allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental...

ALLELOPATHY EVALUATION OF WEEDS FOR

ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT

SADIQULLAH KHAN

Reg. No. 04-FBAS/PhDES/F11

Department of Environmental Science

Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY,

ISLAMABAD



Researcher: Supervisor:

Sadiqullah Khan Dr. Muhammad Ibrar Shinwari


Department of Environmental Science

Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY,

ISLAMABAD



Sadiqullah Khan


A Thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the award of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in Environmental Science

at Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences

International Islamic University,

Islamabad

Supervised by; August 30, 2017

Dr. Muhammad Ibrar Shinwari

Dedicated to My Beloved Parents, Family

and Daughter Gulwareen Fatima

For their endless affection, support and

encouragement

i

Author’s Declaration

I, Sadiqullah Khan Reg. No. 4-FBAS/PHDES/F11 hereby state that my

Ph.D. thesis titled: Allelopathy Evaluation of Weed for Environmental Risk

Assessment is my own work and has not been submitted previously by me for

taking any degree from this university, International Islamic University, Sector

H-10, Islamabad, Pakistan or anywhere else in the country/world.

At any time if my statement is found to be incorrect even after my Graduate

the university has the right to withdraw my Ph.D. degree.

Name of Student: (Sadiqullah Khan)

Reg. No. 4-FBAS/PHDES/F11

Dated: 03/05/2018

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Plagiarism Undertaking

I solemnly declare that research work presented in the thesis titled:

Allelopathy Evaluation of Weed for Environmental Risk Assessment is solely

my research work with no significant contribution from any other person. Small

contribution/help wherever taken has been duly acknowledged and that complete

thesis has been written by me.

I understand the zero tolerance policy of the HEC and University,

International Islamic University, Sector H-10, Islamabad, Pakistan towards

plagiarism. Therefore, I as an Author of the above titled thesis declare that no

portion of my thesis has been plagiarized and any material used as reference is

properly referred/cited.

I undertake that if I am found guilty of any formal plagiarism in the above

titled thesis even after award of Ph.D. degree, the university reserves the rights to

withdraw/revoke my Ph.D. degree and that HEC and the University has the right to

publish my name on the HEC/University Website on which names of students are

placed who submitted plagiarized thesis.

Student/Author Signature: ___________________________

Name: (Sadiqullah Khan)

iii

FORWARDING SHEET BY RESEARCH SUPERVISOR

The dissertation entitled “Allelopathy Evaluation of Weeds for Environmental Risk

Assessment” submitted by Sadiqullah Khan in partial fulfillment of PhD degree in Environmental

Science has been completed under my guidance and supervision. I am satisfied with the quality of

student’s research work and allow him to submit this thesis for further process to graduate with

Doctor of Philoshy degree from Department of Environmental Science, as per IIUI rules and

regulations.

Dr. Muhammad Ibrar Shinwari Dated: March 5, 2018

Assistant Professor

Department of Environmental Science,

International Islamic University,

Islamabad.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All the virtues and praise for ALLAH Almighty, the most Gracious, the most Merciful,

who created us as a Muslim in the Sacred Ummah of the Holy Prophet Mohammad ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص.

Lots of Salaam and gratitude to the Holy Prophet Mohammad ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص whose teachings are the

guiding star in the time of dark and despair.

Words might not be able to express the feelings of immense pleasure and infinite

gratitude for my loving Parents and my respected teachers for their unconditional support,

proper guidance, sound advice and encouragement that they imparted through admiration

and inspiration during my research work. My sincere tribute goes to my research

supervisor Dr. Muhammad Ibrar Shinwari, Department of Environmental Science,

working under his supervision was a new experience. May ALLAH Almighty bless them

with health, prosperity and progress that they deserve. I am grateful to all the faculty

members and office staff of Department of Environmental Science.

Heartiest thanks and regards are extended to my sincere friends and class mates;

Naveed-Ul-Haq, Shafi Ullah Laghari and Muhammad Jalib Sikandar. I am thankful to

my lab colleagues; Khwaja Waqar Ali, Muhammad Raza Farooq and Mabroor Hassan

for their help, moral support, encouragement and nice company.

Last but not the least; I would like to express my gratitude to my beloved parents

without whom I am nothing. I would like to thank my parents for their unconditional

support, both financially and emotionally throughout my degree. I am indebted to my elder

brother for his support, guidance and prayers.

v

Table of Contents List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix

List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... xi

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. xii

CHAPTER 01 ................................................................................................................................. 1

INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Background .............................................................................................................................. 5

1.3 Research Trends in Weeds Allelopathy ................................................................................. 7

1.4 Statement of The Research Problem/Thesis Statement ........................................................ 8

1.5 Objectives of Research ............................................................................................................ 8

1.6 Significance of Research .......................................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER 02 ............................................................................................................................... 11

LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 11

CHAPTER 03 ............................................................................................................................... 26

MATERIALS AND METHODS ................................................................................................ 26

3.1 Study area ............................................................................................................................... 26

3.2 Plant Materials ....................................................................................................................... 27

3.3 Preparation of Agar Solution ................................................................................................ 27

3.4 Sandwich Method................................................................................................................... 27

3.5 Dish pack Method .................................................................................................................. 29

3.6 Pest Control Technique ......................................................................................................... 30

3.6.1 Collection of Plant Material ............................................................................................... 30

3.6.2 Extract Preparation ............................................................................................................ 31

3.6.3 Test Organisms and fungal Inocula Preparation ............................................................. 31

3.6.4 Antifungal Activity Determination .................................................................................... 32

3.6.5 Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) ....... 32

3.7 Statistical analysis .................................................................................................................. 33

CHAPTER 04 ............................................................................................................................... 34

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................................................. 34

4.1 Weeds in Pakistan .................................................................................................................. 34

4.2 Selection of Weeds for Bioassay through Sandwich and Dish Pack Methods ................ 35

vi

1. Avena fatua L. .......................................................................................................................... 36

2. Verbena tenuisecta L. ............................................................................................................... 37

3. Amaranthus viridis L. ............................................................................................................... 38

4. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. ................................................................................................. 39

5. Sida alba L. ................................................................................................................................ 40

6. Anagallis arvensis L. ................................................................................................................. 41

7. Phalaris minor Retz. ................................................................................................................. 42

8. Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. ....................................................................................................... 43

9. Oxalis corniculata L.................................................................................................................. 44

10. Cannabis sativa L. ................................................................................................................... 45

11. Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist ......................................................................................... 46

12. Trichodesma indicum (L.) ...................................................................................................... 47

13. Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. .................................................................................................. 48

14. Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. ...................................................................................................... 49

15. Melilotus indica L. .................................................................................................................. 50

16. Melilotus alba Desr. ................................................................................................................ 51

17. Oenothera rosea L'Hér. ex Aiton ............................................................................................ 52

18. Parthenium hysterophorus L. ................................................................................................. 53

19. Taraxacum officinale L. ......................................................................................................... 54

20. Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause ........................................................................................ 55

21. Sonchus asper L. Hill ssp. asper ............................................................................................. 56

22. Rumex nepalensis Spreng ....................................................................................................... 57

23. Convolvulus arvensis L. .......................................................................................................... 58

24. Solanum erianthum D Don. .................................................................................................... 59

25. Vicia sativa L. .......................................................................................................................... 60

26. Lantana camara L. .................................................................................................................. 61

27. Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. ........................................................................................ 62

28. Achyranthes aspera Linn ........................................................................................................ 63

29. Cyperus iria L. ......................................................................................................................... 64

30. Solanum nigrum L., ................................................................................................................ 65

31. Urtica dioica Linn. ................................................................................................................... 66

32. Malva parviflora L. ................................................................................................................. 67

33. Euphorbia helioscopia L. ........................................................................................................ 68

vii

34. Centaurea iberica Spreng. ....................................................................................................... 69

35. Oxalis corymbosa DC. ............................................................................................................. 70

36. Solanum Xanthocarpum Schrad. & J.C. Wendl. .................................................................... 71

37. Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton ........................................................................................... 72

38. Ipomoea cornea. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) .......................................................................... 73

39. Xanthium strumarium L. ........................................................................................................ 74

40. Aloe vera L. ............................................................................................................................. 75

41. Carthamus oxyacantha M.Bieb. ............................................................................................. 76

42. Coriandrum sativum L. ........................................................................................................... 77

43. Cyperus rotundus L. ................................................................................................................ 79

44. Saussurea heteromalla (D.Don) Hand.-Mazz. ....................................................................... 80

45. Lythrum salicaria Linn. .......................................................................................................... 81

46. Peganum harmala L. .............................................................................................................. 82

47. Saxifraga rotundifolia L. ........................................................................................................ 83

48. Commelina benghalensis Linn ............................................................................................... 84

49. Cuscuta californica Hook. & Arn. .......................................................................................... 85

50. Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk. ............................................................................................... 86

51. Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. .................................................................................................. 87

52. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. .......................................................................................... 88

53. Pteris cretica L. ....................................................................................................................... 89

54. Digera muricata (L.) Mart. ..................................................................................................... 90

55. Adiantum capillus-veneris L. .................................................................................................. 91

56. Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Benth. .............................................................. 92

57. Argyrolobium roseum (Camb.) Jaub & Spach ........................................................................ 93

58. Nerium oleander L. ................................................................................................................. 94

59. Cissampelos pareira L. ............................................................................................................ 95

60. Salvia aegyptiaca L. ................................................................................................................ 96

61. Typha minima Funck ex Hoppe .............................................................................................. 97

62. Anisomeles indica (L.) ............................................................................................................ 98

63. Otostegia limbata (Benth.) Boiss............................................................................................. 99

64. Plantago lanceolata L. .......................................................................................................... 100

65. Commelina benghalensis Linn. ............................................................................................ 101

66. Potamogeton lucens Linn. ..................................................................................................... 102

viii

67. Scrophularia altaica Murray ................................................................................................. 103

68. Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borss. Waalk ................................................................................... 104

69. Taverniera cuneifolia (Roth) Arn. ........................................................................................ 105

70. Euphorbia hirsuta L.............................................................................................................. 106

71. Myrsine africana. L............................................................................................................... 107

72. Barleria cristata Lam ............................................................................................................ 108

73. Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf .............................................................................. 109

4.3 Bioassay activity evaluation of 73 weeds from Pakistan for allelopathic potential assessment .. 110

4.4 Allelopathic Evaluation of Weeds through Sandwich Method ........................................ 113

4.5 Allelopathic Evaluation of Weeds through Dish Pack Method ....................................... 122

4.6 Antifungal activity of allelopathic weeds Medicago parviflora, Solanum nigrum, Melilotus

alba and Melilotus indica against soil-born phytopathogenic fungi ....................................... 128

4.6.1 Minimum Inhibitory Concentration ............................................................................... 130

4.6.2 Minimum Fungicidal Concentration ............................................................................... 131

CHAPTER 05 ............................................................................................................................. 140

CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS ......................................................................... 140

5.1 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................... 140

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................................... 141

REFERENCES: ............................................................................................................................. 1

ANNEXURE ................................................................................................................................... 1

Annexure A: Weeds of Pakistan ................................................................................................ 1

Annexure B: Top ten noxious allelopathic medicinal weeds (Sandwich Method) .......................... 9

Annexure C: Top ten noxious allelopathic medicinal weeds (Dish Pack Method) ....................... 14

Annexure D: Antifungal Assessment Using Microtiter Plate Technique ...................................... 19

ix

List of Tables

S.No Title Page No

4.1 Evaluation of allelopathic activity in leaf litter of 73 selected

weeds species through Sandwich method 114

4.3 Evaluation of allelopathic activity of volatiles in 73 selected

weeds species through Dish pack method 123

4.4

Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum

Fungicidal concentration (MFC) of crude extracts of plants

under investigation

132

x

List of Figures

S.No Title Page No

2.1

Approach for testing of antifungal activity of natural products

from fungi and plants. 24

2.2 Action of allelochemicals 25

3.1 Map of Pakistan (Flora of Pakistan, 2017) 26

3.8 Sandwich method 28

3.9 View from top of Multi-well plastic plate used in dishpack

method for allelopathic assessment. 30

4.1 Frequency Distribution of Percentage Inhibition among

selected weeds through Sandwich method 116

4.2 Frequency Distribution of Percentage Inhibition among

medicinal weeds through Dishpack method 125

4.3 Range of Percentage Inhibition in Radicle (-R) and Hypocotyl

(-H) of 73 Weed Species by Dishpack (DP) method 126

4.4 Growth inhibition of fungal strains by crude extracts of plants. 130

xi

List of Abbreviations

MFC Minimum fungicidal concentration

B.C Before Christ

CO2 Carbon dioxide

DMSO Dimethyl sulfoxide

DP Dish pack

E East

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FOSC Fusarium oxysporum species complex

FSSC Fusarium solani species complex

ha Hectare

H Hypocotyl

HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus

KP Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Ltd Limited

MIC Minimum inhibitory concentration

NARC National Agricultural Research Centre

NIAES National Institute for Agro-Environmental Sciences

N North

NWH Novel Weapons Hypothesis

OD Optical density

PDA Potato dextrose agar

PDB Potato dextrose broth

R Radicle

ROS Reactive Oxygen Species

Rs Rupees

RTI Respiratory Tract Infection

SW Sandwich

Spp. Species

SD Standard deviation

SDV Standard deviation variance

UTI Urinary Tract Infection

xii

ABSTRACT

The present study represents the comprehensive screening of allelopathic activity of weeds

from Pakistan. The source for existing research of weed control in crops, is the screening

of large quantities of plants towards classifying the potent organic compounds. Strong

allelopathic weeds species have been acknowledged from analysis to provide direction for

further research. A total of 73 weeds species were examined for their allelopathic potentials

through latest bioassay activity i.e Sand wich and Dishpack evaluation techniques. Even

though from the interference of chemical from other means is cumbersome to separate, also

the advance research studies have generated compatible and convincing information in this

field of study. As a follow up work of present endeavor; methanolic leaf extracts of

strongest allelopathic species (Melilotus indica L., Melilotus alba Desr., Medicago

parviflora E.H.L. Krause and Solanum nigrum L.) were tested for fungicidal activities on

soil-borne crops pathogens (Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizoctonia oryzae, Fusarium fujikuroi,

Fusarium oxysporum, Pythium ultimum and Pyricularia oryzae). Microspectrophotometric

assessment technique has been used for the antifungal evaluation. Minimum inhibitory

concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) of the extracts were

determined. The amended methanolic extract and known fungicide Nystatin for respective

fungal strain were considered as negative and positive control respectively. Results

indicated that growth of all the fungal strains mentioned were significantly inhibited. The

values of the weed extracts determined ranging between 0.781-25 mg/mL while MFC

values ranging between 3.125-25 mg/mL. The extracts of Medicago parviflora showed

highest inhibitory activity (119.5%) against Pythium ultimum while Melilotus indica

extract showed lowest suppression (97%) against Fusarium oxosporum. Even at very low

xiii

concentration, all the plants selected showed maximum fungicidal properties. These results

support the potential use of these plant extracts in the management of diseases caused by

plant tested pathogenic fungi. The research information generated from the present work

can be used as a benchmark for future research on the allelochemical identification and

characterization. During the follow up work of present endeavor; allelopathic cover crop

for biological control of weeds to support agro-environment conservation. In Pakistan, the

allelopathic activity evaluation of plants through bioassay techniques is quite rare. There

is a dire need to develop a complete data base of plants having strong allelopathic potential

through application of these latest techniques

Introduction

Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 1

CHAPTER 01

INTRODUCTION

1.1.1 Introduction

The world population has been increased dramatically almost double to 1970 and the

projection till 2050 is 9.2 billion with 30% annual growth. Huge rate increase in

population lead to food insecurity which results 70% increase in food production

demand due to changing dietary habits of developing countries on the way to get high-

quality food (FAO 2009; Popp et al.2013). To fulfill the increasing demand of food,

the extension of agricultural land will only cost on natural ecosystem and forests. So,

there is the need to produce food on less land, with use of less energy, water, pesticide

and fertilizer as compared to current situation (FAO 2009; Popp et al. 2013). In

agriculture practice, adopting cash crop plantation is a new practice and it has been

expanding worldwide (Evans et al., 2011; Li and Fox, 2012; Klasen et al., 2013; Su et

al., 2016; Vongvisouk et al., 2016), and these cash cropping system enhances farmer’s

income considerably (Van den Berg et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2017). Major

intimidations of crop productivity are imbalance crop nutrition, diseases, weeds, pest

(microorganism and insects) and abiotic stresses. The other major threat to food security

is unavoidable drastic climatic changes. Crop productivity has been substantially

reduced because climatic changes, rising temperature and changing rainfall pattern

effect the crops yield (Farooq et al., 2003; McDonald et al., 2009; Semenov & Halford,

2009).

