transformed into bodhisattvas to dwell in the world of Amitabha's paradisacal budhha field, !ukhavati.The +uddha then proceeded to tell that once, long ago, when he was

incarnated as a merchant during the time of the +uddha 5ipasyin, he

had heard that former buddha enumerate the many 2ualities of +odhisattva Avalokite'vara. The bodhisattva orginally had appeared

from a shot of light emanating from the primordial self -e"istend buddha

of the cosmos, who was engaged in his perpetural, deep meditation. 0rom Avalokite'vara's body (that of a mahapurusa), the world as we

know it was created: the sun and the moon from his eyes, &ahe'vara

from his brow, +rahma and the other gods from his shoulders, !ara'vati from his teeth, the wind from his mouth, the earth from his feet, and

5aruna from his stomach (,olt 47～48).

(hat comes after this passage in the Chinese translation makes the intention of the writer abundantly clear : to claim Avalokite'varas supremacy over shiva. 5 At that time the +odhisattva Perceiving ord told &ahe'vara saying# #n the future

when the world enters the Age of $egenerate aw# people attached to

p. 430

wrong views will all say that you are the lord of the universe from the beginningless beginning and that you have created all beings. At that time#

sentient beings# having lost the way of enlightenment# they are confused by their ignorance and make the following statement:

The great body of emptiness,

makes the great earth your seat.



The world as well as all sentient beings,

are all evolved from this body (T. 20: 49c).

The sutra ne"t mentions that the bodhisattva appears in the following twenty

forms to save all beings. They are: buddha# bodhisattva# pretyeka-buddha#voice-hearer # &ahesvara# *arayana# !hakra# +rahma# %od of the !un# %od of the&oon# %od of 0ire# %od of (ater # %od of (ind# naga# 5inayaka# yaksha#

5aisravana# king# minister # father and mother (T. ,0: 0c1a). #t is interesting to

note that compared with the earlier thirty-three or thirty-two manifestions# more

,indu gods are mentioned in this sutra which clearly tries to present Avalokite'vara as the creator of the cosmos as well as a universal savior . 3n the

other hand# only one of the manifestation# that of a mother # is feminine.

The ne"t section is the story of Avalokite'varas previous incarnation as a divine

horse named +alaha who saved the prince !inhala who was the previous

incarnation of %autama +uddha. # turn again to ,olts summation.

After !inhala led a crew of 500 other merchants on a seagoing venture insearch of precious /ewels, his ship was taken by storm and wreched off the coast of the island of Tamradvipa (anka). +y the grace of the lord

to whom !hinhala was devoted, the 500 shipwreched sailors safely

reached the shores of the island, where they were warmly embraced by

troops of celestial nymphs. #n reality, the nymphs were raksasis plottingto devour the captain and his men. The 'nymphs' feigned shared

distress with the merchants, seduced them, and begged them to become

their husbands. 3ne night after !inhala had spent the evening in the arms of his beautiful nymph, the lamp in his room began to laugh.

p. 431

!inhala asked the lamp the reason for the laughter , and the lamp replied

by telling him that a previous group of shipwrecked merchants had been

similarly treated by the nymphs but ultimately had been imprisoned and

eventually devoured, for the beautiful nymphs in reality were vicious

raksasis in disguise. The light warned !inhala that he and his

comrades were in imminent danger and that there was only one possiblemeans by which they could be saved. The lighted lamp told !inhala

that on the seashore there stood a white winged horse named +alaha

ready to take him and his 500 comrades away to safety, but that on one

should open his eyes until he had safely landed on the further shore. Alarmed by the light's revelation, !inhala 2uickly assembled his fellow

merchants an instructed them in the advice that had been given. They



then scurried down to the shore and mounted the waiting +alaha, who

then rose ma/estically into the sky. The raksasis, seeing that their prey

was escapi ng, called out in loud lamentations. The merchants, all e"cept !inhaha, were touched with both pity and desire, opened their eyes to look back, and dropped back down into the ocean, where they

were immediately devoured. !inhala alone escaped and, after landing

on the shore, went back to his father 's house in !inhakalpa (,olt 49 ).

The story in the Chinese version ends with a happy family reunion. #t does not have the gruesome denouement in which the princes former 5wife5# a bewitching

raksasi# followed him back to the palace# managged to seduce the father who

married her and made her the new 2ueen. !he then got all the raksasis to come

to the kingdom and eventually devoured the king and his family. The prince

finally made the people to see the truth. They proclaimed him the new king who

succeeded in banishing the raksasis to the forest and restored peace in the

country (,olt 49～0).

The last long section of the sutra in the Chinese version is the revelation of and a

chorus of praise to the 5si"-character 5 dharani om mani padme hum. The

+uddha declares that this dharani is the 5subtle and wondrous original mind5 of Avalokite'vara. The dharani is a wish-fulfilling /ewel# but so far nobody knows

about it. #f one should come to know the dharani# not only oneself # but ones

p. 432

ancestors of seven generations back# will all achieve salvaton. That is not all.

The benefit of the dharani even e"tends to strangers who come into contact with the dharani-keeper of the tape worms living inside his body. 5The worms living

inside the body of the person who holds this dharani are destined to reach the

stage of a non-retrogressing bodhisattva. #f the person carries the dharani on hisbody or wears it on his head# anyone who sees him is like seeing a stupa

containing a relic or seeing a tathagatha...... (hen a person chants this dharani asinstructed# he attains unlimited elo2uence and develops the heart of great compassion...... (hen the breath of such a person touches someone else# the

latter will develop a heart of compassion and leaving anger and other poisons

behind# achieve the stage of a non-retrogressing bodhisattva# and speedily realizeanuttara-samyak- sambodhi. #f a person wearing or carrying this dharani should

touch someone elses body with his hand# the person so touched will also speedilyattain the status of a bodhisattva5 (T. ,0: 9b～c). &ost of the last volume of the

sutra is similarly devoted to the wonders of the si"-sylable dharani (T. ,0: 9c～64a).

# now turn to the forms of Avalokite'vara found in the esoteric sutras glorifying thisbodhisattva who teach saving dharanis# of which the Karandavyuka that # have discussed above can be counted as one e"ample. 3ne of the earliest such



sutras is the Ching Kuan-shih-yin pu-sa hsiao-fu tu-hai to-lo-ni ching (!cripture

of the $harani for #nvoking Avalokite'vara +odhisattva to $issipate Poison and ,arm# T. no. 104+) translated by *an-ti during the last years of the )astern Chin

dynasty (+1%～4,0). The Tien-tai school has always put special emphasis on

this sutra ever since the Tien-tai master Chih-i (+8～9%) used it as one of the

sources for the last of the four forms of samadhis: neither walking nor sitting samadhi (!tevenson 1986#06 $onner and !tevenson ,8# ,%～,80). Although

the bodhisattva appears in this sutra in a human form and not with multiple heads

and arms like in the other esoteric sutras discussed below# it places the same degree of emphasis on the keeping of the dharanis as the latter .

The title of this sutra is e"plained by the story set forth in the beginning of the

scripture. A delegation of 5aisali citizens who suffer from all kinds of horrible diseases caused by yaksas comes to the +uddha with an urgent re2uest for help.

The +uddha tells them to invoke Avalokite'vara by offering him willow branches and pure water . The bodhisattva appears in front of the +uddha

p. 433

and proceeds to teach the people to chant three sets of dharanis# the last of which# consists of 1 phrases# is particularly powerful. Known as the 5divine

dharani of si"- character phrases5 (liu-tzu chang-chu sheng-chou)# the chanting ofwhich together with the three-fold calling of Avalokite'varas name will save people from all kinds of dangers. 0or instance# to cite /ust a few e"amples#

Avalokite'vara will guide lost travellers by appearing in the form of a human beingand lead them to safety6 he will create a well and food to save people dying of thirst and hunger . (omen who are on the point of death because of difficult

childbirths will live6 merchants who lose property to robbers will recover it becausethe latter will have a sudden change of hearts. The dharani not only saves

people from sufferings in this world# but will enable them not being reborn in the

realms of hell# hungry ghosts# animals# and asuras. #nstead# they will be born in

a place where they can see the +uddha and beome freed after listening to the

$harma. Avalokite'vara is called the 5%reat Compassionate 3ne5 (Ta-pei) in this sutra and is declared to be the savior who 5courses in the five realms of rebirth5 to carry out the work of salvation (T. ,0: +6b).

+eginning with the *orthern Chou dynasty (6～681)# more esoteric scriptures

about Avalokite'vara with new dharanis were introduced into China. The deity in

these scriptures appears not in a regular human form# but in the esoteric forms of many heads and many arms. The first of these new forms of Avalokite'vara to be introduced to China was the )leven-headed Avalokite'vara ()kadasamukna#

!ih-i-mien). Three sutras# translated by Yeh-she-chueh-to in 6+～%% (T. no.