Weeds are one of the major threats to the natural and agricultural environment. Weeds

reduce the crop productivity due to their diverse habits of intrusive with crops growth

and crop culture. Weeds and crops compete for various limited growth factors

Introduction


(nutrients, water, solar energy and space) and weeds impede crop agronomy processes.

More than 250 weedy plants are growing in association with various crops. They grow

after harvesting crops through asexual reproduction and from seeds. They grow in crops

system due to anthropogenic and natural means of distribution. Their seed dispersed by

air, water, birds, animal and other means. Weeds resilient and dynamic in growing

nature; they rapidly grow than the crops and use huge quantity of nutrients and water

which caused productivity loss. Generally, weeds absorb and transpire more water than

the crops. The organic matters of plant body are dependent on sunlight. the potential of

productivity is reduced when weeds and crops are mutually shaded even though water

and other nutrients are available to them in abundance. They cause great economic loss

in crops yields. In Pakistan, the researchers and agricultural experts assessed the losses

in crops yields are 17-25% in wheat, 20-63% in rice, 20-45% in maize, 13-41% in

cotton, 10-35% in sugarcane 25-55% in pulses. Worldwide weeds cause about 10%

losses to annual agricultural yields and estimated annual loss (monetary loss) in

agronomy are more than $18.2 billion, with about $12 billion attributed to production

losses; $3.6 billion to chemical control and $2.6 billion to cultural, ecological and

biological weed con trol methods (Kadioglu et al., 2005; Petrova et al., 2015).

Cash and potential crops yield enhancement is often linked to the maximum pest attack

which leads to productivity loss and increases loss rates. About 50% loss in wheat, 80%

in cotton are due to pests attack worldwide. The loss for wheat and cotton is estimated

about 31%, 37% and for maize is 40% and soybean ranges for 26-29% losses

respectively (Oerke 2005; Strange and Scott 2005; Popp et al., 2013 and Savary et al.

2016). The ailment of plants diseases in ecosystem has increased intensely for the last

two decades. The major part of crops production including many important trees and

crops is lost because of the plant pathogens (Orwig 2002, Fisher et al. 2012). Levels of

Introduction


the disease are significantly increasing where natural ecosystem have been disturbed

by the planting of exotic species and wide area to forest monoculture (Wingfield et al.

2001, Scholthof 2006, Jactel et al. 2009). It has been estimated that upto 90%

agriculture yield loss are due to the attack of pathogenic fungi which causes major

diseases to plants (Sexton & Howlett, 2006; Maninegalai et al., 2011) and the reason is

that the fungal surveillance for several years of in soils by fabricating sclerotial and

other inactive ingredients. Many economical host plants become damaged due to the

pathogen diseases which includes stem rot, collar rot, root rot and leaf blights (Khan et

al., 2017). In Pakistan root rot and wilt disease in almost infect all the plants are caused

by several soil-borne fungi including Fusarium spp., while M. phaseolina and R. solani

make reduction in growth of plants (S Aboshosha et al., 2007; Hussain et al., 2013;

Usman et al., 2014; Hussain et al., 2015; Khan et al., 2017).

Use of pesticides is increasing day by day worldwide due to its efficiency to control

such harmful weeds and pathogenic organisms. The pesticides include a wide range of

complexes including fungicide, rodenticide, insecticide, molluscicide, herbicide and

nematicide etc. (Aktar et al., 2009). The use of fungicide, herbicide, insecticide and

other biotechnology products help to protect the crops from harmful insects, control

numerous weed species and several plant diseases that affect the crops. The world food

production would be waning, many vegetables and fruits would be in small stock and

price of agriculture products would increase without the use of these vital skills of crop

protection. Conversely, the extensive use of these pesticide unfortunately lead to serious

environmental and health problems (Vikkey et al, 2017). Increased rate of brain cancer

(astrocytomas) and leukemia have been shown in children and pregnant women have

high miscarriage rate who exposed to these pesticides (Shim et al., 2009; Hertz-

Picciotto et al., 2005). Pesticides cause inherited heart malformations and may also

Introduction


damage nervous system and lungs (Cremonese et al., 2014; Rallis et al., 2014). In

environment, pesticide can easily contaminate the water, air and ground, plant and

animal life may be in risk when these pesticides run off from fields (El-Abbassi et al.,

2017).

The extensive demanding approach for green economy and green environment by using

those technologies which are cheaper, coefficient and eco-friendly for weed

management has been aggravated research studies on crops and weeds allelopathy

(Dudai et al. 1999; Om et al. 2002). The possibilities of getting low yields using

reseeding, over seeding, cover crops and crop rotation like agricultural techniques also

need attention to crops involvement in allelopathic activity (Chon et al. 2006; Oueslati,

2003). The herbicidal properties of plants which have potential to produce

allelochemicals are considered as a major source for the chemical industry, as the weeds

become resistant to synthetic chemical compound the importance of new molecules are

increased (Bhowmik and Inderjit, 2003; Duke et al. 2000; Kruse et al. 2000; Einhellig,

1996). The plants and crops are genetically modified which can be introduced as

allelopathic cover groups is the time needed development of their application (Taiz and

Zeiger, 2006; Duke, 2003; Duke et al. 2001).

Considering that in biological invasion, allelopathy can play vital and significance job

in ecological point of view. Practically and from recorded evidences it has been proved

that invasive species becomes more dominant on indigenous species in the invaded

areas, but remain suppressive in native regions. Through the “novel” weapons theory

tried to explain this phenomenon, which suggest that different allelochemicals or

biochemical compounds released to the invaded ecosystem by some exotic plants which

are comparatively inefficient against their espoused natural regions (Namkeleja et al.

2014; Callaway and Ridenour, 2004; Vivanco et al. 2004; Rabotnov, 1982).

Introduction


Hence, worldwide researchers give more attention to find out some natural alternative

and biological control to reduce or minimize the dependency on synthetic herbicides.

Allelopathy can be considered as an effective natural alternative to synthetic pesticides

and it can be defined as the certain chemical compound synthesized by plants and

microorganisms i.e. bacteria, fungi and viruses; these biomolecules released to

environment that influence the agricultural and ecological systems by stimulation or

inhibition the growth of neighbor plants and microorganisms (Farooq et al. 2011).

These natural substances released by plants, called allelochemicals, have been a great

attention to control plant pathogens recently instead use of synthetic chemical

compounds (Saraf et al., 2014; Khan et al., 2016). These natural allelochemicals have

low environmental risk as compared to the synthetic chemical compounds and lower

risk of resistance in remain in environment, so that is the reason to develop natural

chemicals which are the alternative of conventional pesticides (El-Abbassi et al., 2017).

It will be an additional and valuable advantage if these medicinal, antibacterial and

antifungal characteristics and properties resides in noxious weeds.

1.2 Background

Allelopathy can be defined as the certain chemical compound synthesized by plants and

microorganisms i.e. bacteria, fungi and viruses; these biomolecules released to

environment that influence the agricultural and ecological systems by stimulation or

inhibition the growth of neighbor plants and microorganisms (Farooq et al. 2011).

These allelochemicals are secondary metabolites synthesis during metabolic activities

and released to ecosystem through/by leaves, flowers, roots, seeds and stems in form of

root exudates, decomposition or by leaching from plant residues. This phenomenon is

documented for over 2000 years that plants species released chemical substances to

environment that affects the seedling growth, development process and germination of

Introduction


other plants or organisms. Allelopathy is a sub-discipline of chemical ecology that with

studies impacts of secondary metabolites released to environment by other plants or

organisms on physiological developments and growth of other plants or

microorganisms (Einhellig, 1995; Cheng & Cheng, 2015). The scope of allelopathy

boosted in 1970s and till mid-1990s it expended very quickly to become a known field

of biology, agriculture and horticulture and recently in other fields of sciences. The

allelopathic interaction can be one of the significant factors contributing to species

distribution and abundance within plant communities and can be important in the

success of invasive plants (Cheng & Cheng, 2015; Zheng et al., 2015). It has been also

considering that allelopathy may indirectly causes of incessant cropping problems in

agriculture. The comprehensive study of allelopathy resulted that improving application

of allelopathy and allelochemicals is part of strategic ecological restoration and

managing agricultural production.

Agricultural production has been facing the most serious problem in form of weeds and

pest. Crops are threatening with interference of weeds. These are threat to all crops as

they are competing with crops for sunlight, water, nutrition and pathogenic diseases

(Pathipati et al..,2011; Babu et al.., 2014). Weeds are unwanted plants species from the

wild or semi cultivated fields which are grown against the will of people and cause

yields reduction. They are the second largest group about 30000 species following

natural vegetation, weeds are more than crops in size, quantity and distribution

worldwide. FAO reported that globally weeds contribution in crop yields losses are

about 35% in wheat, 28% in vegetables, 29% in fruit species and vineyards and 37% in

tobacco (Kadioglu et al.., 2005; Petrova et al., 2015). The problem of weed control in

crops are increasing in modern "organic farming" as the application of pesticides and

herbicides are reduces in response to decrease environmental degradation and negative

Introduction


impacts on human health (Mubarik et al. 2015, Petrova et al. 2015). Solution to this

problem could be found in the development of integrated systems for weed control,

including the advantages of chemical, biological, mechanical and preventive methods

to combat in minimizing their negative sides. Integrated weed control in most respects

the principle of greening and environmental protection simultaneously with increased

weed control and saving energy.

Recently the researchers give more attention to allelopathy and published a huge

number of publication on plant and ecosystem interaction (Kadioglu et al., 2005;

Dimitrova & Marinov-Serafimov, 2007;) and the scientist included it in the sustainable

agriculture which is defined as organic, alternative, restorative, biodynamic, low

costing and preserving resources (Dimitrova, 2008). These natural allelochemicals have

low environmental risk as compared to the synthetic chemical compounds and lower

risk of resistance in remain in environment, so that is the reason to develop natural

chemicals which are the alternative of conventional pesticides (El-Abbassi et al., 2017).

It will be an additional and valuable advantage if these medicinal, antibacterial and

antifungal characteristics and properties resides in noxious weeds.

1.3 Research Trends in Weeds Allelopathy

Due to the selective nature of allelopathy, it should not expect that it alone could destroy

all weeds in a typical agricultural environment, so it could function as an element of an

integrated strategy for weed control. Integrated control is recognized as a preferred

strategy in the program of the United Nations Conference on Environment and

Development. Its advantages are its complexity, in full destruction of weeds and in the

lower risk of environmental pollution. This requires more detailed laboratory studies

on allelochemical interactions aimed at demand and supply opportunities for practical

application of allelopathy in weed control in order to reduce the use of chemicals.

Introduction


Most commonly used method of proving allelopathic interference in plant communities

or in the "weed - crop plant" is establishing stimulating or inhibitory effect of extracted

plant material on the test plants or study the effect of plant residues and their application

in quartz sand and/or soil made in the laboratory. So, in this study we aimed to

investigate the effect of selected weeds species, containing allelopathic active

substances, on germination, growth and biomass of some widespread weeds in crops.

The methanolic extract of selected top most toxic allelopathic weeds were applied for

bio-control on soil-borne phytopathogenic fungi.

1.4 Statement of The Research Problem/Thesis Statement

Research work proposed through this rigorous project on Allelo-chemicals screening

in Medicinal Plants and Weeds has great significance. Pakistan has a diversified flora

of 5700 flowering plant species but there is no database available regarding

evaluation/ranking on the basis of allelopathic activity which can play an important role

in the biological control of species that can harm the agro-environmental/ forest

ecosystem and biodiversity conservation of the country. Cash crops of the country like

wheat, maize, rice, cotton is already suffering with weed and pest interference.

Biological/chemical control of this problem is of prime importance.

1.5 Objectives of Research

This collaborative research will have two main objectives:

a. Screening of Allelopathic activity of weeds with special reference to ecological

environment.

b. To assess the fungicidal properties of top allelopathic crops weed extracts against the

soil-borne phytopathogenic fungi.

Introduction


1.6 Significance of Research

In Pakistan, just one crop e.g., wheat yield ha-1 is unfortunately very low and actual

farm yield is about 30-35% of the potential yield. Weed interference is one of the most

important but less noticed causes of low yield. Most of the population of the country

resides in the rural areas. Our population is increasing at one of the fastest rate in the

world. Our food production should fulfill the food requirements of our population. It is

impossible to increase the crop area because the cultivated area is already squeezing.

Vertical improvement is only possibility to get the potential yield of the existing wheat

cultivars. The information obtained from the proposed research may play a vital role to

control weeds and decrease resistance in crop production enhancement. For example,

in a recent report, it has also been described that Parthenium hysterophorus L., is a

noxious annual weed rapidly spreading across the non-cropped areas of the Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa (KP) province and elsewhere in Pakistan and found highly sensitive to

amino acid synthesis and photosynthesis inhibitors compared to herbicides with other

modes of action (Khan, et al., 2012).

At the national level, during 2004-05, the area under just one crop i.e, wheat cultivation

was 8.358 million ha, with a production of 21.6123 million tons. For example, in

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, the area under wheat cultivation was about 0.7486 million ha in

which one third is irrigated, while two third is rain fed giving a total production of 1.091

million tons at the rate of 1458 kg ha-1 (Minfal, 2005). Weed competition is the only

constraint for the wheat yield because insects and diseases are not so significant

problems. Weeds deprive the crop plants of the nutrients, moisture, light, CO2 and

space, while many weeds also possess allelopathic effects for crops. Weeds cause 17-

25% losses in wheat annually (Shad 1987) and 17-50% (Anonymous 1998). Among

the weed control methods, the chemical control is one of the recent origins, which is

Introduction


being emphasized in modern agriculture (Taj et al., 1986). The annual losses to wheat

crop in Pakistan on monetary basis amount to Rs. 28 billions, while in KP it amounts

to Rs. 2 billions (Hassan and Marwat, 2001; Marwat 2002). These figures warrant an

efficient control of weeds. The cases of other cash crops are also more or less same.

In light of these characteristics of weeds and their hazards, it becomes imperative to

control them. Several techniques (e.g. mechanical and chemicals) are used for weed

control. These techniques attempt to achieve a balance between cost of control and crop

yield loss. Mechanical methods, such as hand weeding require enormous labour and

time input. Nowadays, chemical method provides an effective strategy for weed

control. Since their discovery in the 1950s, synthetic herbicides have developed as a

major tool for weed management (McErlich & Boydston, 2014).

The research can help in increasing attention has been given to the role and potential of

allelopathy as a management strategy for crop protection against weeds and other pests.

Incorporating allelopathy into natural and agricultural management systems may

reduce the use of herbicides, insecticides, and other pesticides, reducing

environment/soil pollution and diminish autotoxicity hazards. There is a great demand

for compounds with selective toxicity that can be readily degraded by either the plant

or by the soil microorganisms. In addition, plant, microorganisms, other soil organisms

and insects can produce allelochemicals which provide new strategies for maintaining

and increasing agricultural production in the future.

Literature Review


CHAPTER 02

LITERATURE REVIEW

From the beginning, it has been reported and proved by experimental work that some

plant species have the potential to have an effect on nearby plants. Theophrastus (ca.

300 B.C) Aristotle successor was the first person who wrote about this subject matter,

he observed the negative effects on the vine by cabbage plants species and supposed

that “odours” from the cabbage plants was the main reason of such effects

(Albuquerque et al. 2010; Willis, 1985). This observable fact called allelopathy (from

the Greek al- lelon = of each other, pathós = to suffer). In 1937 first time this

terminology was introduced by a German plant physiologist Hans Molisch by defining

the terrifying effects of one plant upon another. Now comprehensively it can be stated

that the an influence upon the agricultural and biological ecosystems advancement by

the optimistic and pessimistic effects of chemical compounds produced mainly from

the secondary metabolism of plants, micro-organisms, viruses and fungi (Albuquerque

et al. 2010; Kruse et al. 2000; Olofsdotter et al. 2002; Rice, 2012; Seigler, 1996; Taveira

et al. 2013, Jabran, 2017; Muzell et al. 2017). Practically it is examined that the

allelopathic plants release the active biomolecules generally called “allelochemicals

into the environment cause such effects (Bertin et al. 2003; Kruse et al. 2000; Seigler,

1996; Shinwari et al. 2013; Qasem, 2017). The chemical interaction of plant-herbivore,

plant-insect, and plant-plant may be due to allelochemicals complex (Weir et al. 2004)

in addition the allelochemicals released by microorganisms that can create the

Literature Review


communication among microbe-microbe or microbe-plant e.g., colonization

development into the new ecosystem (Singh et al. 2003).

The extensive demanding approach for green economy and green environment by using

those technologies which are cheaper, coefficient and eco-friendly for weed

management has been aggravated research studies on crops and weeds allelopathy

(Dudai et al. 1999; Om et al.2002). The possibilities of getting low yields using

reseeding, overseeding, cover crops and crop rotation like agricultural techniques also

need attention to the crop involvement in allelopathic activity (Chon et al, 2006;

Oueslati, 2003). The herbicidal properties of plants which have potential to produce

allelochemicals are considered as a major source for the chemical industry, as the weeds

become resistant to synthetic chemical compound the importance of new molecules are

increased (Rawat et al. 2017; Bhowmik, 2003; Duke, 2003; Einhellig, 1996; Kruse et

al. 2000). The plants and crops are genetically modified which can be introduced as

allelopathic cover groups are the time needed development of their application (Duke,

2003; Duke et al. 2000; Duke et al. 2009; Taiz & Zeiger, 2006).

Considering that in the biological invasion, allelopathy can play vital and significance

job in ecological point of view. Practically and from recorded evidence, it has been

proved that invasive species becomes more dominant on indigenous species in the

invaded areas, but remain suppressive in native regions (Fabbro & Prati, 2015).

Through the “novel” weapons theory tried to explain this phenomenon, which suggest

that different allelochemicals or biochemical compounds released to the invaded

ecosystem by some exotic plants which are comparatively inefficient against their

espoused natural regions (Sangeetha & Baskar, 2015; Callaway & Ridenour, 2004;

Namkeleja et al. 2014; Rabotnov, 1981; Vivanco et al. 2004).

Literature Review


Allelopathic activities exhibited by different chemical groups which have a large

number of biomolecules. It is observed that some of the biological molecules are

produced from primary metabolism while in their majority released through secondary

metabolism. Even though these biomolecules are of a wide range but mainly their

originators are four: acetyl coenzyme A, shikimic acid, melavonic acid and

deoxyclulose phosphate. Keeping in view these precursors as a base, the biological

compound obtained from secondary metabolism are further classified in three core

chemical classes: terpenoids, N-containing compounds and phenolic compounds

(Albuquerque et al., 2010).

The consensus among the researcher and scientists are developed that the growth of the

plant which receives biological compound may not be enough to effect from a simple

compound in normal conditions but the growth inhibited by the action of other

biomolecules (Belz, 2007; Einhellig, 1996; Kruse et al., 2000; Seigler, 1996; Tabaglio

et al.). This literature review presents the current trend of the allelopathic association

and interaction of crops and weeds in view of current studies and research. It also covers

the documented weeds having allelopathic properties and their significance for weed

management. Additionally, to explore activities of allelopathic plants through different

approaches and their introduction to the agricultural system have been considered.

The different parts of plant, i.e., leaves, stems, roots, rhizomes, seeds, flowers and even

pollen have allelochemicals in specific concentration (Bertin et al. 2003; Gatti et al.,

2004; Kruse et al. 2000; Wipf et al.,2016; Yang & Kong, 2017). These biological

compounds from different species are releasing to the environment through the

following pathways; Allelochemicals exudates from the leaf surface washed out by

rainfall, from the green parts the volatile compounds exudates, plant residues

decomposition and root exudation (Chon et al. 2006; Morikawa et al. 2012; Olofsdotter

Literature Review


et al. 2002). During research studies, some essential variation is observed in species of

chemicals with ecosystem and phytochemicals ( Pueyo et al., 2017; Callaway &

Vivanco, 2006; Evans et al. 2011; Weiner, 2001). Such interactional changes of

allelochemicals and environment led to complication in understanding allelopathy

during field analysis by giving contradictory ecological results of specified

biochemicals (Latif et al., 2017; Blair et al. 2006; Callaway & Vivanco, 2006; Duke et

al. 2009; Evans et al. 2011; Kaur & Foy, 2001; Kaur et al. 2009).

All troughs the plant life cycle, the releasing concentration of allelochemicals is altered

by different environmental factors. The amount of the biomolecules releasing from

allelopathic plants are increased by the abiotic factors (drought, irradiation,

temperature) and biotic factors (nutrient limitation, competitors, pathogenic and

insecticidal diseases) (Cseke et al. 2006; Albuquerque et al. 2010; Einhellig, 1996;

Vidal & Bauman, 1997).

The aqueous extracts from genotypes grown under rainfed conditions had higher

allelopathic activity than those genotypes grown under irrigated conditions (El-Sadek

et al. 2017). It was proved that under severe drought situation the autotoxicity of barley

increased during the study for the appearance of autotoxicity of the cultivated barley on

seed growth and germination under laboratory conditions (Oueslati et al., 2005).

Extorts of barley plant have diverse inhibitory effects on different plant parts and plant

growth stages (Ben-Hammouda et al. 2001). Increasing the intensity of ultraviolet-B

radiation enhance the allelopathic effects of Houndstongue (Cynoglossum officinale L.)

on some feeding grasses (Furness et al. 2008).It had been observed that rather than the

control plants, extracts of Helianthus annuus L. is more effective against the

germination of Amaranthus retroflexus L. under nutrient deficient condition (Hall et al.

1982). It was found that Ageratum conyzoides L. amplified their allelopathic effects on

Literature Review


the peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), redroot amaranth (A. retroflexus), cucumber

(Cucumis sativus L.) and ryegrass (Lolium multiflo- rum Lam.) under stumpy

nutritional situation or in struggle with Bidens pilosa L. (Kong et al. 2002). During the

studies of Secale cereale L. in the context of the yields, phytotoxicity of tissues and

biological compounds affected by the three fecundity systems; this study reveals that

regardless of the huge amount of its biomass, low fertilization favors the phytotoxic

remains and biomolecules (Mwaja et al. 1995). Plants go through multifarious

biological changes in reaction to herbivores and infection whenever insect or

pathogenic species harasses them, beside it the amount of releasing allelochemicals also

increased (Mattner, 2006).

The recent literature shows that allelochemicals production and targeting plants retorts

is the result of the processes at cellular and molecular level (Baerson et al. 2005; Dayan,

2006; Albuquerque et al. 2010; Ding et al. 2007; Golisz et al. 2008; Song et al. 2008).

A gas is known as Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) which is very toxic and causing

biotic and abiotic pester in the cell is produced during the molecular oxygen reduction

process (Albuquerque et al. 2010; Resende et al. 2003; Veronese et al. 2003). The

formation of ROS can also be activated by allelochemicals. Weeds during the resistance

against other crops/weeds, pest and diseases also release allelochemicals (Belz, 2007).

The environmental, biogeographically and evolutionary research studies develop our

knowledge about allelopathy (Evans et al. 2011; He et al. 2009; Kaur et al. 2009;

Lankau, 2011; Lankau et al. 2009; Pollock et al. 2009; Thorpe et al. 2009; Wardle et

al. 2011). In ecology, the mechanism of communities’ formation is an issue of special

consideration (Evans et al. 2011; Lortie et al. 2004). Rabotnov, the Russian ecologist

hypothesized for developing communities’ it is important for adaptation with the

chemistry of other associated organisms (Evans et al. 2011; Rabotnov, 1981).

Literature Review


Biochemical compounds effects and inhibit the plant growth, disintegration, herbivore,

ecological interaction and nitrogen cycle (Evans et al. 2011; Hättenschwiler et al. 2011;

Hättenschwiler & Jørgensen, 2010; Hättenschwiler & Vitousek, 2000; Karban et al.

2006; Northup et al. 1998; Rabotnov, 1981).

In crop production practices the weed management through allelopathy is beneficial

and environmental friendly substitute for conventional herbicide; the differences in

their chemical structure they have the diverse mood of action (Kruse et al. 2000;

Macias, 1995; Narwal et al. 1998). To review the development of invasive species in

the natural and semi-natural environment by their allelopathic potential comprised.

Allelochemicals effects metabolic activities as it hinders totally inhibits and delayed

seed germination and seedling growth (Babaahmadi et al. 2013; Gomaa et al. 2014).

Functioning of the allelochemicals on molecular level influenced the composition and

augmentation (Einhellig, 1996). Studies at the genetic level can give faithful

information of allelochemicals about their allelopathic effects (Kruse et al. 2000; Amb

& Ahluwalia, 2016).

An extensive range of activities have been shown by a number of allelochemicals e.g.

a good number of alkaloids are noxious or inhibitory to diverse species belonging from

different groups including plants, microorganisms specially bacteria & fungi, pests and

mammal (Jabran et al. 2015; Kruse et al. 2000; Wink et al. 1998). Phenolic compounds

released during allelopathic activities are toxic for microflora and soil animals (Jabran,

2017; Gallet & Pellissier, 1997). Terpenoids as allelochemicals in crops of temperate

weather are not commonly found but conifers, mints, and euphorbias have in abundant

quantity. Terpenoids released to the environment by plants play an important role by

inhibiting seed germination, control herbivorous (specific and general), against

vectored and pathogenic fungi enhancing defense, attract the pollination agents and also

Literature Review


restrain the soil bacteria (Kruse et al. 2000; Langenheim, 1994). Multiple effects are

shown by mono-terpenoids individually, but its quantity to effects different species or

population is specified known as dosage factor (Langenheim, 1994).

Biological compound resulted from allelopathic activity harms the plants by inhibiting

their microsymbionts like nitrifying bacteria and mycorrhiza. Certain ectomycorrhizal

fungi allied with P. mariana growth affected by the K. angustifolia extorts have been

evidenced through natural processes and laboratory experiments (Yamasaki et al.

1998). It is proved by experimental work that Pinus sylvestris spreading seedling

mycorrhizal infection is reduced by the Empetrum hermaphroditum aqueous remains

(Nilsson et al. 1993). The symbiosis process between Rhizobium and legume species

actually inhibited by allelochemicals released from living plants and plants extracts

damaged or killed by herbicide (Putnam et al. 1986; Weston & Putnam, 1985). Carduus

nutans decomposed leaves negatively influence the ability of nitrogen fixation of

Trifolium repens and show its dominance in the territory with ryegrass (Kruse et al.

2000; Wardle et al. 2011).

Allelochemicals released to the soil by allelopathic plants alter the soil texture and

effects plant-soil relationships through different factors (Blum et al. 1999; Inderjit,

1998; Kruse et al. 2000). Soil properties influenced by a violent and brutal evergreen

weed plant Pluchea lanceolata. Higher concentration of Phenolic acid, pH, electrical

conductivity, potassium (K+) and soluble chloride (Cl-) were found in P. lanceolata

environs affecting seedling growth of different crops (Inderjit, 1998; Inderjit &

Dakshini, 1998; Kruse et al. 2000; Ullah et al. 2013; Jabran, 2017). Nutrients cycling

and their availability in the soil can badly affect by Phenolic acid (Appel, 1993; Kuiters,

1991). Allelochemicals concentration in soil can be reduced by microbial

decomposition (Soil detoxification or producing additional phytotoxic allelochemical)

Literature Review


and other physicochemical processes e.g., oxidation (Cseke et al. 2006; Albuquerque

et al. 2010; Kaur & Foy, 2001; Nair et al. 1990; Vidal & Bauman, 1997; Weidenhamer,

1996; Weiner, 2001). To the sandy and silt loam soil some allelochemicals catechin and

cosolute of Phenolic acid released by Centaurea maculosa Lam., which are vanished

through oxidation and sorption (Albuquerque et al. 2010; Tharayil et al. 2008).

Allelopathy is an appreciating factor of plant invasion and establishing in a new

environment. The studies recommended that the aggressive colonizers e.g. Elytrigia

repens and Vulpia myuros release allelochemicals is lead to thriving invasion (An et al.

1997; Friebe et al. 1995). The research study proved that the regeneration processes of

two indigenous species are interrupted through reducing their germination, growth rate

and survival by the allelopathic action of phytotoxin release from L. Camara (Gentle

& Duggin, 1997). Research showed that Bunia orientalis rapidly spreading in Europe

due to allelopathic effect. Lettuce and barley seedling growth is inhibited by B.

orientalis while week response showed by other two plants species to it (Dietz et al.

1996; Kruse et al. 2000). Some plants species e.g. Empetrum hermaphroditum, Kalmia

angustifolia, and Lantana camara perennially release active biological compounds for

invasion or dominance in an ecosystem (Gentle & Duggin, 1997; Mallik, 1998;

Zackrisson & Nilsson, 1992).

Allelopathic effects are indomitable due to soil chemistry involved in allelopathy

caused by allelochemicals concentration & its releasing timing is important for sensitive

vulnerable species, availability of nutrients, pH microorganisms and influence in the

community through competition (Rice 1984). Allelopathic intrusion among weeds and

crops is very much concern with the life cycle of weedy species ( Zohaib et al. 2016;

Dakshini & Dakshini, 1996; Dakshini, 1995; Inderjit & Dakshini, 1998; Inderjit &

Dakshini, 1995). Field experiments show that the perennial weed, Pluchea lanceolata

Literature Review


have allelopathic effects on numerous crop species (Dakshini & Dakshini, 1996;

Inderjit et al. 1996; Kruse et al. 2000). Wheat is allelopathically affected by Stellaria

media which is a policarpic annual weed (Inderjit & Dakshini, 1998). During growth

season the Polypogon monspeliensis (monocarpic weed) showed allelopathic

interference by releasing phenolic compounds in large quantities towards crops species

i.e. radish and cluster bean (Inderjit & Dakshini, 1995).

The allelopathic effect of inhibiting one another found more effectively and consistently

in those communities which have a meager number of species than in species affluent.

For dominance in the diverse plant community, plants need to release a sufficient

quantity of biocompounds in soil (Wardle et al. 2011). The uptake abilities of some

vulnerable species reduced, as there is large diversity in plants among the species to

species to uptake allelochemicals (Kruse et al. 2000; Perez, 1990; Thijs et al. 1994). In

communities with those plants which have allelopathic effects (may be more severe in

presence of phytotoxic invasive species) turn out to be dominant in low species

diversity (Kruse et al. 2000). For allelopathic expression measurement, it is

recommended that the relative density of contributor and recipient is an important

factor. Susceptible species endurance and augmentation show positive association with

density of non-susceptible species e.g. high density of Lantana camara negatively

affects the seedling growth of two vulnerable and sensitive species while when the

densities of affected plants are increased they show average seedling growth (Gentle &

Duggin, 1997; Thijs et al. 1994; Weidenhamer, 1996).

The tolerance of species to the allelopathic effect is not due to their coexistence;

however some of their characters like roots deepness, the thickness of cuticle, metabolic

pathway, and properties of the cell membrane (Kruse et al. 2000; Newman, 1978).

Physical aspects and microbial activities along with allelochemicals effects can play an

Literature Review


important role in coadaptation (Inderjit et al. 1996; Rice, 2012). Significantly in many

cases, the species use allelopathy as a strategic tool for adaptation not for competition

rather than in determination for environmental interaction. Species use allelopathic

phytotoxin as a weapon against other species for resources competition such as nutrient,

water, light etc. for their surveillance in an ecosystem (Kruse et al. 2000; Lankau et al.

2009).

Allelopathic effects depend on evolutionarily developed interaction. It's time needed to

understand the mechanisms in which alien species are very aggressive in invaded area

while not too much in their native lands. The evolutionary developed indigenous

species suppressed by allelopathic effects of exotic species due to the interaction

developed as a result of allelopathy and biochemically, it’s necessary to investigate how

communities affected by evolutionary history (Callaway, 2003; Evans et al. 2011). In

assessing the invasion mechanism the comparative application of ecological and

biochemical traits of species show significance in the native ranges (Hierro et al. 2005).

The assessment of assembling and amassing of allelopathic compounds in the novel

and local ecosystem, and sensitivity of indigenous species to new chemicals released

by invasive species, may be helpful in understanding these mechanisms (Evans et al.

2011; Sujeeun & Thomas, 2017). A biogeographic prototype of communications

among species in various ecosystems can be justified potentially by the Novel Weapons

Hypothesis (NWH). The NHW theory was first anticipated for allelopathic mechanism

of invasion Centaurea diffusa in North Americaon C. stoebe and this supported by

recent studies on biogeographic comparisons of alien species in indigenous and novel

ranges (Callaway & Aschehoug, 2000; Callaway & Ridenour, 2004; Evans et al. 2011;

Kim & Lee, 2011; Ni et al. 2010; Thorpe et al. 2009; Zhang et al. 2010). The introduced

plant species develop a response to new ecosystem while the native species adapting

Literature Review


with novel organisms. This type of evolutionary response is noticed in coadaptation

with a native rival of Trifolium repens and the indigenous Leptocoris tegalicus co-

adapted with introduced plants (Carroll et al. 2005).