10%0)# ,suan-tsang in 69 (T. no. 10%1) and Amoghava/ra (%0～%%4# T. no. 1069)

are about this deity. *e"t# it was Avalokite'vara holding a lasso ( Amoghapasa#

Pu-kung-ssu-so) who figures in seven sutras# the earliest of which was translated



by Yen-na-chueh-to in the !ui (81～618 ) and the rest by# among others# ,suan-

tsang and +odhiruci (d. %,%) in the Tang (T. nos. 109,～1098). !utras on the

Thousand-handed and Thousand-eyed Avalokite'vara were translated ne"t and

the thirteen sutras were all done in the Tang (T. nos. 106～1068). Aside from

those by Chih-tung (done in 6,%～649# T. no. 10%) and +hagavadharma (done in

60# T. no. 1060) # ,suan-tsang# +odhiruci# and the three Tantric masters !ubhakarasimha (6+6～%+)# 5a/rabodhi (6%0～%41) and Amoghava/ra also made

their translations. A fourth esoteric form of

p. 434

Avalokite'vara# that of holding the wheel of a wish-granting /ewel (Cintamanicakra# 1u-yi-lun) is the sub/ect of yet another nine sutras which were

translated by #-tsing# +odhiruci# !ikshananda# 5a/rabodhi# Amoghava/ra and

others# all in the Tang (T. nos. 1080～1088).

Although these esoteric scriptures are devoted to different forms of Avalokite'vara# they nevertheless share some common characteristics. The firstof these is# of course# the emphasis on the chanting of the dharanis. ike the

Ching Kuan-yin ching and the Karandavyuha# they promise unfailing deliverance

from all possible disasters# the gaining of both worldly benefits and transcendant wisdom. They always categorize the benefits by listing them numerically. Theyemphasize minute# detailed and correct procedures: how to make either a three-

dimensional image of the deity (mandala) or a representational imagery painted on cotton cloth (pata)# how to prepare the ritual arena# how many times one

should chant the dharani# what ritual ingredients one should use in performing the fire offering (homa) to the deity# what hand gestures (mudra ) to perform and what visualizations of the deity to carry out during the rite. There are also magical recipes for averting specific disasters. # will select some passages from 0uo-shu

shih-i-mien Kuan-shih-yin shen-chou ching (T. no. 10%0) translated by Yeh-she-

ch-to to illustrate what # mean.

The sutra calls for a daily routine of bathing in the morning (if bathing is

impossible# then at least rinsing the mouth and washing both hands)# followed by

reciting the dharani 108 times. The result is the gaining of ten rewards in ones

present lift: (1)does not suffer from any disease6 (,)is constantly remembered by

buddhas of the ten directions6 (+)always possesses money# things# clothes and food sufficiently and without want6 (4)can overcome all enemies6 ()can cause all sentient beings to give rise to hearts of compassion toward oneself6 (6)no poison#evil charm or fever can harm one6 (%)no knife or stake can hurt one6 (8)will not be

drowned by water6 (9)will not be burned by fire6 (10)will not suffer a sudden death.3n the other hand# the following four compensations will become ones own:

(1)sees inumerable buddhas before one dies6 (,)will never fall into hell6 (+)will not be harmed by any animal6 (4)is reborn in the land of the +uddha Amitayus. #fone

has committed the four para/ikas (deserving e"pulsion) and the five deadly sins



(leading to be born in the Avici ,ell)# by chanting this dharani but once# all the

p. 435

sins will be e"tinguished.

#t then describes the method of worship. 0irst make an image of the )leven-

headed Avalokite'vara with white sandalwood. Place it on a high platform facingthe west. !catter the ground with flowers. 0rom day one to day seven# chant the dharani three periods each day: 108 times in the morning# 108 times at noon

and 108 times in the evening. 3ne does not have to offer any food# but from day eight to day thirteen# one should offer food# drink and fruits. $o not put them on

plates but on beds woven with clean grass. The practitioner kneels on a cushionmade of sedge grass facing the statue. 3n the 14th and 1th day# make

sandalwood fire offering in front of the image and also place a clean copper container filled with one sheng (pint) of !oma oil in front of the practitioner . Then

take incense made of the Aguru tree and of a thickness as that of a chopstick#prepare 1008 sections of this kind of incense# each being one inch in length.!tarting from the noon of the 1th day# the practitioner takes one section of the

incense# smear it with !oma oil# recite the dharani over it and then throw it into thesandalwood fire. ,e does so until all of the 1008 sections are finished. ,e

should not eat anything for these two days. 3n the night of the 1th day#

Avalokite'vara enters the place of practice and the sandalwood statue shakes by itself . At that time# the whole earth also shakes. The face of the +uddha sitting

on the topmost head of the statue praises the practitioner and promises to fulfill allhis wishes.

The sutra ends with various recipes to deal with moon elcipses# nightmares#diseases of people and animals# and disturbance caused by ghosts. ,ere are two e"amples: place e2ual amounts of realgar and yellow ochre on leaves# chant the dharani 1008 times in front of the image of Avalokite'vara# bath with warm water mi"ed with the above. All obstacles# nightmares# and diseases will go

away. 0or getting rid of evil ghosts who have entered ones home: place 108

sticks of incense in front of the image# chant the dharani once over each stick and

throw it into the fire. (hen all the incense sticks are finished# all evil ghosts will

scatter and do not dare to stay (T. ,0: 149b～11b).

!pace does not allow me to discuss sutras on the Amoghapasa and

Cintamanicakra Avalokite'vara. ,owever # # will provide here a synopsis of the Thousand-handed and Thousand-eyed Avalokite'vara sutra translated by

p. 436

+hagavadharma# by far the most important of all the esoteric scriptures in China.

The sutra is spoken by the +uddha in the palace of Avalokite'vara located on the

island Potalaka. !uddenly there is a great illumination and the three thousand



chiliocosms turn golden in color # shaking all over while the sun and moon becomedull by comparison. +odhisattva $harani King (Tsung-chih-wang) asks the

+uddha why this is happening and the +uddha answers that it is because

Avalokite'vara is going to reveal the dharani. Avalokite'vara then takes over thecenter stage. ,e speaks with the first person pronoun 5#5 in the stura.

(hen # practised under a buddha by the name of Ch'ien-kuang-wang

ching-chu 1u-lai innumberable kalpas ago, the buddha took pity on me

and all sentient beings. Touching my forehead with his golden hand,

the buddha instructed me to keep this dharani and work for the benefit ofbeings living in evil times in the future. # was at that time a bodhisattva

of the first stage, but as soon as # heard the dharani, # advanced right away to the eighth stage of the bodhisattva path. 0illed with /oy and

e"altation, # vowed, '#f # am capable of benefiting and comforting all sentient beings in the future, let me be endowed with a thousand hands

and a thousand eyes right away.' As soon as # made the vow, this happened. !o from that long ago epoch, # have kept the dharani. As aresult, # have always been born where there is a buddha. &oreover , # have never undergone birth from a womb, but am always transformed

from a lotus.

,aving e"plained the origin and efficacy of the dharani# Avalokite'vara calls upon

anyone who wants to keep this dharani to give rise to the thought of compassion

for all sentient beings by making the following ten vows after him:

*amah Avalokite'vara of %reat Compassion, may # 2uickly learn all $harma.

*amah Avalokite'vara of %reat Compassion, may # speedily obtain the

eye of wisdom.

*amah Avalokite'vara of %reat Compassion, may # 2uickly save all

p. 437

sentient beings.

*amah Avalokite'vara of %reat Compassion, may # speedily obtain skill of means.

*amah Avalokite'vara of %reat Compassion, may # 2uickly sail on the

pra/n~aa boat.



*amah Avalokite'vara of %reat Compassion, may # speedily cross over the ocean of suffering.

*amah Avalokite'vara of %reat Compassion, may # 2uickly obtain the

way of discipline and meditation.

*amah Avalokite'vara of %reat Compassion, may # speedily ascend the

nirvana mountain.

*amah Avalokite'vara of %reat Compassion, may # 2uickly enter the

house of non-action.

*amah Avalokite'vara of %reat Compassion, may # speedily achieve the$harma-+ody.

#f # face a mountain of knives, it will naturally crumble,

if # face a roaring fire, it will naturally burn out,

if # face hell, it will naturally disappear ,

if # face a hungry ghost, it will naturally be satiated,

if # face an Asura, its evil heart will naturally become tame and,

if # face an animal, it will naturally obtain great wisdom.