The research in genetic modification of allelopathic crops can enhance the ability to

suppress weeds andovercome the autotoxicity. To overcome this traditional plant

breeding is the best solution which recently got less attention(Bertin et al. 2003;

Albuquerque et al. 2010; Kruse et al. 2000; Weston & Putnam, 1985). The main

significance of breeding in non-edible crops to overcome the nearby species while in

edible crops to increase yields and to improve resistance against diseases as they have

a low potential of allelopathy (Bertholdsson, 2004; Albuquerque et al. 2010).

Allelopathic traits between the same or different species can be transmitted through

molecular and transgenic methods (Belz, 2007; Rice, 2012). Inhibition of weeds and

reducing herbicides use can be achieved by the transduction of allopathic gene to rice

(Zhou et al. 2008). For removal, the environmental hazardous contamination like

agrochemical residue, industrial pollution, and pesticides through genetically modified

species in future and it can be achieved through calibration of researcher from different

field and research labs (Macek et al. 2008; Olofsdotter et al. 2002).

In a study conducted by Golisz et al. 2008, the gene expression resulted by A. thaliana

in response when introducing to allelochemicals i.e. fagomine, gallic acid, and rutin in

the same way as responded to biotic and abiotic stress (). The some complication and

difficulties are facing during utilization of biotechnological technique and tools for the

augmentation of the allelopathic perspective of some crops, particularly when the

concerned genes belong to very established and known metabolic pathways and

encompass cyclic, tissue and genotype differences in the assembling of their metabolic

(Cambier et al. 2000; Albuquerque et al. 2010; Reberg et al. 2005; Wu et al. 2000).

Literature Review


Researcher of the University of Arizona finds during an evolutionary research study

that the extracellular secretion from many microorganisms released which transform

environment auspiciously. Dependability on Social evolution theory, for sustaining

such traits a significant role can be played by structured habitats, by restricting the

resettlement and extrication strains that endow in these products from 'cheater' strains

that do well to exclusive of paying the charge. It is thus astonishing that a lot of

unicellular, well-mixed microalgal populations endow in extracellular toxins that

bestow ecological remuneration upon the whole population, for example, by abolishing

nutrient competitors (allelopathy) (Driscoll, 2013).

Natural products derived from plants and fungi have traditionally been used in

ethnomedicine. Throughout the development of both Western and Eastern civilizations,

whole plants, fungi, their parts, derived compounds and extracts have functioned as

sources of food and medicine, symbolic articles in religious and social ceremonies, and

remedies to modify behavior. Plant and fungal extracts and compounds containing

physiologically active biochemicals have immense potential for producing new agents

of great benefit to mankind. In this context, systematic screening of secondary

metabolites of folk herbs and fungi may result in the discovery of novel and effective

antimicrobial compounds (Hussain et al., 2011). Recently, interest has been growing in

natural products due to their availability, fewer side effects and less toxicity as well as

better biodegradability when compared to other available antimicrobial agents and

preservatives. Thus, plants and mushroom may offer great potential and hope.

Consequently, natural products are attracting the attention of scientists because they are

cheaper, safer, eco-friendly and within the reach of the current medical community.

This paper gives an overview on the activity of plant and fungi derived extracts as well

Literature Review


as their constituents against a wide variety of microfungi, methodology and potential

uses (Figure 2.1 & 2.2).

From the past few decades the trend to understand the myth of allelopathy get more

attention among researcher and hence research studies in this regards proved the

allelopathic behavior of crops and weeds by crop rotation, cover crops, green manure,

intercropping, etc. Research studies prevail to explain the effects (positive and negative)

of plants on their communities. Abilities and chemistry of allelopathic plants (crops and

weeds) depend on the composition of soil, nutritional availability, community of

neighboring plants, ecological and environmental conditions and genetic makeup etc.

Modern techniques, methods have helped in recognizing latent biological compounds,

make easy to know that how the allelochemicals synthesis, releases to soil, mode of

action and how effects the environment. Genetical and evolutionary studies in this field

are introductory. Manipulation and identification of allelopathic genes are the

revolutionary achievements of researchers for control and weed management.

Importantly in future research allelochemicals formulation into a commercial weed

control product.

Literature Review


Figure 2.1. Approach for testing of antifungal activity of natural products from fungi and plants.

Literature Review


Fig. 2.2: Action of allelochemicals (black pentagons) as ROS inducing or ROS scavenging

agents in acceptor plants. Allelochemicals may scavenge ROS resulting in decreasing

intracellular ROS level. At low concentration they may act as growth stimulators leading in

hormetic effect. At high concentration or in susceptible acceptor plants allelochemicals may

induce overproduction of ROS and alteration in operation of antioxidant cellular system. Plant

reaction to allelochemical depends on signaling pathway activated by ROS and calcium ions

Materials and Methods


CHAPTER 03

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Study area

Keeping in view the importance of exceptional biogeographical and geostrategic

position, existing between 23°-37° N and 61°-81° E, boarded by Afghanistan, Iran,

Russia, India and China (Fig. 3.1), Pakistan harbors a wide and diverse range of flora.

The diverse environmental and climatic conditions i.e. elevation, temperature and

rainfall resulted a relative rich and diverse flora of about 5700 species representing 22

families and about 150 genera (Shinwari & Shinwari, 2010; Flora of Pakistan, 2017).

Figure 3.1. Map of Pakistan (Flora of Pakistan, 2017)



3.2 Plant Materials

The leaf litter collection of 73 weeds were made from different crops, roadsides, and

meadows of Pakistan. Sandwich and dish pack screening methods were applied to

determine allelopathic potential of selected weeds targeted plants species. Previous

research studies showed that lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) is more reliable for germination

and susceptible to chemical (Fujii et al., 1990). Lactuca sativa L.G-LE01, Takii & Co.

Ltd, Kyoto Japan has been used for allelopathic assessment.

Fresh leaves of weeds species were collected, separately packed in paper bags and then

dried at 60°C in drying oven (Biobase) for 24 hours approximately. Until the further

experimental work the dried leaves were set aside in plastic bags and stored in air-tight

box. These oven dried weeds samples were studied and screened out at Ecology and

Biodivesity Laboratory, Department of Environmental Science, International Islamic

University, Islamabad.

3.3 Preparation of Agar Solution

Previous studies recommended that agar growth medium is best for seedling growth of

the lettuce in the sandwich method. The standard procedures were followed for agar

solution preparation. 1000 mL of distilled water was measured and then pour into 7.5

g (0.75%) agar media in the graduated cylinder. Top of flask was wraped with

aluminum foil, then placed it in the Autoclave at 120 °C for 15 minutes. After the

solution is done autoclaving, solution is cooled down at 40°C in autoclave to prevent

solidification.

3.4 Sandwich Method

For screening the allelopathic potential of selected weeds leaves leachates, the

sandwich technique adopted from Fujii et al., 2004. This method is proven most



effective for allelopathic activity determination and applied on large quantity of plants

allelopathic screening by researchers (Amini et al., 2014; Fujii et al., 2003; Fujii et al.,

2004, Shiraishi et al., 2002). The selected weeds plants (73 species) were screened out

by using this method. The set-up for sandwich method using multi-well was arranged

as shown in Fig 3.2 (Appiah et al., 2015). Previous studies recommended that agar

growth medium is best for seedling growth of the lettuce in the sandwich method. The

growth medium we used in the present study is agar (7.5 gram per 1000 ml distilled

water) solution. Selected weed species were screened out three time in replicates and

mean of the replication presented in data. The untreated control multi-well was set as

agar without plant materials. The multi-wells are sealed air tightly with plastic tap and

light tight with aluminum foil cover. Then mutli-well plates were placed in an incubator

(Biobase Model BJPX-HI10) for 72 hours at 25°C. The measurement of hypocotyl and

radicle were taken with the help of tweezer and graph paper.

Figure 3.7 (Fujii et al., 2004). Sandwich method: (a) six-well multidish plastic plate; (b) In each

multi-well plate placed 10 and 50 mg dried leaves; (c) Add 05mL agar two layer before and after

placing the dried leaves; (d) Placed five lettuce seeds vertically; (e) air tightly with plastic tap and

light tight with aluminum foil cover, and appropriately labeled multidish for incubation in dark

conditions.



3.5 Dish pack Method

Fujii et al., 2005, first time introduced dish pack screening technique for volatile

bioactive substances presence in plants. Dish pack method is very reliable and

acceptable to researcher, so this technique is widely using for determination of plants

volatile organic compounds. Using dish pack method, selected 73 weeds samples were

examined for possible volatile allelochemicals presence that may inhibit or promote

seedling growth of lettuce. Multi-dish plastic plates (6 well each was 36mm×18mm)

were used for analysis. The distances from the center of the source well (where plant

sample was placed) to the center of other wells were 41, 58, 82, and 92 mm (Fig. 3.9).

Oven-dried leaf litter (100 mg) were placed in source well while in other wells of multi-

dish filter paper were laid in then 0.75 ml distilled water was added to each well. Plant

material did not add to the source well of control treatment muti-well. Except the source

well in which plant material present, on the filter paper of each wells 07 seeds of

Lactuca sativa were placed. To avoid desiccation and loss of volatile compounds the

multi-wells placed are sealed air tightly with cellophane tap. The dishes were wrapped

around in aluminum foils from light intervention. For incubation process, at 25°C the

dishes were placed in an incubator ((Biobase Model BJPX-HI10) for three days. The

length of radicles and hypocotyl were measured and compared to control seedling

growth, this comparison shows the degree of inhibition.



Fig. 3.9 (Fujii et al., 2005): View from top of Multi-well plastic plate used in dishpack method

for allelopathic assessment.

3.6 Pest Control Technique

The following technique were applied to analyze the effects of weeds species on

phytopathogenic fungi;

3.6.1 Collection of Plant Material

The collection of 73 plus weeds plant leaf litter were made from different crops, fields,

roadsides, meadows and Margallah Hills National Park of Pakistan. Fresh leaves of

weeds species were collected, separately packed in paper bags and then dried at 60°C

in drying oven (Biobase) for 24 hours approximately. Until the further experimental

work the dried leaves were set aside in plastic bags and stored in air-tight box. These

oven dried plants samples were studied and screened out at Ecology Laboratory of

International Islamic University, Islamabad. Sandwich and dish pack screening

methods were applied to determine allelopathic potential of selected weeds plants. After

allelopathic screening process the top most toxic and noxious weeds were selected for

further experimentation. The plant materials of the toxic and collected labeled with



codes as Melilotus indica L. (16), Melilotus alba Desr. (18), Medicago parviflora

E.H.L. Krause (22) and Solanum nigrum L..(36 &102). All the plant samples were

authenticated in Department of Environmental Sciences, Islamic International

University Islamabad.

3.6.2 Extract Preparation

All the samples were dried at 60 °C for 24 hour in oven. A milling machine were used

for grinding dried leaves in powder form. The extracts of all samples were prepared

accordingly as described by Basri and Fan 2005. About 100 g of powdered sample was

extracted with 500 mL methanol for 48 hours in shaking incubator at 30 °C. The

extracts were filtered using Whatman No.1 filter and were concentrated under reduced

pressure at 40 °C using rotary evaporator. The crude extracts were allowed to dry at

room temperature till constant weight. The extracts were re-dissolved in dimethyl

sulfoxide (DMSO) at a concentration of 50 mg/mL for antifungal assay and was

sterilized by filtering through 0.2 µm Millipore filter. The sterilized extracts were tested

for sterility by taking 2 mL extract in 10 mL of sterile nutrient broth before incubation

at 37 °C for 24 hours. A sterile extract was indicated by the absence of turbidity in broth

after incubation period. The extracts were stored at 4 °C till further use.

3.6.3 Test Organisms and fungal Inocula Preparation

The fungal strains used in this study were obtained from Department of Microbiology,

Quaid e Azam University, Islamabad and the fungal strains included Pythium ultimum,

Rhizoctonia solani, Pyricularia oryzae, Fusarium fujikuroi, Rhizoctonia oryzae and

Fusarium oxysporum. These strains were grown on sabaruad dextrose agar and were

incubated at 30 °C for 48 hours. Later on the suspension were prepared with an optical

density (OD) of 0.1 at 630 nm.



3.6.4 Antifungal Activity Determination

A simple technique automated quantitative microspectrophotometric assessment

(Broekaert et al., 1990) applied for antifungal activity measurement. Microtiter plates

of 96 well at 630 nm used for growth inhibition measurement. A routine analysis of

extracts under assay is performed with spore suspension (10 µL), extract (20 µL) and

potato dextrose broth (PDB) (70 µL) (HiMedia, Mumbai, India). The sterile distilled

water (20 µL) having micro-cultures used to played a role of negative control. The

Nystatin was applied as a positive control at 0.2 mg ml-1 (Satish et al., 2007).

3.6.5 Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal

concentration (MFC)

The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of plants extracts is known to be a

lowest concentration of plants extracts resulting in a more than 90% growth inhibition

as compared to the control during 48 hours. The MIC values of plants extracts were

determined through a microplate method (Eloff, 1998) after slight modification

(dilution of solutions). This technique includes the serial dilution of plant extract from

crude extract in the range of 1/2 to 1/100 dilution. The mixture contains 100 µL fungal

spore suspension (2×106 spore’s mL-1 in fresh PDB) and each extract dilution (100 µL)

in every well. The incubation of microplates was carried out at 27 °C for 48-72 hour in

a triplicate experiment followed by spectrophotometric analysis (at 630 nm) with a

microplate reader. The comparison between growth in control wells and extract blank

in uninoculated plates reveals the MIC values. Espinel-Ingroff et al. (2002) described

in vitro fungicidal activity through incubation (72 hours) at 27 °C, subculturing (20 µL)

from each positive well with no visible growth having more than 98 % inhibition

growth and the growth control onto PDA plates. The lowest extract concentration which



did not result in fungal growth on used medium is considered as minimum fungicidal

concentration.

3.7 Statistical analysis

The experimentation work was designed with three replicates in randomized.

3.7.1 Statistical Analysis for Dishpack and Sandwich Methods

For statistical analysis of data Microsoft Excel 2007 were used to evaluate of the

means, standard deviation (SD), and SD variance (SDV) were done.

Elongation % = (Average length of treatment radicle/hypocotyl) (1)

(Average length of control radicle/hypocotyl)

Inhibitory % =100 - (Average length of treatment radicle/hypocotyl) (2)

(Average length of control radicle/ hypocotyl)

3.7.2 Fungal Growth Inhibition statistical Analysis

An ELISA plate reader was used to measure absorbance at 630 nm of plates containing

spore and sediments which were prepared at 27 °C in 30 minutes. The absorbance was

measured to record the growth after 2 days of incubation at 27 °C through a triplicate

assay for antifungal activity. The growth inhibition was determined by give below

Broekaert et al. (1990) equation.

Growth Inhibition = [(∆C − ∆T) ÷ ∆C] × 100

Where ∆C = Corrected absorbance of the control microculture at 630 nm

∆T= Corrected absorbance of the test micro-culture.

It has been noted that absorbance (at 630 nm) of micro-culture after 2 days’ minus

measured absorbance after 30 minutes become equal to corrected absorbance of culture.

Results and Discussion


CHAPTER 04

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Weeds in Pakistan

Pakistan has a very rich and diverse flora of about 5700 vascular species including

weeds. Weeds are natural competitors in cropping system and cost $18.2 billion per

annum globally to agricultural yield. Worldwide about 30000 weeds species are

reported but only 250 weeds species are estimated which are common in agricultural

system (Marwat et al., 2013). Pakistan is an agricultural country and 70% of its

population is directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture. This sector is facing some

unavoidable problems in form of weeds and pest attack. A huge number of weeds are

present in our cash crops; wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses and fruits etc. Heavy

weeds infestation may cause complete crop failure. The unchecked weed propagation

in cropping system in Pakistan has significant loss to crop yield, erstwhile more than

50% yield is reduced in some crops (Marwat et al., 2013). Weeds harming our crops

in other ways also, as they harbor pest and plant diseases and propagate in agricultural

and natural systems (Dangwal et al., 2010). Several researchers reported weeds of crop

from various parts of Pakistan. Keeping in view the weeds flora of weeds a general and

comprehensive list of weeds in Pakistan is documented in Annex-D. The list of weeds

is prepared from previous research studies on weeds of Pakistan and from various

websites and communities included flora of Pakistan, Centre for Agriculture and

Biosciences International (CABI), Plant for a future (pfaf), Wikipedia, flora of India,



flora of China, Weed Science Society of Pakistan, Department of weeds Sciences

NARC, and some other relative links.