After making such vows# one should sincerely call the name of Avalokite'vara as

well as the name of Amitabha +uddha who is Avalokite'varas original teacher . #f anyone recites the dharani# should he fall into an evil realm of rebirth# or not being born into one of the lands of the buddhas# or not attaining unlimited

samaadhi and elo2uence# or not getting all the wishes of ones desire in the

present life and# in the case of a woman# if she detests the female body and wantsto be born a man in her ne"t life# Avalokite'vara promises that all these would become true. 3therwise he will not achieve complete# perfect enlightenment.

#f anyone steals or damages the sanghas property# by reciting this dharani# the sin will be forgiven Anyone who has committed the five sins and ten evil

p. 438

deeds# who slanders the $harma and corrupts monastic discipline# or who

destroys temples and steals monks possessions# is freed from all the guilt by chanting this dharani. +ut if one has doubts about the efficacy of the dharani#



then the conse2uences of even a slight mistake will not disappear # how much

more so a serious sin

The keeping of the dharani will result in fifteen kinds of good rebirth and the

avoidance of fifteen kinds of evil death. The fifteen kinds of evil death from which

one is saved are: (1)from hunger and suffering6 (,)from being imprisoned by cangue and beaten by staff6 (+)at the hands of enemies6 (4)from fighting on the

battlefield6 ()by being mauled by wolves or other vicious animals6 (6)by being

attacked by poisonous snakes and scorpions6 (%) by drowning or burnt by fire6 (8)by poison6 (9)by witchcraft6 (10)from madness6 (11)by falling from a tree or a

cliff6 (1,)from enemies curse6 (1+)being killed by heretic gods and demonic

ghosts6 (14)from chronic and lingering illnesses6 (1)by suicide. The fifteen kindsof good rebirth one en/oys are: (1)being always ruled by a virtuous king wherever one is born6 (,)always born in a good country6 (+)always living in a peaceful time6 (4)always meeting with good friends6 ()always born without any physical defects6 (6)but with a pure and ripe heart for truth6 (%)will not break any precepts6 (8)having

harmonious and virtuous family members6 (9)fully endowed with money and food6 (10)always respected and taken care of by others6 (11)never suffering from

robbery6 (1,)always having ones desire fulfilled6 (1+)always beingprotected by

nagas# devas# and virtuous gods6 (14)can see the +uddha and listen to the

$harma in the place of birth6 (1)can understand and penetrate the correct $harma.

The dharani consisting of 84 phrases is then revealed.

All the assembled reach different levels of realization. !ome attain the fruit of sotapanna# sakadagami# anagami or arahant. 3thers attain the first# second#

third# fourth# fifth# all the way to the tenth stage of the bodhisattva path. Unlimitednumber of sentient beings give rise to bodhicitta.

#n keeping the dharani# one should stay in a clean room# purify oneself by bathing

and put on clean clothes. ,ang a banner (with a painting of the bodhisattva)#

light lamp# offer flowers# delicacies and food and concentrate ones thoughts

without allowing them to wander . 3ne can e"pect that !un-light and &oon-light +odhisattvas as well as many gods and immortals come to bear

p. 439

witnesses. Avalokite'vara will look after the practitioner with the thousand eyes and protect him with the thousand hands. As a result# one will understand all worldly classics# including the 5edas and all heterodo" philosophies thoroughly. +y chanting the dharani# one will be able to cure 84#000 kinds of illnesses and

order gods and ghosts to subdue &ara and heterodo" teachers. #f a person who

either studies the sutra or practices meditation in the wilderness is bothered by

evil spirits and cannot concentrate# /ust chant this dharani once# they will be

bound and subdued by it. Any one who gives rise to the thought of compassion



to sentient beings and decides to keep the dharani as taught# Avalokite'vara will order nagas# benevolent gods# devaguardians of the secrets of 5airocana to

always follow and surround him without leaving his side. They will protect him as

if he were their eyes or their very lift (T. ,0: 106b～108b).

&ethod of setting up a sacred arena is then given: recite the dharani ,1 times overa knife. Use the knife to demarcate the boundary on the ground. 3r one can

recite the dharani ,1 times over pure water and pour it on the four sides to create the boundary. 3r use white mustard seed. Recite the dharani ,1 times and

then scatter them on the four sides. Alternatively# one can also create the

boundary by visulization. 3r recite the dharani ,1 times over clean ashes or five-

colored twine. )ither can serve as markings for the arenas boundry (T. ,0: 109b).

&any recipes to deal with various problems or to attain specific goals follow# and

here are a few samples. #f one wants to order a ghost around# get a skull from

the wild# wash and clean it. !et up a sacred area in front of the image of the

Thousand-handed and Thousand-eyed 3ne# worship it with flowers# incense# foodand drink. $o so for seven days# and the ghost will appear and do whatever it is

ordered. #f a woman suffers from a difficult childbirth# recite the dharani ,1 times over sesame oil# rub it in her belly button and her vagina and the baby will come

out easily. #f someone has phobia about the dark and is afraid to go out at night#make a necklace with white threads# recite the dharani ,1 times and tie it with ,1

knots. (hen this is worn on the neck# fear goes away (T. ,0: 110b～c).

The sutra ends by identifying the names of the forty mudras of Avalokite'vara and

the benefits they bestow on the worshiper (T. ,0: 111a～b).

# have devoted considerable space to the description of these three esoteric

p. 440

scriptures centering around Avalokite'vara. This is /ustified because# with the

possible e"ception of Ching Kuan-yin # they are not very well known. &ost students of Chinese +uddhism# including myself prior to my study of Kuan-yin#

usually stay away from the esoteric scriptures# regarding them as a bit too

specialized. As a result# there is a vacuna in the current scholarship on Chinese

esoteric +uddhism. Although a huge body of such scriptures e"ists# the ma/ority

of them having been translated in the Tang and !ung# it has rarely be used as

sources for the reconstruction of the kind of religious beliefs and practices they presented to their contemporary audiences in China. )ven a cursory summary as

# have tried to do above# therefore# might be helpful to provide a concrete sense

about this type of literature. The second reason for my going into some detail about the promises Kuan-yin grants to the faithful is because such scriptures create a new identity of this deity not found in the earlier e"oteric scriptures. (hile the otus s-tra# the !urangama-!utra and the Pure and 5isualization !utra# the three most important scriptures promoting the faith in Kuan-yin since



the !i" $ynasties# promise similar worldly benefits as well as salvation from evil rebirths as those vouchsaved by the esoteric te"ts# Kuan-yhin is subordinated to

!akyamuni and Amitabha respectively. #n the esoteric scriptures# on the other hand# Kuan-yin increasingly assumes an independant role as a universal savior .Responding to the development of the cults of !hiva and 5ishnu in ,induism#

esoteric Avalokite'vara e"hibits similar omnipotence and omniscience. The process reached its culmination in the Karandavyuha !utra . As we have seen

earlier # Avalokite'vara is declared to be the creator of the universe# including

!hiva himself .

3ne measure of the popular reception of a scripture is provided by the depiction

of its themes in art. The 5Universal gateway5 chapter of the otus s-tra is a well known e"ample. According to 0a-hua chuan-chi (Record of the otus s-rta# T.

no. ,068)# Tsu-ch &eng-sun (r . 401～4++)# the king of the *orthern iang

dynasty# was credited with the promotion of this chapter as an independent scripture. The king was a +uddhist devotee. ,e suffered from illness and was

told to chant the chapter # for 5Kuan-yin has a special affinity with people of this land.5 ,e did so and recovered from his illness. 0rom then on# this chapter #known as Kuan-shih-yin !utra# started to circulate as an independent

p. 441

scripture (T. 1: ,c). Among the scriptures found in the caves of Tun-huang#

1048 were copies of the otus and almost ,00 were copies of the Kuan-yin s-tra.

(hile a few could be dated to before the !ui dynasty (81～618)# the ma/ority

were copied during the !ui and Tang# indicating the growing popularity of Kuan-yin during this time. &oreover # among the frescoes in the e"isting 49, caves in

Tun-huang# more than ,8 are illustrations of this chapter . They were painted during several hundred years# beginning with the !ui and ending with the ,si-

hsia (990～1,,%)(!un 198%# 61～6,).

The attraction of Avalokite'vara as a cosmic god as depicted in the esoteric

sutras must be very great. #n fact# we can find evidences of positive responses

to this new idea in new iconographies of this deity. %ilt bronzes of Kuan-yin

holding willow branch and water bottle began to be created as early as 4%0*00#

clearly reflecting the influence of Ching kuan-yin ching. This is a Chinese

creation# for Avalokite'vara is usally depicted as holding a lotus stem instead of willow branch in #ndia. Although for some time even in China# Kuan-yin

continued to be depicted with holding a lotus stem in one hand# eventually it was replaced by the willow branch in the !ung and later . #n &ing and Ching# when Kuan-yin was already femininized# even when she was shown not holding

anything in her hand# the willow branch would still be depicted as emerging from the water bottle# which might be shown sitting beside her . Another indication of the willow branch and pure water as established attributes of Kuan-yi is provided by the gatha praising her sung during the celebrations of her 5birthday5 which is

held on the 19th day of second month# si"th month and the ninth month. #ncluded



in the Chan-man /ih-sung ($aily iturgies of the Chan !chool)# a te"t published in18+4# 5Celebratory Rite for +odhisattva Kuan-shih-yins ,oly +irthday5 (Kuan-

shih-yin Pu-sa sheng-tan chu-yi) fuses elements from the otus s-tra# Chien-

shou ching and !utra of Thousand ,ands. #t calls for the chanting of Kuan-yins

name three times# followed by the chanting of the %reat Compassion $harani

seven times. Then the following gatha to be sung accompanied by music:

The +odhisattva is the Perfectly Penetrating 3ne. +orn in the forest of seven /ewels, her true form has a thousand hands and thousand eyes.

p. 442

!he sits in the Potalaka Palace. !prinkling sweet dews with a willow

branch, she nourishes the entire dharma realm universally. $isplaying

her supernatural powers and riding on thousand layers of ocean waves,

she arrives in full splendor in this place of truth.

The grace of the wondrous Kuan-yin +odhisattva is hard to repay,

,er purity and splendor are the result of spiritual cultivation carried out inmany kalpas.

Thirty-two different manifestations are found in many worlds.

!he has been transforming beings in 1ambudvipa for innumerable kalpas.

The sweet dew in the bottle is constantly sprinkled everywhere,

The willow branch in her hand has been there for numberless autumns.

A thousand prayers rising from a thousand places are all answered.

!he has always been a boat transporting people from the ocean of

suffering (0o-chiao chao-mu ke-sung, 90～92 ).

!even e"tant reliefs of the )leven-headed Avalokite'varafrom the chi-pao-ta

(Tower of the !even 1ewels)# completed in %0+ under )mpress (u (690～%0)#

are now kept in different museums of the world. The one in the 0reer %allery

shows the deity having 5ten small heads placed in superimposed tiers above the

main head as if attached to the headdress5 (,oward 199+# 100～101). 3ther fine



e"amples are found in 1apan# such as the image in ,oryo/i created in the 8th

century in the Tang style. Amoghapasa and Cintamanicakra Avalokite'vara

were also represented in art after those sutras were translated in the Tang.

,owever # of all the esoteric forms of Avalokite'vara introduced into China# it is theThousand-handed and Thousand-eyed Avalokite'vara who became most popular

in China. This was widely attested to by the production of images# keeping of the%reat Compassion $harani by monks and lay people resulting in miracles#

copying of the Chien -shou ching # and recitation of key passages such as the

5ten vows5 and the dharani in a ritual setting leading to Chih-li (960～10,8)s

formulation of the repentance ritual in the !ung (Y 1996).

#t is clear from this survey that there is a rich source from both e"oteric and

esoteric scriptures which can serve as models for artists to depict the various forms Avalokite'vara assumes to help sentient beings. #ndeed# many images

and

p. 443

drawings of this bodhisattva have been created using such scriptural sources as their basis. ,owever # when we look at the sets of Kuan-yin paintings# be they five#

thirty-two# or fifty-three# made by artists in late imperail period# no discernable

connection with scriptural sources is present. They were indigenous creations

by Chinese artists who showed unrestrained freedom in their imagination of a

Kuan-yin who looked remarkably like a beautiful Chinese lady.

3f the multiple sets of Kuan-yin# the one with five forms probably was the earliest.

!uch a set painted by Ting Yn-peng (14%～ca. 16,8) is kept at *elson- Aitkins

&useum at Kansas City. All the five are feminine. The ma/ority of the thirty-two forms and the fifty-three forms are also feminine. At least four sets of the thirty-

two forms of Kuan-yin are e"tant: one set painted by ,sing Tzu-ching# a woman

painter of the &ing# is kept at the Palace &useum in Taipei# one set attributed to Tu Chin (of the &ing) is kept at the Tokyo *ational &useum# another set with

only ,8 remaining of the original +, attributed to Ting Yn-peng is kept at Anhui Provincial &useum# and finally a set painted by the daughter of the famous

painter Chiu Ying (1494* ca. 1,) is kept by a private collector in 1apan. The

drawings in the four sets are identical# all done in the Pai-miao line-drawing style#

but the gathas appended to them might be different. 0or instance# one of the

forms shows Kuan-yin sitting on a lion-like mythological animal called hou #293

an iconography not found prior to the &ing. Although the image is the same in the Palace &useum set (0ig. 1) and the set in Anhui Provincial &useum (0ig. ,)#

the gathas# however # are different.

A set of the fifty- three forms of Kuan-yin compiled and printed with a

p. 444





preface by ,u Ying-ling (11～160,)# a historian with a strong interest in the

Kuan-yin lore# has been reprinted in several modern editions. All thirty- two

forms are repeated here# but many new ones are also added. 0orty-two of the

fifty-three are definitely feminine# and eleven are masculine# including the forms ofbuddha# monk# minister and so on# drawing inspiration from the otus and

!urangama. The number fifty-three refers to the fifty- three visits the young pilgrim !udhana makes in search for truth described in the Avatamska !utra#another te"t providing scriptural basis for the cult of Kuan-yin in China. The 40

chan version of the sutra translated by Pra/78 in %98 is particularly important. #t is a translation of the %andavyuha(T. no. ,9+)# the section of the sutra which

describes !udhanas pilgrimage. Kuan-yin is the twenty-eighth 5good friend5

!udhana pays a visit. !itting on a diamond boulder in a clearing adidst a

lu"uriant wooded area# Kuan-yin# who is referred in the sutra as 5brave and

manly5 (yung-meng ta-chang-fu)# preaches dharma to him. #n the Avatamsaka#

Kuan-yin is credited with the power to save people from similar perils as those

mentioned in the otus. (hen one calls on the name of Kuan-yin# one can go

without fear into a forest infested with bandits and wild beasts. 3ne is freed fromfetters and chains# and one is saved from drowning in the raging ocean. (hen

thrown onto burning coals# on calling Kuan- yins name# one is not killed# for the

flames will become lotus sprouts in a lake. +y late Tang# artists liked to combinethe depictions of Kuan-yin in these two sutras together . This is 2uite a common theme among the tenth century frescoes at Tun-hung (0ontein %8) and among

wood-block illustrations of +uddhist scriptures printed in the !ung (9601,%9) and later . !uch a wood-block print dated 14+, (0ig. +) shows an illustration of Kuan-

yin appearing as a minister from the otus on the upper half and !udhana paying homage to Kuan-yin from the Avatamsaka in the lower half . #t is interesting to

note that Kuan-yin in both renderings looks decidedly feminine.

The painters of these multiple sets of Kuan-yin seem to favor certain feminine forms which they would use repeatedly# a point which # shall take up below.

The Feminiation of Avalokiteśvara in China

Kuan-yinwas perceived as predominately musculine and similarly so depicted in Chinese art until the Tang# although literary and anecdotal e"amples can be

p. 445

cited to trace the bodhisattvas se"ual transformation to as early as the fifth century during the north and south dynasties# as C. *. Tay demonstrated. 2103 +ut beginning with the 0ive $ynasties# around the tenth century# Kuan-yin was

increasingly feminized and# by the &ing# the bodhisattva was transformed into a

5goddess of mercy5. Kuan-yin was also depicted as primarily feminine in art as

we have seen with the multiple sets of the bodhisattva. &oreover # not only has

Kuan-yin been feminized# she also appeared in several distinctive feminine

images in China. Three feminine images of Kuan-yin have particularly become





widely known in China: that of a chaste and filial daughter # that of a young and

flirtations fish seller # and that of a kind old woman.

The sources for these images are not canonical sutras. As we have seen before#

although many scriptures are connected with Kuan-yin# yet aside from the otus

s-tra and !urangama s-tra# we cannot find many others in which Kuan-yin is described as feminine. The media for Kuan-yins se"ual transformation and# at the same time# her sinicization# are provided by indigenous sutras (otherwise known as 5apocryphal sutras5 )# miracle tales# and a uni2ue genre of religious

literature known as 5precious volumes5 (pao-chan) which were written in a mi"ture of classical and collo2uial Chinese. ,eir to popular sutra lectures

prevalent in the Tang# precious volumes in late imperial China were often recited aloud# accompanied by music# to an audience composed of mostly women who

were illiterate. +iographies of religious women# as well as novels# plays and

ethnographical literature are some other sources providing us with clues. Chinese come to understand +uddhism not only through translated sutras but

also# or perhaps even more so# through their e"posure to the kind of sources that #refer here. !ince monks and lay +uddhists collaborated in creating and

preserving

p. 446

these media for Kuan-yins transformation# # do not believe that we should consider the feminine Kuan-yin as a phenomenon found only in Chinese popular religion# as scholars previously claimed (Chen 19646 &aspero 19,8). 3n the contrary# # take it to be a powerful e"ample of the creativity of Chinese +uddhist tradition.