4.2 Selection of Weeds for Bioassay through Sandwich and Dish Pack

Methods

Weed is a valueless plant growing wild, especially one that grows on cultivated ground

to the exclusion or injury of the desired crop. The plant species aggressively grows

outsides their native habitat as invasive plants are also called weed. The weed

terminology does not exist taxonomically and has no biological significance because a

plant sometime is considered a serious weed while in other context it is grown and

wanted plant where it is a valuable crop such as a wild bramble and hemp are growing

among cultivated loganberries. Many plants widely considered as weeds, are sometimes

called beneficial weeds as they are cultivated and grown in gardens internationally.

Generally, weeds terminology has a negative connotation but a large number of known

weeds plants have beneficial and advantageous properties. Many weeds are edible, and

their leaves, stems, seeds and roots may be used for food and herbal medicines. Other

valuable importance of weeds is some weed species attract beneficial insects and help

to protect crops from pest attack, some weeds may also improve soil fertility such as

dandelions and some weeds have ornamental importance. Keeping in view the negative

and positive contextual of weeds we selected 73 weeds species for bioassay based on

their medicinal properties. The brief description of their habitat and distribution,

medicinal and economical importance and their allelopathic potential of all analyzed

weeds species.



1. Avena fatua L.

Family Leguminosae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name:

Wild Oat

Habit A.fatua is cool

seasonal an

erect grass

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution It is native of central Asia (Jones, 1976; Holm et al., 1977),

naturalized and well adopted in numerous parts of the world and

growing with spring cereals, but are also plentiful in winter

seasonal crops (cereals). This plant is widespread in Pakistan

(Hussain & Rashid, 1989).

Blooming Period January-May

Local Occurrence Common

Local Medicinal and

other Uses of the weed

(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Used as forage, bio-mass, fibre, mulch, paper-making and

thatching and diseases resistance gene source (cabi, 2017). The

seeds of wild oats have therapeutic characteristics to treat

refrigerant, diuretic and emollient (pfaf, 2017)

Part Used Whole plant

Commercial Value Wild oat is edible and has therapeutic usages but its doles are

dwarfed by its adverse effects.

Previous Allelopathic

Potential/ Assessment

Reported

Root and coleoptile growth of spring wheat seedlings is

inhibited by Wild oat extracts. Scopoletin, coumarin, p-

hydroxybenzoic and vanillic acid are known allelochemicals of

A. fatua (Pérez & Ormeño-Nuñez, 1991). Germination of Wild

oat is completely inhibited by exudates of mulberry (Jabran et

al. 2010). Assimilating triallate back into cropping systems is

possibility to control wild oat in crops (Hanson, et al., 2016).

Crop Infested Wheat, Rice, Barley

Major Documentation Hussain & Rashid, 1989; Jones, 1976; Holm et al., 1977; Pérez

& Ormeño-Nuñez, 1991; Jabran et al. 2010; Hanson, et al. 2016;

Plant for a future, 2017;



2. Verbena tenuisecta L.

Family Verbenaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Moss

verbena

Habit Erect or semi

erect

Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution It is native of S. America, familiarized and adopted in

numerous parts of the world. In Pakistan, this plant is growing

in old fields, waste areas and roadsides, and distributed in

Abbottabad, Muzaffarabad, Rawalpindi, Islamabad and Lahore

districts.

Blooming Period Feberuary-May


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

No medicinal use is reported, Ornamental

Part Used Not reported

Commercial Value Not reported



Reported

Not Reported

Crop Infested Wheat, Barley

F https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/all/verbena-tenuisecta/

http://www.tropicos.org/Name/33700044?projectid=32

https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/all/verbena-tenuisecta/




3. Amaranthus viridis L.

Family Amaranthaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Calalu, Slender

amaranth

Habit Herb, erect or

more rarely

ascending

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Found throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the

world, and penetrating further into the temperate regions. A

common weed of waste and cultivated ground in Pakistan,

ascending to at least 1220 m.

Blooming Period June-October


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

The plant decoction is used for dysentery and inflammation. The

root juice is used for urinary inflammation treatment. Yellow and

green dyes can be obtained from the whole plant. In India it is

used conventionally as a vegetable (Baloch et al., 1976;

Napompeth, 1982)

Part Used Leaves; Seed, Whole Plant

Commercial Value Pharmaceutical



Reported

A. viridis may be an appropriate applicant for biological control,

based on the quantity of natural opponents of the plant (Ahmed

et al., 1989; Durai, 1990).

Crop Infested Rice, Wheat, Maiz, Sugarcane, sorghum

Major Documentation http://www.tropicos.org/Name/1100015?projectid=32

Baloch et al., 1976; Napompeth, 1982, Ahmed et al., 1989;

Durai, 1990




4. Chenopodium ambrosioides L.

Family Chenopodiaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Mexican Tea

Habit Herb

Life form Annual/Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Cultivated Beds, grounds, patches, edges, stream sides- s.l. 1430

m; Possibly originating from tropical America. Earlier cultivated

as medicinal plant and make known to in tropical and subtropical

parts, where it is unswervingly adopted.

Blooming Period July-October


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

It has diverse medicinal use such as Analgesic; Antiasthmatic;

Antifungal; Carminative; Stomachic; Vermifuge. It can also be

used as Dye; Insecticideal and tea (British Pharmacopoeia 1953;

López et al., 2000).

Part Used Seeds, Leaves and flowers




Reported

Volatile compound from C. ambrosioides has inhibited the

growth of some plants species (Shen et al., 2005; Jiménez-

Osornio et al., 1996)

Crop Infested Maiz, Rice, Wheat

Major Documentation Quinlan et al., 2002; Arisawa et al.,1971; British Pharmacopoeia

1953; López et al., 2000; Shen et al., 2005; Jiménez-Osornio et

al., 1996



5. Sida alba L.

Family Malvaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Prickly Sida,

Bonmethi

Habit Herb

Life form Annual/Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Anthropogenic (man-made or disturbed habitats). Distributed in

India, tropical Africa, Namibia and Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-

Natal, South Africa. Also in America.



Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

It is used as Antimicrobial for gonorrhoea, gleet and scalding

urine. It is also used to treat mild fever and fatigue (Konaté et al.,

2012; Naggar, 2004).

Part Used Leaves, root, Root bark




Reported

The growth of Sida Alba is inhibited in different allelopathic

experimentation (Worsham, 1991; Azania et al., 2003).

Crop Infested soyabeans, tobacco, maize, sorghum and sunflower

Major Documentation Konaté et al., 2012; Naggar, 2004; Heath & Heath, 2009;

Worsham, 1991; Azania et al., 2003;

http://www.holistic-online.com/herbal-med/_Herbs/h_sida-

spinosa.htm

http://www.holistic-online.com/herbal-med/_Herbs/h_sida-spinosa.htm

http://www.holistic-online.com/herbal-med/_Herbs/h_sida-spinosa.htm



6. Anagallis arvensis L.

Family Primulaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Pimpernel, Red

Chickweed

Habit Forb/herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Gardens, fields, roadsides, wasteland, loading places, ballast soil

deposits. Plants patronizing hilly parts from altitudes of 1300-

2200 m

Blooming Period June–September.


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

It is used for treatment of Antidepressant; Antipruritic;

Antitussive; Antiviral; Cholagogue; Diaphoretic; Diuretic;

Expectorant; Homeopathy; Nervine; Purgative; Stimulant;

Vulnerary. As a vegetable its tender shoots can be cooked. It is

also used in soap (Akerreta et al., 2007; López et al., 2011).

Part Used Leaves




Reported

study the allelopathic effects of root and shoot leachates of

Anagallis arvensis allelopathic effects studies on different

species e.g Pennisetum americanum L., turnip, carrot,wheat

(Rebaz et al., 2001; Salam et al., 2011)

Crop Infested Wheat, Carrot, Turnip,

Major Documentation Akerreta et al., 2007; López et al., 2011; Rebaz et al., 2001;

Salam et al., 2011



7. Phalaris minor Retz.

Family Poaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

littleseed

canarygrass,

Dumbi sittee

Habit Culms/Grass

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution In sandy alluvial soils it grows and also adopted in saline soil.

P.minor is found in tropical and temperate regions of Pakistan,

Indian subcontinent, Indonesia, middle East, and Australia.

Blooming Period March-May


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Used as a livestock fodder

Part Used Whole Plant




Reported

Littleseed Canarygrass prying in wheat and barley. P.minor also

tested in weed control management experimentation (Om et al.,

2002; Jabran et al., 2010; Afentouli, & Eleftherohorinos, 1996).

Crop Infested Overruns almost all crops cultivated in winter. Wheat, Rice,

Barley

Major Documentation Om et al., 2002; Jabran et al., 2010; Afentouli, &

Eleftherohorinos, 1996;



8. Salvia moorcroftiana Wall.

Family Lamiaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Kashmir Salvia

Habit white-woolly herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Cultivated lands, Open slopes and wasteland, 1500 - 2700

metres. . Salvia moorcroftiana native to the Himalayan

mountains and in the Kashmir Valley it is particularly common.

Blooming Period March-April


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Roots used for colds and coughs treatment, seed is used to treat

dysentery, haemorrhoids, colic and, externally, boils and leaves

for wounds dressing (Arafat, 2012).

Part Used Stems, Root, leaves

Commercial Value Medicinal



Reported

Allelopathic effects of Salvia moorcroftiana on germination and

growth on different plants was studied (Khan et al., 2002).

Crop Infested Not reported

Major Documentation Arafat, 2012; Khan et al., 2002



9. Oxalis corniculata L.

Family Oxalidaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

creeping

woodsorrel

Habit Broadleaved

herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution O. corniculata is common throughout the world and within

several countries. It is considered a cosmopolitan weed of

tropical and temperature zones

Blooming Period Spring, Summer, Fall.


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

It can be used as raw or cooked, added to salads, cooked as a

potherb with other, milder flavoured greens or used to give a

sour flavor. The whole plant is anthelmintic, antiphlogistic,

astringent, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge,

lithontripic, stomachic and styptic. It is used for influenza, fever,

urinary tract infections, enteritis, diarrhoea, traumatic injuries,

sprains and poisonous snake bites. A good source of vitamin C.

The leaves are used as an antidote to poisoning by the seeds of

Datura spp, arsenic and mercury. The leaf juice is applied to

insect bites, burns and skin eruptions. It has antibacterial activity

(Q-bank, 2013; Holm et al., 1991; Holm et al., 1979; PFAF,

2017).





Reported

O. corniculata allelopathy examined on seed germination and

seedling growth of rice and wheat. It is also examined in weed

control techniques (Kumar et al. 2012; Hussain & Oecologia,

1980; Jha, & Dhakal , 1990).

Crop Infested Wheat, rice, barley,

Major Documentation Q-bank, 2013; Holm et al., 1991; Holm et al., 1979; PFAF,

2013; Kumar et al. 2012; Hussain & Oecologia, 1980; Jha, &

Dhakal , 1990;



10. Cannabis sativa L.

Family Cannabaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Marijuana, Hemp

Habit Forb/herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Russia, China, India, Pakistan, Iran and cultivated elsewhere. A

very adaptable species from plains to 10000 ft., It plentifully grows

on roadside particularly in Northern areas of Pakistan.

Blooming Period April-September.


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Hemp has valuable fibres used for ropes and strings production.

From the resin of stem, leaves, flowers and even from the fruits a

strong tranquilizer is obtained, e.g. Ganja, charas and Bhang. The

seeds are rarely eaten. The seed oil is used as luminant and in

making of paints, varnishes and soap. Hemp may be used for

treatment of Cancer, Glaucoma, HIV/AIDS, Muscle spasms,

Seizures, Severe pain, Severe nausea, Cachexia or dramatic weight

loss and muscle atrophy (Singh & Thapar, 2003).


Commercial Value Hemp seed are soelling by many commercial seed suppliers. It is

used in fiber industry, medicinal and traditional beverages.

Narcotic smuggler is selling it as chars and ganja.



Reported

C. sativa plants was applied to study its allelopathic effect on the

morphological and biochemical parameters of Parthenium

hysterophorus. Maximum reduction was reported in biological

activities against P. hysterophorus by C. sativa dry leaf leachates

(Mahmoodzadeh, 2015; McCain & Noviello, 1985).

Cannabis sativa also studied for its allelopathic effect on Lactuca

sativa germination capability and seedling growth. Some plants

species are applied for biological control of C.Sativa.

Crop Infested Wheat, Maize, Rice

Major Documentation Singh & Thapar, 2003; Mahmoodzadeh, 2015; McCain &

Noviello, 1985;



11. Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist

Family Asteraceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

fleabane, hairy

horseweed

Habit Forb/herb

Life form Annual

Biennial

Habitat and Distribution This weed is widely distributed in crop fields, gardens, roadside

and waste places. First time C. bonariensis was reported from

Argentina and is possibly inherent to South America (Michael,

1977). Now widely distributed in most temperate region of

Asia, Africa, Europe and central America.

Blooming Period Whole year


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

limited uses of C. bonariensis is reported, in some parts of the

world it is cultivated as a medicinal plant for its possible

antimicrobial and antiviral effects (Lopez et al. 2001; USDA-

ARS, 2004; Ayaz et al., 2017). Fungicidal properties against

soil-borne phytopathogens are also reported (Arora et al., 2003,

Aiyelaagbe et al., 2016)

Part Used Leaves

Commercial Value Antibacterial and antifungal properties with its known chemical

composition make it a choice for pesticide industries.



Reported

The root growth of Conyza bonariensis significantly suppressed

by Berberine (Zhou et al., 2016). C. bonariensis allelopathic

potential is investigated against some plants e.g. Brassica

tournefortii (El-Gawad, 2014).

Crop Infested Perennial crops e.g. Apples, alfalfa

Major Documentation Michael, 1977; Lopez et al., 2001; USDA-ARS, 2004; Arora et

al., 2003; Aiyelaagbe et al., 2016; Ayaz et al., 2017; Zhou et al.,

2016; El-Gawad, 2014.



12. Trichodesma indicum (L.)

Family Boraginaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Indian borage

Habit Herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Roadsides and stony dry wastelands, at elevations up to

1,500meters.

The plant is found as a weed in many areas of the tropics and

subtropics in Indian Ocean - Mauritius; Asia - Afghanistan; E.

Asia - Pakistan, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar

Blooming Period Spring, Summer, Fall.


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

In herbal medicine jargon, it is thermogenic, emollient,

alexeteric, anodyne, anti-inflammatory, carminative,

constipating, diuretic, depurative, ophthalmic, febrifuge and

pectoral. This herb is also used in arthralgia, inflammations,

dyspepsia, diarrhoea, dysentery, strangury, skin diseases and

dysmenorrhea (Chopra et al., 1986; Prabukumar &

Uthayakumar, 2006).

Part Used Leaves, Flowers

Commercial Value Medicinal



Reported

Trichodesma indicum applied for weed control and weed

management experimentation (Nasir & Sultan, 2004).

Crop Infested Wheat, rice, Mustard

Major Documentation Chopra et al., 1986; Prabukumar & Uthayakumar, 2006; Nasir &

Sultan, 2004.



13. Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm.

Family Brassicaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Swine

Wartcress

Habit Herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Waste places, roadsides and cultivated fields. Perhaps a native

of S. America, but commonly introduced almost throughout the

world.

Blooming Period March-July

Local Occurrence: Common

Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Leaves are cooked as a vegetable. The plant is ascribed with

antiscorbutic, digestive, expectorant, febrifuge, stimulant and

tonic properties. The plant is valued in traditional medicine as a

treatment for cancer, gangrene, haemorrhoids, allergies and

wounds. A plant decoction and leaf bandage is used to treat

headache and fevers (Khaliq et al., 2013; Naseem et al., 2009).


Commercial Value Commercially important plant in some regions



Reported

Extracts of Coronopus didymus has allelopathic effect on wheat

germination and its early seedling growth. Also applied on weed

management assessment (Cheema et al., 1997; Douza et al.,

2004).

Crop Infested Sunflower, Wheat, potato, pea, carrot and onion crops

Major Documentation http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Lepidium+did

ymum

Khaliq et al., 2013; Naseem et al., 2009; Haider et al.2010;

Cheema et al., 1997; Douza et al., 2004; Prabhakar et al., 2006;

http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Lepidium+didymum

http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Lepidium+didymum



14. Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.

Family Asteraceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Canada thistle

Habit Erect herb

Life form Annual,

Biennial

Habitat and Distribution This weed is widely distributed in crop fields, gardens, roadside,

open disturbed area and pasture. Cirsium arvense is inherent

species of Europe; but now it has global distribution between 37

to 59 degrees’ North latitude.



Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

The root of this plant has diverse uses as medicine like tonic,

diuretic, astringent, antiphlogistic, anticancer and hepatic, raw

leaves are cooked (pfaf, 2017; Akhtar et al., 2001)





Reported

Several researchers reported allelopathic potential of C.

oleraceum against many plants (Akhtar et al., 2001 Ravlić et al.,

2013; Barabasz-Krasny et al., 2017).

Crop Infested It is found in both disturbed and no-tillage agricultural fields

used for producing most annual, winter annual, and perennial

agronomic and horticultural crops.

Major Documentation http://www.pfaf.org/user/plant.aspx?LatinName=Cirsium+arve

nse

Akhtar et al., 2001; Ravlić et al., 2013; Barabasz-Krasny et al.,

2017

http://www.pfaf.org/user/plant.aspx?LatinName=Cirsium+arvense

http://www.pfaf.org/user/plant.aspx?LatinName=Cirsium+arvense



15. Melilotus indica L.

Family Leguminosae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Yellow sweet

clover

Habit Herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Melilotus indica originated from the Mediterranean and south-

western Europe, and from India. It invaded almost Europe,

warm temperate North America (southern and Pacific USA),

Chile, Australia, Japan, southern Africa and Hawaiii, and is

now common in all continents.

Blooming Period April-October


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Production of Honey, erosion control, soil improver, fodder,

medicines.





Reported

M. indica examined along with other weeds and crops species

for its allelopathic activity. Literature indicates that it has

allelopathic potential (Brown & Brooks, 2002; Anaya et

al.1987.

Crop Infested Rice, wheat

Major Documentation UC SAREP, 2006; Wilken et al., 1998; Brown & Brooks, 2002;

Macías et al., 1997; Anaya et al.1987; El‐Khatib et al 2004;



16. Melilotus alba Desr.

Family Leguminosae

Aromaticity: Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

White sweet

clover

Habit Erect Herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Melilotus alba breeds in complete sun shine places or fractional

shadow, but cannot endure impenetrable shade. In soil which

have calcareous and loamy characteristics; M.alba loves to

grows there such as roadsides, abandoned fields etc. (Cole,

1990)

Blooming Period March-September


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

M.alba traditionally used as salad, cocked green and flavouring.

Also, used as forage for livestock. It plays a very important role

in production of honey and soil restoration. Methanolic extracts

of M. alba have best antitumor activities (Karakaş et al., 2012).

M. alba contain flavones, volatile oils, resins, and tannins

(Grigorescu et al., 1986).





Reported

Aqueous extracts of Croton inhibit seedling of M.alba (Sisodia

& Siddiqui 2010). White sweet clover also analyzed in

experimentation for weeds control treatment (Iqbal et al. 2010).

Crop Infested Wheat, Maiz, rice and barley

Major Documentation Cole, 1990; Karakaş et al., 2012; Grigorescu et al., 1986;

Sisodia and Siddiqui 2010; Iqbal et al., 2010



17. Oenothera rosea L'Hér. ex Aiton

Family Onagraceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Rose Evening

Primrose / Rose

of Mexico

Habit Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Originate from Mexico; which has route wild in various parts of

Pakistan, distributed throughout world in warmer regions. It

grows in sandy to clay, with streams or in low weedy areas,

l000-2000 m elev.

Blooming Period April-September


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Ornamental, Anti-inflammatory (Márquez et al., 2009)





Reported

Oenothera rosea analyzed for its sensitivity to temperature and

humidity. Its Phytosociology and allelopathic potential also

studied by different scientist (Malik et al., 2013).

Crop Infested Wheat, Rice

Major Documentation Márquez et al., 2009; Wenjun et al., 2012; Malik et al., 2013;

Guo et al. 2008;



18. Parthenium hysterophorus L.

Family Asteraceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Parthenium

weed, bitter

weed,

Habit Herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution From semi-arid, subtropical, tropical and warmer temperate

regions is recorded. It is observed as one of the nastiest weeds

invaded almost all continents including south Asian countries

Pakistan, India and Bangladesh and aggressively spreading.

Blooming Period Round the year


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Parthenium weed potential uses are reviewed, some are

mentioned here where it is used for herbal remedy, antitumor,

antiamoebic, weed control agent, insecticide, herbicide, manure,

fungicide nematicide etc. Additionally, it can be used as a foliar,

supplementation and oxalic acid production (Shabbir et al., 2012;

EPPO, 2014).


Commercial Value Parthenium hysterophorus has been using traditionally for

treating some diseases.



Reported

For reducing weed populations parthenium weed was examined

and applied in rice crop. The role of allelopathic compounds were

recorded parthenium weed (Parsons and Cuthebertson, 1992;

Hiremath and Ahn, 1997).

Crop Infested Wheat, Rice, maize , mung bean

Major Documentation Shabbir et al., 2012; EPPO, 2014; Parsons and Cuthebertson,

1992; Hiremath and Ahn, 1997; Sudhakar, 1984



19. Taraxacum officinale L.

Family Asteraceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Dandelion

Habit Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Distributed and widespread in different habitats, but have a habit

of to bloom best in anthropogenic areas such as pastures, paths,

waste ground, savannahs and road sides.

Blooming Period April - September


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc.)

Diuretic, tonic and slightly aperient. It is also used for treatment

of pile, gall stones and liver & kidney mixtures. Dandelion is

rarely used as vegetable and green salad. Dandelion wine is

prepared from its flower (Cavieres et al., 2008).

Part Used Leaves, Root, Flower

Commercial Value Used in traditional medication



Reported

Taraxacum officinale leaves and roots extracts applied on the

seeds germination and initial growth of L. westerwoldicum for

its allelopathic examination. The literature review shows that

Taraxacum officinale are used in different experimentation and

as a weed controlling plant (Jankowska et al., 2009; Mizutani et

al., 1989).

Crop Infested Rice

Major Documentation Blackshaw et al., 2001; Cavieres et al., 2008; Jankowska et al.,

2009; Mizutani et al., 1989;



20. Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause

Family Leguminosae

Aromaticity Not reported

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Not reported

Habit Herb

Life form Not reported

Habitat and Distribution . Not reported

Blooming Period Not reported

Local Occurrence Not reported

Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc.)

Not reported

Part Used Not reported




Reported

Not reported


Major Documentation http://www.tropicos.org/Name/13060432?projectid=32




21. Sonchus asper L. Hill ssp. asper

Family Asteraceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Spiny Milk-

thistle, Prickly

Sowthistle

Habit Herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Arable land, meadows, wasteland, roadsides and fields. S.asper

is distributed in Europe, Africa, N.W. and S. Asia

Blooming Period Feberuary-September


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc.)

The plant is powdered and applied as a dressing to wounds and

boils. It is used for skin ailments treatment of also reported

(Khan et al. 2010).

Part Used Young leaves and stem tops

Commercial Value In Pakistan for the treatment of different diseases

ethnopharmacologically Sonchus asper is used.



Reported

S. asper reported as best agent to inhibit microbes and have

phytotoxic activities. Acetone extract of Sonchus asper reported

allelopathic effect on hyphal growth of Moni liacinerea and on

seed germination and seedling growth of Festuca arundinacea,

Trifolium repens and Poa annua (Xu et al., 2011; Qin et al.,

2013).


Major Documentation Upadhyay et al., 2013; Khan et al. 2010; Khan et al., 2011; Xu

et al., 2011; Qin et al., 2013;



22. Rumex nepalensis Spreng

Family Polygonaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Nepal Dock

Habit Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution At higher altitudes R. nepalensis is very common. Found on

slopes at 900-4000 m, loves to grow in shades and humid

condition. Widely distributed in SW China, Himalaya, N.

Pakistan, SE Aafghanistan, N. Persia (rare), Turkey; scattered

isolated localities in Java, India, Syria, N. Africa, Europe: Italy

(Abruzzen), Balcan Peninsula (Pindus and Macedonia).

Blooming Period June-September


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc.)

Used as a vegetable. For the treatment of rheumatism, colic,

stomach-ache and abdominal pains instigated by intestinal

parasites (Manandhar, 2002).

Part Used Tender young leaves, shoots, roots

Commercial Value Pharmacological



Reported

Literature review shows that Rumex nepalensis examined in

experimentation work for allelopathy, weed management etc.

(Riaz & Javaid. 2011; Nourimand et al., 2011; Uludag et al.,

2006)

Crop Infested Wheat, Barley, Rice, Maiz, almost in all crops in Pakistan

Major Documentation Manandhar, 2002; Tripathi et al., 1981; Riaz & Javaid. 2011;

Nourimand et al., 2011; Uludag et al., 2006



23. Convolvulus arvensis L.

Family Convolvulaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Feld bindweed,

field morning-glory,

morning glory

Habit Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Except Australia. Convolvulus arvensis is distributed

throughout the world in the temperate and tropical regions

Blooming Period Throughout the year


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc.)

Leaves Tea used as a wash on spider bites while flower tea for

fever and heal wounds. Leaves and Root can use for laxative

problem (Mitich et al., 1990).

Part Used Leaves, flowers, root




Reported

Allelopathy of morning glory (Convolvulus arvensis L.) water

extracts reported on germination and seedling growth of maize,

wheat and rabi weeds. It is also examined as a cover crop (;

Cheema et al., 2002; Shahrokhi et al., 2011).

Crop Infested Wheat, Sugarcane, Maize,

Major Documentation Mitich et al., 1990; Baličević et al., 2014; Cheema et al., 2002;

Eskelsen & Crabtree, 1995; Shahrokhi et al., 2011



24. Solanum erianthum D Don.

Family Solanaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Potato tree

Habit Ever green Shrub,

Subshrub

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution It is native to southern United States. The species loves to grow

in well-drained soil and sunny areas. Solanum erianthum can be

found in roadsides, gardens, fields and in edges of fields and

forests. It is distributed in S. Asia, N. Australia and US.

Blooming Period Throughout the year


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Worldwide this plant used for a massive ethnobotanical and

pharmaceutical uses and used for the treatment of dysentery,

intestinal pain, poison antidote, mouth sore treatment (Wiart,

2006), toothache, leech-bites (Ignacimuthu et al., 2006), skin

sores (Mabberly, 2008), diuretic, anti-malarial, leprosy,

venereal diseases and to stimulate the liver functions (Modise

and Mogotsi, 2008), oral analgesic for stomach ache and as an

antimicrobial agent (Villa-Ruano et al., 2013).


Commercial Value Used in the pharmaceutical industry as steroid precursors to

produce anti-inflammatory corticosteroids, contraceptive

steroids, and anabolic steroids (Modise and Mogotsi, 2008)



Reported

Not Reported

Crop Infested Perennial crops

Major Documentation Wiart, 2006; Ignacimuthu et al., 2006; Modise and Mogotsi,

2008; Mabberly, 2008; Villa-Ruano et al., 2013



25. Vicia sativa L.

Family Leguminosae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name:

Common Vetch

Habit Forb/herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution V. sativa is a non-native weed grows easily in moist and sunny

places with loamy soil of hedgerow and cultivated beds. This

plant is distributed in all continents. V. sativa also widespread

all over Pakistan (Fazili & Khan, 1991).

Blooming Period June- August


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

The seed of common vetch are cooked for its nutritious

properties also used as foliage. The plant is used as anti-poison

(Shinwari & Khan, 2000; Ahmad & Husain, 2008)

Part Used Leaves, seed




Reported

Zohaib et al., 2014 reported the allelopathic potential of V.

sativa water extracts on germination and seedling growth of

pulses at various concentrations were reported by

Crop Infested Mustard, sunflower, barley, corn, Rice

Major Documentation Fazili & Khan, 1991, Shinwari & Khan, 2000; Ahmad &

Husain, 2008;



26. Lantana camara L.

Family Verbenaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

lantana, shrub

verbena

Habit Evergreen shrub

Life form Throughout the

year.

Habitat and Distribution Lantana camara is a native plant of tropical America,

extensively adopted in different tropical and subtropical regions

Blooming Period February-April


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Ornamental plant of gardens. Antimicrobial, fungicidal and

insecticidal properties are reported with the extracts of Lantana

leaves (Kumari et al., 2017; Sreeramulu et al., 2017; Rajan &

Varghese, 2017). Traditionally this plant is used for the

treatments of cancer, skin itches, leprosy, rabies, chicken pox,

measles, asthma and ulcers.

Part Used Leaves, Flower, Stem

Commercial Value Pharmaceutical importance



Reported

Many researchers reported the allelopathic potential of lantana

leaf extracts on different plants (Manohar et al., 2017; Ruwanza

& Shackleton, 2016). The leaves of this plant have great

potential of allelochemicals (Mishra et al., 2016).

Crop Infested Lantana reduce growth of crops by formation of dense thickets

Major Documentation Ruwanza & Shackleton , 2016; Kumari et al., 2017; Sreeramulu

et al., 2017; Rajan & Varghese, 2017; Manohar et al., 2017



27. Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd.

Family Asteraceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name:

Purple Fleabane,

Janglijiri, ironweed

Habit Herbs

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution: Commonly found in sandy soils grasslands, roadsides and

humid area of Afghanistan, India, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,

Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka; Africa (Flora of China)

Blooming Period November-Feberuary


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Anti-bacterial, anti-oxidentant and fungicidal properties of

Purple Fleabane are reported in previous studies (Santosh et al.,

2013; Ratnam et al., 2014; Gopalkrishna et al., 2016). The plant

is widely used as an anthelmintic and to control diabetes GIT

infections, halitosis, indigestion and pneumonia (Toyang &

Verpoorte, 2013).

Part Used Leaves, Flower

Commercial Value Pharmaceutical application



Reported

Not found


Major Documentation Toyang & Verpoorte, 2013; Santosh et al., 2013; Ratnam et al.,

2014; Gopalkrishna et al., 2016;



28. Achyranthes aspera Linn


Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Devil's horsewhip,

rough chaff flower

Habit Erect or ascending

herbs or shrubs;

0.8-4 m high

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Disturbed areas, road sides, gardens, crops, grasslands, savanna

and forest margins. This species is often found in Pakistan, the

moist or shaded areas near trees in savanna or pasture lands

where it grows in dense thickets.



Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

It is used to treat bleeding piles, digestive disorders, fever,

cough, dysentery, dropsy, insect bite, psoriasis, paralysis, spleen

enlargement, abdominal pains, wounds etc.

Part Used Leaves; Seed, Roots Whole Plant

Commercial Value Medicinal and commercial importance in different region of the

world.



Reported

Achyranthes aspera used in weed plants control techniques

(Dogra e.al 2012).

Crop Infested Rice, Wheat.

Major Documentation Khan et al.2006; Dogra e.al 2012



29. Cyperus iria L.

Family Cyperaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Java grass

Habit Herb

Life form Perennials

or

sometimes

annuals

Habitat and Distribution Cyperus rotundus is native to Africa. It is considered as one of

the world’s worst weeds. It grows in all types of soils and can

also survive high temperatures. C. rotundus can be found in

cultivated fields, waste areas, roadsides, pastures and natural

areas.

Blooming Period April -October


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Cyperus iria is an important medicine in India and China and

note its use by pharmaceutical companies to produce diuretics,

anthelminthics and treatments for coughs, bronchial asthma and

fever. It makes a poor fodder but has value in binding together

soil. However, its negative attributes as a weed far outweigh its

usefulness (CABI, 2017).





Reported

The weed leaf, stem and root extracts reduced the growth of the

rice seedlings and showed selective activity in the varieties. The

C. iria leaf and stem extracts showed comparatively higher

growth inhibitory effects than those from the root (Ismail, et al.,

2011)


Major Documentation CABI, 2017; Quayyum et al., 2000; Alsaadawi & Salih, 2009



30. Solanum nigrum L.,

Family Solanaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name:

Black nightshade

Habit Annual or

sometimes biennial

herb, 0.2-1.0 m

tall, reproducing

only by seed

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution S. nigrum complex are largely confined to disturbed situations

such as cultivated land, roadsides, wasteland, uncompetitive

pastures, and exposed river beds and banks. Cosmopolitan,

absent from the Arctic and subarctic regions of the both

hemisphere.

Blooming Period Annual or around the year


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Genotypes of the S. nigrum complex with large fruits are

sometimes cultivated, the fruit being used in pies, and young

shoots are also sometimes eaten as pot herbs. The taxon is very

variable, and edible cultivars could undoubtedly be selected and

improved by standard plant breeding methods (Edmonds and

Chweya, 1997; Mabberley, 1997).

Part Used Leaves; fruit,


world because used as curing differed ailments.



Reported

Allelopathic effects of weeds extracts against seed germination

of different plants (Shen et. al., 2005; Jainu and Devi 2006).

Crop Infested Rice, wheat, cucumber,

Major Documentation Edmonds and Chweya, 1997; Mabberley, 1997; Kadioglu et al.

2005; Shen et. al., 2005; Jainu and Devi 2006; Jain et. al., 2011;

Marinov-Serafimov, P. (2015).