(hat can the feminine images of Kuan-yin tell us about Chinese +uddhism and

gender #t goes without saying that Kuan-yin# a 5goddess5 # was not a real woman.

)ven though the feminine images of Kuan-yin were provided with names and

identities# they were not historical women. And although women worshiped

Kuan-yin and could read or listen to the stories glorifying Kuan-yin# so did men.

5Precious volumes5 # miracle tales# indigenous sutras# novels# and plays about Kuan-yin did not constitute genres restricted to either a female authorship or readership. 3n the other hand# it can be argued that images of Kuan-yin were

not created out of thin air # but were based on ideas and ideals of womanhood in

late imperial China. These images can therefore reveal what the society thought

about women and what some of the women aspired to become in that society.

+y far the most familiar image of Kuan-yin is the chaste and filial daughter represented by Princess &iao- shan. As %len $udbridge demonstrated in his

studies# the core of the legend can be traced to the stele inscription entitled

5+iography of the +odhisattva of %reat Compassion5 (Ta-pei Pu-sa chuan)

composed by Chiang Chih-chi ( 10+1～1104) who came to 1u-chou# ,onan# as its

new prefect in 1099. ,e became friends with the abbot of ,siang-shan !su in



Pao-feng county which housed a Ta-pei (Thousand-eyed and Thousand-armed

Kuan-yin) Pagoda and was the pilgrimage center for the Kuan-yin cult. The fameof the temple and the pagoda rested on the legend that Princess &iao-shan# who

was an incarnation of Kuan -yin# underwent the apotheosis on this very site. +ased on what the abbot told him# Chiang wrote the account which was penned

by the famous calligrapher Tsai Ching and inscribed on a stele in 1104. (hen Chiang served as the prefect of ,angchow during 110,～110+# he brought the

story with him and the monk of Upper Tien-chu &onastery# another pilgrimage

center for Kuan-yin worship# had the same story carved on a stele in 1104

($udbridge 19%8# 10～16 198,# 89～94). 2113

Although the legend of &iao-shan was already known in the !ung# the fully

p. 447

developed story# however # was set forth in the &ing novel The Complete story of

Kuan-yin of the !outhh !ea *anhai Kuan-yin chan-chuan)# the &ing chuan-chi drama !tory of ,siang-shan (,siang-shan chi)# and the early Ching sectarian te"tTrue !cripture of Kuan-yins 3riginal 5ow of Universal !alvation (Kuan-yin chi-tu pen-yan chen-ching# preface dated 166%). All the works cited above# moreover #were in turn based on the Precious 5olume of ,siang-shan (,siang-shan pao-chuan). The earliest surviving edition was from the Ch ien-lung era in the 18th

century# although it bore a preface dated to 110+ written by a monk named Pu-ming of Upper Tien-chu &onastery# who cannot be otherwise identified. )ven if the preface was spurious# the 5precious volume5 was clearly written by the &ing#

for it was already referred by this title in the 10s. The story# in short# is the

following. 21,3

&iao-shan was the third daughter of King &iao-chuang who ruled an unspecified

kingdom in an unspecified time. !he was by nature drawn to +uddhism# keeping avegetarien diet# reading scriputres by day and practicing Chan meditation at nightfrom an early age. The king had no son and hoped to choose an heir from

among his sons-in-law. (hen &iao-shan reached the marriagible age of nineteen# she refused to get married# unlike her two elder sisters who had both obediently married the men chosen by the father . The king was greatly angered

by her refusal and punished her with various ordeals. !he was first confined to theback garden and sub/ected to hard labor . (hen she completed the tasks with

the aid of gods# she was allowed to /oin a nunnery to undergo further trials in the

hope of discouraging her from pursuing the religious

p. 448

path. !he persevered and the king burned down the nunerary# killed the five

hundred nuns# and had &iao-shan e"ecuted for her unfilial behavior . (hile her body was safeguarded by a mountain spirit# &iao-shans soul toured hell and

saved beings there by preaching to them. !he returned to the world# went to







,siang-shan# meditated for nine years and achieved enlightenment. +y this

time# the king had become seriously ill with a mysterious disease which resisted

all medical treatment. &iao-shan# disguised as a medicant monk# came to the

palace and revealed the only remedy which could save the dying father : a

medicine concocted with the eyes and hands of someone who had never felt

anger . !he further told the astonished king where to find such a person. (hen the kings messengers arrived# &iao-shan willingly offered her eyes and hands. The father recovered after taking the medicine and came to ,siang-shan with the

royal party on a pilgrimage to offer thanks to his savior . ,e recognized the eye-

less and hand-less ascetic to be no other than his own daughter . 3verwhelmed

with remorse# he and the rest of the royal family all became converted to

+uddhism. &iao-shan was transformed into her true form# that of the thousand-

eyed and thousand-armed Kuan-yin. After the apotheosis# &iao-shan passed

away and a pagoda was erected to mark the site.

)arlier in the story# &iao-shans refusal to get married was her ma/or crime for

which she had to suffer many hardships and even death. ater in the story# her selfless sacrifice of her hands and eyes to save her father made possible the

reconciliation and her eventual transfiguration. The re/ection of marriage is

based on two powerful arguments. The first one has to do with a negative attitude toward se"uality and desire and the second is a negative evaluation of themarried condition itself . +oth reflect the values of +uddhism which has always

regarded the monastic and celibate life as more preferable to that of a

householder . &iao-shan set a strong model for Chinese womens resistance to

marriage. ,owever # for them# the revulsion against marriage is not /ust an

indictment against se"uality per se# but was also caused by the fear of a difficult married life involving over -bearing in-laws# the pain and danger of childbirth# and

the folk belief that women who have given birth to children are punished in the underworld for having produced polluting substances ( Ahern ,14). 21+3

!ome women e"pressed their resistance to marriage by concrete action.

p. 449

&ar/orie Topley studied women living in a rural area of the Canton delta who from

the early 19th to the early ,0th century 5either refused to marry or # having married#

refused to live with their husbands. Their resistance to marriage took regular forms. Typically they organized themselves into sisterhoods. The women

remaining spinsters took vows before a deity〔3ld &other Kuan-yin〕# in front of witnesses# never to wed5 (Topley 19%: 6%) . Andrea !ankar who studied womenliving in chai tangs (vegetarian houses) in ,ong Kong in the 19%0s also

commented on their attraction to Kuan-yin. 53ne concrete appeal for the spinsters who have chosen to live in chai tangsis the strong identification

many women have with the %oddess〔sic〕 Kuan-yin. *e"t to discussions on

the different categories of chai# stories about the lives of Kuan Yin were a popular topic of conversation5 (!ankar +0%) . ater # she again observes# 50or my





informants# Kuan Yin is an apotheosized woman. The myths they relate depict hermore as a folk heroine than as a saintKuan Yin provides a charter for their celibate lives. ,er life as a strong# independent# successful woman who lived in

the secular world sanctifies and legitimazes their own choice of life style. *ow

some of their motivations for turning to the religious life as they grow old and

retreat from the secular world can be attributed to the kinship they feel with Kuan Yin5 (!ankar +10).

#n 198% when # did field work in ,angzhou# # often encountered similar sentiments

against marriage e"pressed by women pilgrims # interviewed. These village

women would sing songs glorifying Kuan-yin which were called 5Kuan- yin sutra5 .

They e"pressed their admiration for Kuan-yin／&iao-shans independence and

courage in refusing marriage. They envied her independence and freedom. 3ne went like this:

p. 450

There is a truly chaste woman in the household of King &iao-chuang.

0irst, she does not have to bear the ill humor of her parents- in-law.

!econdly, she does not have to eat the rice of her husband.

Thirdly, she does not have to carry a child in her womb or on her arms.

0ourthly, she does not need a maid to serve her .

)veryday she en/oys peace and 2uiet in her fragrant room.

Turning over the cotton coverlet, she sleeps on the bed alond.

!tretching out her legs, she went into the +uddha hall.

Tucking in her feet, she withdrew into the back garden.

0or the sake of cultivation she suffered punishments by her parent.

+ut now, sitting on the lotus throne, she en/oys blessings.