31. Urtica dioica Linn.

Family Urticaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Nettle or stinging

nettle

Habit Herbaceous

perennial

flowering plant

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Wasteland, hedgerows, fields and woods. Nettles do particularly

well in soils with high levels of nitrogen and are often found

growing around abandoned buildings. Widespread in the

temperate regions of both hemispheres of Pakistan.

Blooming Period Annual or around the year

Local Occurrence Commonly found in temperate region of Pakistan.

Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

In vitro immunomodulatory activity of flavonoid glycosides by

using from Urtica dioica L. Use of Urtica dioica and Nigella

sativa in the prevention of carbon tetrachloride‐induced

hepatotoxicity in rats (Akbay et al, 2003).

Part Used Leaves


world because used as curing differed ailments.



Reported

Assessed for phytotoxic and allopathic potential (Amini et al.

2014; Khan et al.2014).


Major Documentation Akbay et al, 2003; Türkdoğan et al. 2003; Amini et al. 2014;

Khan et al.2014



32 Malva parviflora L.

Family Malvaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Small-flowered

mallow, little

mallow,

marshmallow

Habit Erect,

sprawling or

decumbent

herb growing

up to 50cm

high

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Mostly found in all soil types and common in waste land and

found in sheep yards, watercourses, closed yards and roadsides.

Premiarily occurred in southern Australia and locally found in

Pakistan.

Blooming Period Through out the year

Local Occurrence Endemic to Pakistan

Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

It has anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory activity (Shale et al.,

1999).

Part Used Leaves, Seeds.

Commercial Value Oil and seed are been used for commercial purposes.



Reported

Reported as strong allelopathic; have effect on photosynthesis

and growth of cultivated plants such as barley (El-Khatib. 2000;

Al-Johani et al., 2012).

Crop Infested Wheat, Barley

Major Documentation Shale et al., 1999; Shale et al., 2012; El-Khatib. 2000; Al-Johani

et al., 2012;



33 Euphorbia helioscopia L.

Family Euphorbiaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Cat's milk,

madwoman's

milk,

Habit Herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution It might found in Gardens, vegetable patches, fields, soil heaps,

waste ground and More or less throughout Europe, N. Africa

and Asia; introduced into N. America. Common or abundant in

sandy fields or on wet sandy clay by irrigation canals; also on

rocky slopes

Blooming Period July–September


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

The plant is used as hydrogogue, cathartic, and milky juice is

applied to eruptions. Seeds are given with roasted pepper for the

treatment of cholera.

Part Used Leaves stem, roots and seeds

Commercial Value Commercially important in world.



Reported

Aqueous and biochemical extracts of E. helioscopia has

allelopathic effect on seedling and germination of wheat,

chickpea and lentil (Tanveer et al., 2012; Tanveer et al., 2010).

Crop Infested Wheat, Chickpea, and lantil

Major Documentation Tanveer et al., 2012; Tanveer et al., 2010;



34. Centaurea iberica Spreng.

Family Asteraceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Iberian knapweed;

Iberian starthistle

Habit Forb/herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution C. iberica distributed worldwide in cultivated land, disturbed

areas, roadsides, grassland and moist places.

Blooming Period June-September.


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Traditionally this plant is used for pain relief, arthritis

inflammation, fever, headache, and wounds healing. Globally

the researchers analyzed C. iberica for anti-inflammatory and

healing properties (Koca et al., 2009), antidiabetic (Hussain et

al., 2004) and hypoglycaemic activity (Abdel-Jalil, 2002).

Senatore et al. (2005) analyzed chemical compounds of C.

iberica and isolated 91 volatile components.

Part Used Arial parts

Commercial Value Steroidal component make valuable for pharmaceutical uses



Reported

Not reported

Crop Infested Mustard, Wheat, Barley, Pulses

Major Documentation Abdel-Jalil, 2002; Hussain et al., 2004; Senatore et al. 2005;

Koca et al., 2009



35. Oxalis corymbosa DC.

Family Oxalidaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Pink woodsorrel

Habit Lilac oxalis is a

perennial plant

growing about

15cm tall.

Life form Perennials

Habitat and Distribution Moist, shady places at elevations of 45 - 1,200 metres. A native

of South America. Naturalised in West Europe, South America

and Subtropical countries.



Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Not reported yet.

Part Used Flowers, leaves and Roots.

Commercial Value



Reported

Allelopathy of Oxalis Corymbosa assessed on several plants and

result shows that it has inhibitory effects on seedling and

germination (Yu et al. 2007; Yuping & Yanyan 2011).

Crop Infested

Major Documentation Yu et al. 2007; Yuping & Yanyan 2011;



36 Solanum Xanthocarpum Schrad. & J.C. Wendl.

Family Solanaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Wild eggplant

/Kantakari / Indian

Solanum

Habit Herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution The plant is native to Asia and found in Nepal, Pakistan, Bhutan,

Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, China, Iran, Yemen, Thailand,

Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia

Blooming Period Mostly throughout the year.


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Used as food. It is also used as antioxidant, anticancer, anti-

asthmatic and anti HIV perspective.

Part Used Fruits, Whole plant

Commercial Value Has commercial values locally and globally.



Reported

Allelopathically analyzed its effects on germination and

inhibition towards crops (Serafimov, 2015; Shen et al., 2005).

Crop Infested Wheat, cucumber and radish seedling, grain legume crop

Major Documentation Serafimov, 2015; Shen et al., 2005;



37 Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton

Family Brassicaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Watercress

Habit Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution N. officinale introduced from Europe and America and now

commonly found in Europe and Temperate Asia. This plants

grows at watercourse sides, dykes, flushes etc with moving

water, usually in chalk or limestone areas.

Blooming Period April-July


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Heat and thermosonication treatments on peroxidase inactivation

kinetics in watercress. N. officinale use traditionally as a

cardioprotective agent in Iran and now its potential is proved by

scientific investigation (Bahramikia and Yazdanparast 2008).

Part Used Leaves, seed

Commercial Value



Reported

Allelopathic effects reported. N. officinale defended against

herbivory through releasing allelochemicals by glucosinolate—

myrosinase system (Newman et al., 1996).

Crop Infested Wheat

Major Documentation Ziwen et al., 1992; Cruz et al., 2006; Bahramikia, &

Yazdanparast, 2008; Newman et al., 1996



38 Ipomoea cornea. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy)

Family Convolvulace

ae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Bush morning

glory, morning

glory tree

Habit Shrubs up to

2.5 m high,

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Originally from the America tropics, now cultivated or

naturalized in most subtropical or tropical countries of the

world.

Blooming Period July-November, perhaps longer.


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Anti-cancer, Antimicrobial activity and molecular

characterization





Reported

Influence of some plant extracts and microbioagents on some

physiological traits (Pashi and Tayung 2013; Mhmoud et al.,

2004).

Crop Infested Faba beans

Major Documentation Khatiwora et al., 2010; Pashi and Tayung 2013; Mhmoud et al.,

2004



39 Xanthium strumarium L.

Family Asteraceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Cocklebur, Rough

cocklebur,

Canada cocklebur

Habit Herbs,

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution River banks, lake shores, cultivated ground and pastures.

Blooming Period July-August


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Bioactivity-guided fractionation for anti-inflammatory and

analgesic properties, potential for anti-cancer agent.

Part Used Leaves, Seeds




Reported

Xanthium strumarium have significant effects on soffe beens and

some medicinal plants (Gilani et al., 2010; Peneva 2007)

Crop Infested Lentil, Coffee

Major Documentation Han et al., 2007; Erosa et al., 2007; Gilani et al., 2010; Peneva

2007



40 Aloe vera L.

Family Asphodelaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Ghikwar

Habit Succulent

herbs. Stem

short,

producing

suckers at the

base.

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Cultivated in the Mediterranean region for a very long time;

place of origin uncertain; widely naturalized in Portugal,

Turkey, China (S. Yunnan), Pakistan, India and Nepal, West

Indies and Central America

Blooming Period January-April


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Used for food purposes, vastly used in cosmetic industries. Anti-

microbial properties make more important.

Part Used Stem, Whole plant




Reported

Effect of Chinese traditional medicinal plants on the biological

activity of a red-tide causing alga (Zhou et al., 2007).


Major Documentation Eshnu and He, 2004; Habeeb et al., 2007; Zhou et al., 2007



41 Carthamus oxyacantha M.Bieb.

Family Asteraceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Wild Safflower,

Jeweled distaff

thistle

Habit Spiny-leaved

herb, growing

up to 1.5 m tall

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Dry, open areas, plains, mountains. Nearly always on disturbed

or waste ground.

Blooming Period April-July


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Nutritional uses and medicinaly it is used for the treatment of

diuretic and to cure biliousness.

Part Used Seed

Commercial Value Not found



Reported

Carthamus oxyacantha allelpathic effects on chickpea crop are

reported by Khan et al., (2014).

Crop Infested Wheat, chickpea, winter crops

Major Documentation Bukhsh et al., 2007; Khan et al., 2014; Khan et al., 2011



42 Coriandrum sativum L.

Family Umbelliferae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Coriander

Habit Herbaceous

Plants 15-60

cm tall,

branched.

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Coriandrum sativum native of Italy and it is cultivated in

diverse area. In hilly and plains area Coriander plant is very

commonly cultivated. Uncertainly Coriander is also

distributed in wild fields.

Blooming Period Early spring-early summer.


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

As a domestic remedy Coriander is a usually used for i

digestive problems, treating flatulence, diarrhoea and colic

(E Launert – 1981; S Javadi et al. 2008). It helps to reduce

the gut spasm and nervous tension effects (A Chevallier,

1996). The seed is aromatic, carminative, expectorant,

narcotic, stimulant and stomachic (A Grieve – 1984; E

Launert – 1981; EA Omer et al. 2016; IM Talaat, et al. 2014;

GA Stuart Rev, 1998; D Bown – 1995). Some attentiveness

is recommended, though, because the seeds become

narcotic; if it is used too freely (A Grieve – 1984). For

rheumatic pain treatment its seeds can be applied externally

and also used as lotion (A Chevallier, 1996; M Stuart –

1979). The other uses of Coriander include Fuel; Insecticide;

Depurative Oil; Expectorant. Antidiarrhoeal; Antihalitosis;

Appetizer; Aromatherapy; Aromatic and Fungicide

(pfaf.org- 2017).

Part Used Leaves, Seeds






Reported

Hoary cress germination reduced from 13.8 to 27% by

coriander and lovage (Raylic et al., 2013). M Akmal et al

2011 reported in their article that seedlings of Trigonella and

coriander inhibit the growth of spinach. Zea mays radicle

length IS suppressed and Plumule length is reduced

C.sativum during medicinal plants allelopathic evaluation

(AA Baeshen, 2014). At high densities lettuce seed

germination is inhibited by all examined species including

C.sativum of family Apiaceae (Steven Lamoureux and Ross

Koning 1998). y. Growth of some weeds species are

inhibited by aromatic and medicinal plants for example

caraway, coriander and fennel (R Baličević, et al. 2015,

Đikić a,b, 2005).

Crop Infested Maze, beans or a leguminous

Major Documentation Saeed and Tariq 2007; Raylic et al., 2013; Neffati and

Marzouok 2008



43. Cyperus rotundus L.

Family Cyperaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Coco grass; java

grass

Habit Herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution C. rotundus is widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics

regions, loves to grow in all soil type, altitude, humidity, soil

moisture and pH, but not in high salt content soils. C. rotundus

is known as one of the world’s worst weeds. More than in 90

countries it has been reported as a noxious weed of cultivated

fields which infesting at least 52 different crops worldwide

(Holm et al., 1977).

Blooming Period April -October


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

C. rotundus is an important medicinal plant used for the

treatment of several diseases and problems like diuretics,

anthelminthics and bronchial asthma in India and China (cabi

2017). It is also used as fodder for animals


Commercial Value Pharmaceutical companies used for medicine production



Reported

Alsaadawi & Salih (2009) reported C. rotundus as toxic and

strong allelopathic plant which inhibited the seedling growth of

tomato, cucumber, sorghum, soybean, cowpea and mungbean.

Crop Infested Almost all crops

Major Documentation Alsaadawi & Salih, 2009;

http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/17506




44 Saussurea heteromalla (D.Don) Hand.-Mazz.

Family Asteraceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Murang, Kaliziri,

Batula

Habit Kaliziri is a

perennial herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Commonly found in Western Himalayas, at altitudes of 550-

4000m.

Blooming Period March-August


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Leaf paste with mustard oil is rubbed on leucoderma and wounds.

Root extract is taken for fever and colic. The seeds are

carminative and used for horse-bites (Flower of India)

Part Used Leaves




Reported

Not reported

Crop Infested Wheat,

Major Documentation Flower of India



45. Lythrum salicaria Linn.

Family Lythraceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Purple loosestrife

Habit Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Lythrum salicaria is native of old world. It has very flexible

adoption to inhabit in many habitats and ecological range

worldwide but is a common species of humid places.

Blooming Period July-September


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

It is well known ornamental plant of gardens. As a medicinal

plant, it is widely used in Asia for treatment of diarrhoea,

chronic intestinal catarrh, haemorrhoids, eczema, varicose veins

and bleeding of the gum (Tunalier et al., 2007; Piwowarski et

al., 2015).


Commercial Value Medicinal and ornamental purposes



Reported

Loydi et al., (2015) reported that grass litter leachate has

allelopathic effect on L. salicaria and reduced its germination.

L. salicaria have phenolic composition which may have

allelopathic potential towards other plants.

Crop Infested Not found

Major Documentation Tunalier et al., 2007; Piwowarski et al., 2015; Loydi et al.,

2015; CABI, 2017



46 Peganum harmala L.

Family Nitrariaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Syrian rue,

African rue

Habit Glabrous herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution India, Tibet, Pakistan westwards to North Africa, Europe and

Russia.



Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Seed powder is used in asthma, colic and jaundice and as an

anthelmintic against tapeworms and for reducing temperature in

chronic malaria. Seeds are regarded as narcotic, hypotonic,

antispasmodic, antiperiodic, emetic, alterative, lactagogue,

antitumor and antinociceptive (Lamchouri et al., 1998; Monsef

et al., 2004).

Part Used Seeds

Commercial Value Have commercial values locally and regionally.



Reported

Extracts from the parts (leaf, stem and root) of P. harmala have

allelopathic potential towards Avena fatua L. and Convolvulus

arvensis L so it can be used as natural herbicide. More phenolic

acids are presents in leaves other than stems and roots of

P.harmala (Sodaeizadeh et al. 2009) while highest levels of

alkaloids identified in seeds and roots other than stems and leaves

(Herraiz et al. 2010). Seven phenolic acids were extracted from

leaf extracts of P. harmala (Sodaeizadeh et al. 2009). Growth of

dicot plants lettuce and amaranth significantly inhibited by the

alkaloids of Peganum harmala L. than the tested wheat and

ryegrass which are monocot plants (Shao et al., 20.13).

Crop Infested Mono cot and dicot crops

Major Documentation Sodaeizadeh et al., 2009; Sodaeizadeh et al., 2010; Shao et al.,

2013, Herraiz et al. 2010, Lamchouri et al. 1998;



47. Saxifraga rotundifolia L.

Family Saxifragaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Round-leaved

saxifrage

Habit Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Widely distributed in humid cliffs, stony soils and shady places

at 2,300–7,200 ft. above sea level.

Blooming Period April-August


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Not Reported

Part Used Not Reported

Commercial Value Not Reported



Reported

Not Reported

Crop Infested Not Reported

Major Documentation http://wiki.medicinalplants-

uses.com/index.php?title=Saxifraga_rotundifolia#Habitat

http://wiki.medicinalplants-uses.com/index.php?title=Saxifraga_rotundifolia#Habitat

http://wiki.medicinalplants-uses.com/index.php?title=Saxifraga_rotundifolia#Habitat



48. Commelina benghalensis Linn

Family Commelinaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Benghal dayflower,

Wandering jew

Habit Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution C. benghalensis described from Bengal. It grows in moist and

shady area. This plant is widely distributed in Tropics and

subtropics of Asia and Africa and extending to Japan, Philippine

and Australia. It is also reported in America.

Blooming Period June-September.


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

It is used as animal fodder and sometimes as vegetable. Also, it

is used for the treatment of skin inflammations, sore throats and

leprosy (flora of Pakistan).


Commercial Value Pharmacological uses



Reported

Researcher reported its allelopathic potential towards other

plants and crops e.g. Sorghum vulgare, Zea mays, Vigna radiate

and Brassica napus (Yang et al., 2011; Baratelli et al., 2012).