#f Princess &iao-shan is a symbol of virginal chastity# Ylang Kuan-yin (Kuan-yin

with a 0ish +asket) is a feminine image of Kuan-yin of greater comple"ity. Known also as &r . &as (ife (&a-lang-fu)# +odhisattva with Chained bones (!o-

ku Pu-sa) or simply# 5(oman from Yen-chou5 # she is a seductress and se"ual



tease. # discussed the history and significance of the myths surrounding this

image 2uite e"tensively elsewhere and other scholars had also found this figure

intriguing (Y 199,: ,+9～,66 !awada 1996 !tein 1986). #n short# Kuan-yin

appeared in the disguise of either a prostitute or a beautiful young woman fish

vendor carrying a bamboo basket of carps. #n the former disguise# she made

love to any man who desired her # but as soon as he made love to her # he would be miraculously purged of se"ual desire. #n the latter disguise# as a fish-selling

girl# she promised marriage to the suitor who agreed to follow +uddhism# went through the marriage ceremony# but suddenly died before the marriage could be

consummated. +oth stories had their origin in the Tang. +ut the first image#

that of a prostitute# became less prominent in later times. #n &ing-Ching times#

however # perhaps as an echo of this legend# a beautiful courtesan or a bewitchingcross-dressed male actor was sometimes praised as Kuan-yin. The image of the 0ish-basket Kuan-yin who was a model of chastity# however # was preserved.

#n these myths# Kuan-yin used se" as a bait to convert people to +uddhism# but remained chaste because she with-held its fulfillment. &any Ch an monks in the

!ung (960～1,%9) and later wrote poems about her and

p. 451

they clearly saw her in th is light: a clever practitioner of the +uddhist skillful

means (!awada 40～44).

The image of Kuan-yin as an old woman became noticible for the first time after the !ung. #n the pao-chan literature composed in the &ing and Ching# this is

one of the favorite disguises assumed by Kuan-yin. Kuan-yin was a main

character in ,si yu chi (1ournal to the (est)# popularly known as The &onkey# #

one of the most famous novels written in the 16th century by (u Cheng-en (c.100～18,). Although Kuan-yin normally appeared in the novel as the Potalaka

Kuan-yin accompanied by her divine entourage of !udhana and $ragon %irl (Y

1994: 16+～166)# she also took the disguise of an old woman in Chapters 14#

and 84# always rendering help to Tripitaka# the monk pilgrim# and his party critical and timely assistance. This image of Kuan-yin is totally devoid of se"uality and is a powerful matriarchal figure of authority and strength. !he is called 53ld

&other 5 in the novel. This is also the title given to Kuan- yin in three precious volumes that # shall briefly describe. The first precious volume is in fact connected with the legend of the 0ish-basket Kuan-yin. #t is entitled Precious 5olume of the 0ish-basket Kuan-yin and set the story in the !ung# correctly

reflecting the time when this cult first gained popularity. #n this version Kuan-yin first appeared as an old woman fish monger . #t was only after she failed to

attract anyones attention in this disguise that she changed into a beautiful young

maiden. The second te"t# Precious 5olume about Kuan-yins Conversion of the

Twelve )nlightened 3nes# tells the story of how Kuan-yin led twelve persons# bothmen and women# some good and some bad# into enlightenment. Kuan-yin took

the disguises of a monk and a beautiful young woman# but also of a poor old

beggar woman. The last precious volume is rather unusual. )ntitled Precious



5olume of )fficacious Kuen-shih-yin (ho !aves +eings from !ufferings and

$angers# it was clearly modeled upon the 5Universal %ateway5 chapter of the

otus s-tra and the esoteric sutras. Kuan-yin was called 53ld &other 5 throughout the te"t. Consisting of two volumes# the te"t narrated how she saved people

from twenty-four kinds of danger . The twenty-four perils were very concrete and

could be encountered in daily lives. They are the following: (1)falling into a pit of fire6 (,)being carried away in a current6 (+)robbers6 (4)being pushed over the

precipice by and evil man6 ()meeting an old enemy6 (6)

p. 452

e"ecutioner s blade6 (%)imprisonment6 (8)poison6 (9)raksha6 (10)vicious animals6 (11)snakes and scorpions6 (1,)hailstorm6 (1+)difficult childbirth6 (14)facing enemy

in the battlefield6 (1)collapsed house6 (16)falling down a landslide6 (1%)suicide by hanging6 (18)being trampled by horses6 (19)being run over by carriages6 (,0)suicide by /umping into the river6 (,1)suicide by /umping into a well6 (,,)pack of

wolves6 (,+)hell6 and (,4)miscellaneous dangers not mentioned above. The first 1, perils are mentioned in the gatha section of the outs s-tra# but not the ne"t 1,#

though some of which reflect the concerns found in the esoteric sutras# such as

the fear of a difficult childbirth or suicide. This list serves as a window into the

social and p sychic an"ieties of people iving in late imperial China. The dangers

Kuan-yin could avert were realistic and ever present# such as difficult childbirths#

disasters awaiting one travelling on the streets (being trampled by horses and

carriages)# or the temptations of suicide (the specific forms of suicide mentioned

here were indeed the favorite choices of the people living at that time). The

author of the precious volume added these new dangers to the more limited ones

found in the otus s-tra. The te"t probably belonged to a religious sect related to

the (hite otus tradition which was inspired by &aitreyan millenarianism and Pure and devotionalism. 3ne 2uarter into the te"t we find a piece of tentalizing

information stating that the precious volume was revealed to leaders of this

religious group in the 11th year of (an-li (18+).

(here can we find the source for Kuan-yin the matriarch +uddhist sutras do not provide the answer . #nstead# # think we have to look into the Chinese indigenous

religious tradition concerning the goddess 9ueen &other of the (est.

(orshiped by both the elite and the masses by the ,an dynasty (,06 +. C.～,,0

A. $. )# she was clearly the most famous Chinese goddess until the appearance ofthe feminine Kuan-yin. !he is the goddess of immortality and the revealer of the

secret knowledge of eternal life. According to the oldest dictionary# the ,an )rh#59ueen &other 5 meant ones father s deceased mother # an honorific posthumous title confirmed on female ancestors in the father s line used in ancestal cult. ,er hagiographies rarely mentioned her actual age# and when they described her physical appearance# they would say that she looked to be a matron of thirty yearsold. +ut because she was believed to be the mother of all# she was also sometimes referred to as the old crone with white hair . According to a



p. 453

recent study# she was a favorite sub/ect in Tang poetry. 5&any〔Tang〕 poets

refer to her by the intimate e"pression Amah (wetnurse or nanny). This familiar usage occurs especially in conte"ts in which the goddess is portrayed as a

mother figure or a teacher 5 ( Cahill 69). The poets called her heavenly palace located on top of &t. Kun- lun# the cosmic pillar # 5 Amahs household5 (Cahill ,0). The %oddess was a protector of young women who chose to live alone

and also# particularly# older # widowed women. 53ne strong tradition depicts the

9ueen &other herself as a white-haired crone. 3ld women are often widowed.+y choice or by accident# they may find themselves unportected and alone#

outside the bounds of traditional family circle within which most medieval Chinese women lived and found the meaning of their lives. #f they are childless# older women are especially vulnerable in traditional Chinese society# which defines a

mature womans worth# in terms of her motherhood. ,erself immeasurably old and yet possessed of great dignity and authority# childless and yet the mother of

all# the 9ueen &other brought respect to the position of the older women5 (Cahill ,,9).

The 9ueen &other s fame began to be eclipsed by Kuan-yin and other female

deities after the Tang. Known increasingly by the more intimate title 5(ang-mu niang-niang5 (%ranny 9ueen &other )# she has continued to be worshiped by the

common people down the ages till today. #t is noteworty that by the &ing dynasty female deities of less renown than the 9ueen &other played dominant roles in popular vernacular novels such as (ater &argin by !hih *ai-yen (c. 1,90

～1+6) and #nvestiture of the %od by u ,si-hsing (c. 1,01601). +y the 16th

century# another powerful new goddess# the 5Unborn 3ld &other 5# made her first

appearance in the writings of the (hite otus sectarians. The theme of powerfulgoddesses in such popular novels might have played some role in the birth of the Unborn 3ld &other # for sectarians were firm believers in the novels. 5Those in

the northern provinces all firmly believe in the novel #nvestiture of the %ods and allthose in the southern provinces venerate the (ater &argin5 (3vermyer 140). 3ld &other Kuan-yin and Unborn 3ld &other might have been created by

different groups of believers# but as 3vermyer pointed out# we should bear in mindthat there was in fact a rich tradition of female deities in the popular religious

background. These feminine goddesses were understood to be post-

p. 454

menopausal women. They were of course free from the messiness of childbirth

and the problems of se"ual desire. They represented motherliness# pure and

simple. They retained all that was attractive about femininity# but were devoid of anything negative which true womanhood entails.

Another inspiration for 3ld &other Kuan-yin might come from stories about real Chinese old women who practiced +uddhism. +ecause women were seldom



writers of their history# we are faced with the perennial problem of sources. There is only one biography of Chinese nuns# for instance. )dited by the monk

Pao ch ang in 16# ives of the *uns contaims contains short biographies of 6

nuns who lived during the 4th to the 6th centuries. Coming from primarily

aristocratic backgrounds# they moved easily among the elites and court. They

showed a high rate of literacy# for only twelve of the si"ty-five could not read or write. *oted for their strict observance of vinaya# vegetariansm# meditation#

many of them were also devotees of Kuan-yin (Tsai 1994) . Although there is a

voluminous body of biographical sources about Chan masters known as the

5lamp record5 compiled in the !ung# few women practitioners were given

biographies of their own. Abbess of &o-shan was the only nun who received herown account because she had a male disciple willing to acknowledge her role in

his own enlightenment (evering 198,: ,8) . Recently# more such female

teachers have been rescued from oblivion (,sieh 1996).

#n the 18th century# Peng !hao-sheng (1%40～1%96)# a pious Pure and lay

+uddhist# compiled the only collection of Chinese +uddhist laywomen s biographies entitled +iographies of %ood (omen (!han n- /en chuan). 3f a

total of 148 biographies# 18 or a little more than 10 are stories about old women.

Thirteen of these old women were Chan practitioners# while the rest were Pure

and devotees. They were either identified by their living place or profession#

and if their last names were known# they were simply called 5%ranny :5. 3f the

1+ women Chan practitioners# though their birthplaces and family backgrounds

were often left blank# we can surmise that they lived probably in the Tang and

!ung# the so-called golden age of Ch an. They were dipicted as enlightened#though some were clearly rustic and uneducated# others could recite passages

from +uddhist scriptures by heart. They often served as catalysts for Chan

monks on their way to enlightenment. !ome old women# such as described in

p. 455

biographies 1# 16 and 1%# e"changed 2uick and sharp Chan repartees with famous Chan masters and proved to be their e2uals and even betters.

A final source for the matriarchal Kuan-yin could be the roles of old women in

traditional Chinese society. According to the Confucian ideal for a woman# she

must practice the three obediences# namely# she should obey her father at youth#

her husband after marriage# and her son after her husband dies. +ut although

she was theoretically dependent on her son# when a woman reached middle age and became a matriarch in thehousehold# her status in actual life could be very

impressive. &atriarch Chia ruled her large family almost like an emperess

dowager in the famous Ching novel $ream of the Red Chamber . Though

fictional# it must also have reflected a certain degree of social reality. 0or even incontemporary Taiwan# 5older women have ways of wielding power and influence

that are not open to younger women. #f they have gained the loyalty of their sons# they can e"ert considerable control over them# even after they are grown



men with wives and children of their own. #n many cases too# older women take

a strong hand in decisions about household management# investment# or social affairs.as a womens menstrual flow ends in her 40 s or 0s# she gains

increasing power over the people around her 5 ( Ahern ,01～,0,).

3ld women also en/oyed more freedom of movement# for they were considered both by themselves and the society to be free from se"ual desire. They could

travel in public alone without causing censure. Certain professions belonged e"clusively to older women# for instance# match-making. #n traditional China# no

proper marriage could be contracted without the service of the match-makers

()brey %+～%4) &atch-makers were always older women. 3ld women often also

served as go-betweens between lovers in Chinese drama and novels. !o# in

assuming the disguise of a matriarchal figure# Kuan-yin absorbed all these nestedcultural characteristics associated with old women in China: motherly# powerful#wise# a mediator for spiritual enlightenment but also worldly happiness.

Conclusion

Thetransformation of Avalokite'vara into the Chinese Kuan-yin is a long and

complicated process. (hile +uddhist sutras provided the initial inspiration for the

cult of Kuan-yin in China and their authority continue to be invoked for its

p. 456

support#the construction of the Chinese Kuan-yin has drawn from many other sources as well. 3ne of the most important sources which # cannot go into her is the voluminous collection of miraculous stories about Kuan-yin. Known as Kuan-

ying (influence-response)or kling-ying (efficacious responses )# such stories constitute one subgenre of the +uddhist miracle literature. !oon after the

translations of the otus s-tra # there were already miracle stories about people

who invoked the bodhisattva# first by the name Kuan-shih-yin and later # Kuan-

shih-yin. A total of 69 tales were recorded in a collection compiled as early as

01# incorporating two even earlier collections. A twelveth century 1apanese

copy of this te"t is e"tant and has been studied by &akita Tairyo (&akita 19%0).

2143 #n the succeeding centuries# more such collections were compiled providingtestimonials to the compassionate actions of this savior . As Campany argued

convincingly# miracle tales played a powerful role in generating and reinforcing thefaith in Kuan-yin (Campany 199+). As such tales were increasingly gathered into

independent anthologies from the Tang on# other miracle tale collections

glorifying the otus s-tra# on the other hand# include proportionately less stories about Kuan-yin (&atoba 1981# 198,# 1984# 1986). This is not suprising# for although the otus provides the most important scriptural basi s for the faith in

Kuan-yin# as the bodhisattva took root on Chinese soil# he／she achieved an

independent status.





!imilarly# following the growing fame of Kuan-yin# Chinese indigenous scriptures

began to be created from as early as the fifth century. &any such scriptures

have not survived# with only the titles recorded in the +uddhist bibliographical catalogues. +ut one of them# the Kuan-shih-yin !utra Promoted King Kao (Kao

(ang Kuan-shih-yin ching# T. no. ,898)# has attained a canonical status. *ot

only was it carved on sutra slabs in 616 on &t. 0ang- shan# together with the otus# 5imalakirti# Avatamsaka# *irvana and Pro/78-parmit8 sutras# it has

remained to be the favorite scripture printed and distributed for free by the

p. 457

faithful in order to generate merit even in present-day Taiwan (Y 199: 4+8).

Together with the creation of Chinese indigenous sutras# iconographies# and

hagiographies of Kuan-yin# the bodhisattva has also been provided with a

Chinese home. The mythological Potalaka was transposed onto the island Pu-

to# situated off shore from Chekiang Province. Pilgrimage makes this +uddhis inscription of the Chinese landscape a reality (Y 199,: ,0,～,+4).

The domestication and transformation of Avalokite'vara into the Chinese Kuan-

yin is a fascinating case study of how +uddhism became indigenized in China. # begin this paper with the discussion of the various ambiguities connected with thisbodhisattva. #n the final analysis# the very nature of these ambiguities is perhaps

the greatest asset enabling his／her 5con2uest5 of China.

p. 458

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p. 460

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p. 461

Appendi"

0ig. 1 3ne of the Thirty-Two forms of Kuan-yin by ,sing Tzu-ching (Collection of Palace &useum# Taipei# Taiwan)



p. 462

0ig. , 3ne of the Thirty-two forms of Kuan-yin (Colletion of Anhui Provincial &useum# Peoples Rehublic of China)



p. 463

0ig. + + (ood-block illustration combining otus and Avatamsaka s-tras date

149, (Private collection of <hou !haoliang)



p. 464

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關鍵詞 1.D>音 ,.觀>音 +.觀@A 4.觀音 .Ž

213 These are the translations given by +urton (atson in his The otus !utra(*ewYork: Columbia University Press# 199+ ). eon ,urvitz# on the other hand#

translated the two terms as 5!ound 3bserver 5 and 5,e (ho 3bserves the !ounds of the (orld5 in his !cripture of the otus +lossom of the 0ine $harma (*ew York: Columbia University Press# 19%6). +oth were based on Kumara/ivas

Chinese version translated in 406.

2,3 They are: (1)(illow-branch# (,)$ragon -head# (+)!utra-holding# (4)Circle of ight# ()Royal )ase# (6)(hite-robe# (%)otus-reclining# (8)(aterfall-gazing#

(9)&edicine-giving# (10)0ish-basket# (11)5irtuous-King (+rahma)# (1,)(ater -moon#

(1+)3ne eaf # (14)+lue-necked# (1) Awe-inspiring (heavenly general)# (16)ife-

lengthening# (1%)&any 1ewels# (18)Cave-dwelling# (19)Calm and !erene# (,0) Anu#

(,1) Abhetti# (,,)Parnasvari# (,+)5aidurya# (,4)Tara# (,)Clam# (,6)!i" Periods#

(,%)Universal Compassion# (,8)(ife of &r &a# (,9) An/ali# (+0)True !uchness#(+1)*on-dual# (+,)otus-holding# (++)(ater -sprinkling. %oto# Kanzeon +osatsu

no kenkyu# pp. 1%018,. ,e uses anthologies of +uddhist iconographies and

provides commentaries on each of these forms. This list contains a mi"ture of allusions to the otus esoteric scriputres# and Chinese indigendous legends aboutKuan-yin.

http://www.chibs.edu.tw/publication/chbj/10/chbj1018.htm#nt1






2+3 The other five are Kuan ,s-kung-tsang pusa ching (!utra on 5isualizing the

+odhisattva Akasgarbha# T. 409)# 0oshuo Kuan-0o san-mei hai ching (!utra on

the !ea of &ystic )cstacy by 5isualizing the +uddha# T. 64+)# 0o !yo kuan &i-lo

Pu-sa shang-sheng Tu-shuai-tien ching (!utra of &editation on &aitreya

+odhisattvas Rebirth on ,igh in the Tusita ,eaven# T. 4,)# 0o shui kuan Pu-

hsien Pu-sa hsing-fa on the Practice of 5isualizing the +odhisattva !amantabhadra# T. ,%%)# 0o !huo Kuan Yao-wang Yao-shang erh Pu-sa ching

(!utra !poken by the +uddha on 5isualizing the Two +odhisattvas +haisa/yara/a

and +haisa/yasaudgata# T. 1161). Pas# 5isions of !ukhavati# pp. 4,～4+.

243 Charles uk comments on this passage: 5+y discarding the sound to look into

the meditator himself # that is into the nature of hearing# he disengages himself from both organs and sense data and thereby realized his all-embracing +uddha

nature which contains all living beings. +y developing their pure faith in him and

by calling his name# or concentrating on him# they achieve singleness of mind thatmingles with his +udhi substance and become one with him6 hence their liberation

from sufferings which do not e"ist in the absolute state.5 The !urangama !-tra# p.1+9.

23 According to %oto# more than eighty e"oteric and esoteric scriptures

connected with Kuan-yin e"ist. ,e lists them in Chapter ,0 of his book Kanzeon

+osatsu no Kenkyu# pp. ,8+,88.

263 The earliest e"tant version of the otus# however # has far less than thirty-three.

The Cheng fa-hua ching# gives the following list of seventeen: buddha#

bodhisattva# pratyeka-buddha# voice-hearer # King +rahma# gandharva# ghost and

spirit# rich and powerful# deva# cakravartin# raksha# general# monk# va/rapani#

hermit# rishi# and student (T. vol. 9: 1,9bc). #t is interesting to note that no feminine forms are mentioned.

2%3 # follow ,urvitz in translating these two term (,urvtz +14) . (atson translates

them as 5the heavenly being 0reedom5 and 5the heavenly being %reat 0reedom5

which do not convey much sense to )nglish-speaking audience. The two namesof course refer to the ,indu god !hiva# but neither ,urvitz nor (atson so

identifies.

283 The fourteen are listed below: (1)!ince # myself do not meditate on sound but on the meditator # # cause all suffering beings to look into the sound of their voices

in order to obtan liberation6 (,)+y returning (discriminative) intellect to its (absolute) source# # cause them to avoid being burned when they find themselves in a great fire6 (+)+y returning hearing to its source# # cause them to avoid

drowning when they are adrift on the sea6 (4)+y stopping wrong thinking and thereby cleansing their minds of harmfulness# # lead them to safety when they

wander in the realm of evil ghosts6 ()+y sublimating their (wrong) hearning to restore its absolute condition# thereby purifying all si" organs and perfecting their functions# # cause them# when in danger # to be immune from sharp weapons















which become blunt and useless like water that cannot be cut and daylight that cannot be blown away# because their ( underlying) nature does not change6 (6)+y perfecting the sublimation of their hearing# its bright light pervades the whole

$harma realm to destroy the darkness (of ignorance) thereby dazzling evil beings such as yaksa# raksa# kumbhanda# pisaci# putana# etc. # who cannot see them

when meeting them6 (%)(hen hearing is reversed so that sound vanishes completely# all illusory ob/ects of sense disappear so that (practisers) are freed

from fetters which can no longer restrain them6 (8)The elimination of sound to

perfect hearing results in universal compassion so that they can pass through regions infested with robbers and bandits who cannot plumder them6 (9)The

sublimation of hearing disengages them from the ob/ects of sense and makes

them immune from (attractive) forms# thereby enabling lustful beings to get rid of desires and cravings6 (10)The sublimation of sound eliminates all sense data and

results in the perfect mingling of each organ with its ob/ects and total eradication of sub/ect and ob/ect# thereby enabling all vindictive beings to bury anger and

hate6 (11) After the elimination of sense data and the return to the bright (Reality)#

both inner body and mind and outer phenomena become crystal clear and free from all hindrances# so that dull and ignorant unbelievers (icchantika) can get rid

of the darkness of ignorance6 (1,)(hen their bodies are in harmony with the

nature of hearing# they can# from their immutable state of enlightenment (bodhimandala)# re- enter the world (to liberate others) without harming the

worldly# and can go anywhere to make offerings to +uddhas countless as dust#serving every Tathagata in the capacity of a son of the King of aw and having thepower to give male heirs with blessed virtues and wisdom to childless people who

want boys6 (1+)The perfection of the si" organs unifies their divided functions so

that they become all-embracing# thus revealing the %reat &irror ((isdom) and

immaterial Tathagata womb compatible with all $harma doors taught by +uddhas

as unacountable as dust. They can bestow upright# blessed# gracious# and respect-inspiring girls on childless parents who want daughters6 (14)#n this great chiliocosm which contains a hundred lacs of suns and moons# there are now

+odhisattvas countless as sand grains in si"ty-two %anges rivers. They practisethe $harma to set a good e"ample to all living beings by befriending# teaching andconverting them6 in their wisdom their e"pedient methods differ . +ecause # used

one penetratint organ which led to my realization through the faculty of hearing#

my body and mind embrace the whole $harma-realm in which # teach all living

beings to concentrate their minds on calling my name. The merits that follow arethe same as those derived from calling on the names of all the se +odhisattvas. (orld ,onored 3ne# my single name does not differ from those uncountable

ones# because of my practice and training which led to my true enlightenment. These are the fourteen fearless (powers) which # bestow upon living beings (uk

1+9～141).

293 This was most likely connected with the cult of the 5Three %reat +eings5

( Avalokite'vara# &an/usri and !amanthabhadra) which began about the end of the Tang. ;10 of the Ying-pan-po group of sculptures at Ta-tsu# !zechwan#

dated to the late Tang# seems to provide the earliest e"ample of this grouping





where the thousand-handed and thousand-eyed Kuan-yin stands in the middle

flanked by &anusri and !amanthabhadra# whereas the more common grouping

there has 5airocana +uddha in the middle instead of Kuan-yin (Ta-tsu shih-ke

yen-chiu# 4+,). 3nce this cult became popular # it would be necessary to provide

Kuan-yin with an animal mount in order to match the animal mounts of the other

two bodhisattvas. !uch triad is found in many Chinese temples.

2103 ,e cites the entry in the 0a-yan chu-lin# a +uddhist encyclopedia compiledin 668 which states that Kuan-yin manifested himself in the feminine form in 4%9 to

free the devotee Pang Tzu-chiao from prison. The histories of *orthern Ch i and the north and south dynasties compiled earlier tell of a similar manifestation

to heal the sick and licientious *orthern Chi emperor (u-ch eng (r . 61～6). They also record that the last empress of the Chen# nee !hen# became a +uddhist nun and received the religious name 5Kuan-yin5 in 61%. Tay# Kuan-yin#

The Cult of ,alf Asia# p. ,0.

2113 The stele still stands in ,siang-shan !su. The inscription was recarved in 1+08 because the original was damaged by erosion. The discovery of the stele#

which had been assumed to be lost by scholars until 1991# was described by ai !wee-fo (ai 1ui-he) in his article# 5(ai-li hsiun-pei chi5 # published in Chung-kuo

shih-pao ( April 6# %# 8# 199+). # owe this information to Professor %len $udbridge.

21,3 The general outline # summarize here is familiar to many women in China today. # interviewed women pilgrims in ,angchow# Pu-t o# Ynnan and Taiwan

in 198%. (hen # asked them about &iao-shan# they told me stories about her which contained most# if not all# key elements from this outline.

21+3 Postpartum discharges are considered to be e"tremely polluting. A mother who has thus offended the gods by this invoidable sin in childbirth# and particularlyif she dies while giving birth# has to go to a special region in the underworld called

blood pond to undergo torment. A filial son can help his mother to lessen or avoid the punishment by performing a religious ritual called 5breaking the blood

pond5 at the time of the mother s death.

2143 !ome of these earliest tales about Kuan-yin have been translated by Robert Campany. !ee 5The )arliest Tales of the +odhisattva %uanshiyin5 # in Religions

of C,ina in Pravtice. )dited by $onald !. opez# 1r . (Princeton University Press#

1996)# pp. 8,～96.











ambiguity of avalokiteśvara and the scriptural sources

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