Crop Infested Corn, Rice

Major Documentation Yang et al., 2011; Baratelli et al., 2012:



49. Cuscuta californica Hook. & Arn.

Family Convolvulaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

California

Dodder

Chaparral

dodder,

Habit annual herb or

vine (parasitic)

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Found in grassland and plant communities, and can be found in

weedy, partially developed areas.

Blooming Period Febeuary-August


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

For the treatment of UTI, spleen and hepatic problems dodder is

used. Analgesic activity of this plant is also reported.


Commercial Value Pharmacological, traditional medication



Reported

For weed management assessment dodder is applied as it has

potential due its Phytotoxic Constituents to suppress other

weeds species. Extraction of some weeds are applied to suppress

dodder in fields (Mahmoodzadeh, 2010; Khanh et al., 2008;

Seyyedi, et al., 2013).

Crop Infested Sun flower, wheat, alfalfa,

Major Documentation Kaiser et al., 2015; Ghule et al., 2011; Mahmoodzadeh, 2010;

Khanh et al., 2008; Seyyedi, et al., 2013;



50. Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk.

Family Leguminosae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Trefoil

Rattlepod

Habit Divaricately

branched

herbs,

Life form Annual/peren

nial

Habitat and Distribution Commonly distributed in seashore sandy places, lush and grassy

land, along tracks; below 100-2800 m. widespread in South

Asia, Himalaya regions to Australia (Flora of China 2016).

Blooming Period January-March and August-December


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc.)

C.medicaginea contains exceptional nutriments because it has

starch, protein dietetic fiber, oligosaccharides, phyto-chemicals

and minerals. They are often nominated for diseases resistance

because of its food richness quality (Kathirvel and Kumudha,

2012). It is used as fodder for cattles. C. medicaginea is used

traditionally for treatment of white discharge by Chhattisgarh

peoples (Tirkey, 2006). Its seeds contain polysaccharide

composed of d-galactose and d- mannose (Gupta and Bemiller,

1990).


Commercial Value Somewhere used in traditional medication



Reported

C. medicaginea leaf leachates did not affect the seedling growth

when its exudates were applied on Zea mays, mungo Glycine

max and Eleusine coracana (Bhatt, et al. 1994). P. juliflora and

P. cineraria exudates inhibited the C. medicaginea seedling

growth and germination (Goel and Nathawat 1990).

Crop Infested Wheat, maize

Major Documentation Kathirvel and Kumudha, 2012; Tirkey, 2006; Gupta &

Bemiller, 1990; Goel and Nathawat 1990; Bhatt, et al. 1994



51. Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC.

Family Papilionaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Snout-bean,

burn-mouth-

vine, and

jumby-bean.

Habit Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Rhynchosia minima is an almost cosmopolitan plant on the

heavier textured soils of the tropics and subtropics. It is widely

distributed in Asia, Africa, Australia and America.

Blooming Period January-March


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

R. minima have wide range of medicinal uses for the treatment

of anthelmintic, wounds healing, helminthic infections,

abortifacient, asthma and piles. It has the potential to be

developed as natural antioxidants and anticancer ingredients for

the food and pharmaceutical industries (Haider & Zhong, 2014;

Jia et al., 2015).


Commercial Value Food and pharmaceutical industries



Reported

Not reported

Crop Infested Cotton,

Major Documentation Haider & Zhong, 2014; Jia et al., 2015;

http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/data/pf000060.htm

http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/data/pf000060.htm



52. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit.

Family Asteraceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Virgate wormwood

Habit Woody herb

Life form Biennial or

perennial

Habitat and Distribution A. scoparia is commonly found in sandy-clay soils, field

borders and roadsides from 400 msl to 2200 msl after rainfall in

the late summer months. This plant is widely distributed C & E

Europe, Iraq, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan (Balochistan,

N. W. F. P., and Punjab), N. W. India, China, Mongolia, Russia

(Flora of Pakistan).

Blooming Period July-November


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

A. scoparia is used for diverse medicinal purposes as

Antibacterial (Moghaddam & Sani, 2015), Anticholesterolemic

(Sajid et al. 2016), Antipyretic (Habib & Waheed, 2013),

Antiseptic, Cholagogue, Diuretic and Vasodilator (Yu et al.,

2016).

Part Used Leaves, flowers

Commercial Value Pharmaceutical industries



Reported

Volatile oil from Artemisia scoparia suppressed radical

elongation and seedling growth in Cyperus rotundus and

Phalaris minor (Grichi et al., 2016)

Crop Infested Not found

Major Documentation Habib & Waheed, 2013; Moghaddam & Sani, 2015; Sajid et al.

2016; Grichi et al., 2016



53. Pteris cretica L.

Family Pteridaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Pteris cretica,

Habit Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Slow-growing evergreen Pteris cretica (fern) is native to old

world (Europe, Asia and Africa). It is found at humid places, old

buildings and rock faces and widely distributed in tropical and

subtropical regions of the world.

Blooming Period Non-flowering (Missouri botanical garden)


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Grown as ornamental garden plant. Decoction is prepared to

promote diuresis and cure cystitis. The fronds of Pteris cretica

are used and results as antibacterial in pest form on wounds are

made into a paste and applied in wounds (Liu et al., 2009;

Benniamin, 2011).

Part Used Leaves




Reported

Not reported


Major Documentation Liu et al., 2009; Benniamin, 2011;



54. Digera muricata (L.) Mart.


Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common Name False Amaranth

Habit Herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Common in southern Asia from tropical Arabia and the Yemen

to Afghanistan, India, Ceylon, Malaysia and Indonesia. Also in

S., C. and E. tropical Africa and Madagascar. All over the place

as a weed of agronomy, disturbed and waste places, and exist

abundantly as such in Pakistan up to 1500 m.

Blooming Period August-September


Local Medicinal and other

Uses of the weed

(Edible/ Medicinal/ Forage

etc.)

A Boundless Multipurpose Medicinal Plant. Used for digestive

and urinary disorder. It has Antioxidant and Antibacterial

properties. Rarely used as vegetable (Wang et al., 2013).

Part Used Flowers and leaves

Commercial Value Pharmacological use



Reported

Digera muricata examined for Phytochemical and Antimicrobial

Activity. It is also examined antioxidant and fertility effects on

rats (Sharma & Vijayvergia 2013; Mathad & Mety, 2010).

Literature review shows that D. muricata have strong allelopathic

characteristics (Khan, et al., 2011; Bindu & Jain, 2011; Aziz &

Shaukat, 2014)

Crop Infested Maiz,

Major Documentation Sharma et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2013; Sharma & Vijayvergia

2013; Mathad & Mety, 2010; Khan, et al., 2011; Bindu & Jain,

2011; Aziz & Shaukat, 2014



55. Adiantum capillus-veneris L.

Family Pteridaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Southern

maidenhair fern

Habit Forb/Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Evergreen A. capillus-veneris is consider native to southern half

of the US, Eurasia and Australia. It prefers damp places year-

round. It is widely distributed in warm temperate to tropical

regions (pfaf.org).

Blooming Period Non-flowering (pfaf.org)


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

It is used for assembling refreshing summer drink, tea. Medicinal

uses include antidandruff, antitussive, depurative, expectorant,

tonic and vermifuge (pfaf.org). A. capillus–veneris also reported

as potent antimicrobial against E. coli (Singh et al., 2008) and

fungicidal against fungal strains (Ishaq et al., 2014).

Part Used Leaves




Reported

Not reported


Major Documentation http://pfaf.org/User/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Adiantum+capillus-

veneris (retrieved at August 3, 2017); Singh et al., 2008; Ishaq et

al., 2014



56. Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Benth.

Family Lamiaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common Name Lemon Savory,

Lemon Scented

Thyme

Habit Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution A frequent plant growing in a wide variety of habitats, from the

plains up to c. 2400 m. Distributed in E. Afghanistan, Pakistan,

Kashmir, NW India, Himalayas to Bhutan and China.

Blooming Period Round the year



Uses of the weed


etc.)

Medicinally used for Antiseptic, antifungal, antibacterial

Odontalgic and Vulnerary (Zeb et al., 2015; Shaheen et al.,

2015).


Commercial Value Pharmacological use



Reported

Reported for medicinal assessment and weeds flora of different

areas.

Crop Infested Wheat, Maiz, Sugarcane

Major Documentation Zeb et al., 2015; Shaheen et al., 2015; Kumar et al. 2012;



57. Argyrolobium roseum (Camb.) Jaub & Spach

Family Leguminosae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name:

Sumbal, Kashmal

Habit A medium sized

shrub or Herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution A. roseum found in tropical and sub-temperate tracts of the north-

western Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent (Ahmed et al.,

2008)

Blooming Period April-June


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

It is used for the treatment of several problems like inflammation of

liver, stomach and bladder and skin diseases. Methanolic extracts of A.

roseum protected the liver function from the hepatotoxic effect of

paracetamol (; Hussain et al. 2014). Ahmed et al., (2008) reported the

presence of natural antidiabetic and insulin secreting product(s) in A.

roseum.





Reported

Not reported


Major Documentation https://www.medicinalplantsarchive.us/medicinal-uses/argyrolobium-

roseum-camb-jaub-spach.html; Ahmed et al., 2008; Hussain et al. 2014;



58. Nerium oleander L.

Family Apocynaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Oleander, Rose

Bay

Habit Evergreen

shrub

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution From the Mediterranean to Persia, China and Japan, commonly

found in rock-strewn watercourse beds, ascending to 5,000 ft.,

also distributed throughout Pakistan.



Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc.)

Oleander is toxic but it is broadly used in medicine for Cancer,

Cardiac, Diaphoretic, diabetes, Emetic; Expectorant,

Parasiticide, Resolvent, Skin and Sternutatory. Other usage

included dye, Hedge, Hedge, Insecticide, Latex, Parasiticidea

and Soil stabilization (Uygur & İskenderoğlu, 1997. Anjum et

al., 2010).


Commercial Value Pharmacological, insecticidal



Reported

Due to its insecticidal characteristic it is widely assessed to

control weeds and insects. Its allelopathic effect are also

reported (Pathak et al., 2000, Roni et al., 2013).


Major Documentation Uygur & İskenderoğlu, 1997. Anjum et al., 2010;

Rajyalakshmi et al., 2011; Pathak et al., 2000, Roni et al.,

2013;



59. Cissampelos pareira L.

Family Menispermacea

e

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Abuta, barbasco,

velvetleaf

Habit Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Plant distributed in shaded, frost free posters and in moist

environments. The plant is very common in hedges at the

foothills and up to c. 2300 m. Common plant of India and

Pakistan.

Blooming Period March-October



Uses of the weed


etc.)

It has many medicinal applications in stops bleeding,

balances menstruation, relieves pain, reduces spasms,

relaxes muscles, stops inflammation, increases urination,

prevents ulcers and reduces fever (Ganguly et al., 2007;

Wu et al., 2008).


Commercial Value Used in homeopathic industry.



Reported

Reported for medicinal evaluation and extraction, weeds

effecting crops in India and impacts of invasive plants on

vegetation (Singh et al., 2013; Murty & Venkaiah,

2011).

Crop Infested Wheat, Maiz, Sugarcane, rice

Major Documentation Ganguly et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2013;

Murty & Venkaiah, 2011;



60. Salvia aegyptiaca L.

Family Lamiac

eae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Egypti

an sage

Habit Herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Islands, NW and N. Africa, Sudan, Ethiopia, Arabian peninsula,

Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India. It found up to 800m. In the

world, S. aegyptiaca extended from the Canaries to Asia, through

northern Africa and the Middle East.

Blooming Period March-May.


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

It is commonly used in local folk medical practices and in

cosmetics. For example, the seeds are used as a demulcent for

diarrhoea and for piles (Ghazanfar, 1999). The whole plant is used

in diarrhoea, gonorrhoea and haemorrhoids, eye diseases, and as

an antiseptic, antispasmodic and stomachic (Rizk and El-Ghazaly,

1995). It is also used in cases of nervous disorders, dizziness and

trembling (Hussein, 1985).


Commercial Value Sold commercially as folk medical practices.



Reported

Not reported

Crop Infested Wheat, Maize, Rice, cultivated beds.

Major Documentation http://plants.jstor.org/compilation/Salvia.aegyptiaca;

http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=5&taxon_id=25

0090589;

Rizk, & El-Ghazaly, 1995; Al-Yousuf et al., 2002; Gorai et al

2011; Janošević et al., 2016;



61. Typha minima Funck ex Hoppe

Family Typhaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Bulrush

Habit Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Typha minima is glabrous and light-loving plant, native to

marshes and wetlands in Europe and Asia.

Blooming Period June-August


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

http://pfaf.org reported some important medicinal uses of

this plant are anticoagulant, diuretic, mmenagogue and

haemostatic.





Reported

Not reported


Major Documentation www.missouribotanicalgarden.org;

http://pfaf.org/User/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Typha+mini

ma



62. Anisomeles indica (L.)

Family Lamiaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Catmint

Habit Woody

herbs

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Anisomeles indica loves to grow in sunshine open places,

teak forests, grasslands and cultivated fields on wet soils.

A widespread species which, in the Himalayan part of its

wide range, reaches its western limit in Pakistan.

Blooming Period April-September


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

For traditional medication, Anisomeles indica is used as

powerful astringent, rheumatism, arthritis, carminative,

skin problems, febrifuge and tonic. The antimicrobial

activities of A. indica against many bacterial and fungal

species are also reported (Kundu et al., 2013; Kavitha et

al., 2017).





Reported

Not reported

Crop Infested Rice,

Major Documentation https://florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.sg; Useful tropical

plants; Kundu et al., 2013; Kavitha et al., 2017

https://florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.sg/



63. Otostegia limbata (Benth.) Boiss.

Family Lamiaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Koi booi, Spina

ghazai, Chotta

kanda

Habit Shrub

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Endemic to Kashmir (Pakistan). It seems to be widespread

in Pakistan. Habitually found in waste, field and dry

Blooming Period April-June


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc.)

Otostegia limbata have antibacterial properties and used for

mouth sores, throat pains and wounds healing. Used as

fodder (Kausar, et al., 2016; Khan et al., 2009).


Commercial Value For production of Saponin, pectin, and resin

(Phytochemicals)



Reported

Otostegia limbata assessed in ethnobotanical studies,

vegetation mapping, antibacterial assessment and vegetation

description studies etc. (Malik & Malik, 2004; Amjad &

Arshad, 2014; Ali et al., 2015).


Major Documentation Kausar, et al., 2016; Khan et al., 2009; Malik & Malik, 2004;

Amjad &Arshad, 2014; Ali et al., 2015



64. Plantago lanceolata L.

Family Plantaginaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Ribwort Plantain,

Habit Forb/herb

Life form Annual, Biennial,

Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Plantago lanceolata is native to Europe and Central Asia. Now it’s

become cosmopolitan plant and naturalized in tropical area of all

continents. This plant breeds in disturbed areas, roadsides and

grasslands with neutral and basic soils.

Blooming Period April-August


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Ribwort Plantain have plentiful medicinal application but the most

significantly used as antibacterial, astringent, expectorant and

haemostatic (Samuelsen, 2000; Kültür, 2007).





Reported

Not reported

Crop Infested Cotton, corn, mango, citrus

Major Documentation http://www.pfaf.org; Samuelsen, 2000; Kültür, 2007

http://www.pfaf.org/



65. Commelina benghalensis Linn.

Family Commelinaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/Common

Name

Dayflowers

Habit Herb

Life form Annual,

Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Commelina is the largest genus of family Commelinaceae

included 170 species. Widely distributed in tropical and

sub-tropical area. Growing as weed in woodland garden

sunny edge, dappled shade, and cultivated beds.

Blooming Period Different species of the genus have different blooming

period.


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Commelina sp. are world widely used for the treatments of

several complications including cosmetic, cardiovascular,

hypertension, dermatological, digestive, diarrhea and

tumor (Foster et al 2000; Bista, 1997).





Reported

The root exudates from C. benghalensis had different

allelopathic effects on on four crops-Sorghum vulgare,

Zea mays, Vigna radiate and Brassica napus (Yang et al.,

2011).

Crop Infested Maize, wheat, barley

Major Documentation Shah, & Khan 2006; Foster et al 2000; Bista, 1997



66. Potamogeton lucens Linn.

Family Potamogetonaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Shining Pondweed

Habit Herb

Life form Annual, Perennial

Habitat and Distribution In many aquatic ecosystems, Potamogeton species are

distributed worldwide. However, the highest range of

species existed in the northern hemisphere, particularly in

North America which is considered as its native land.

Blooming Period July-August


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Potamogeton sp. are world widely used for medicinal,

edible and forage purposes (Zhang, et al., 2014).

Part Used: Whole plant




Reported

The allelopathic effect of Potamogeton spp on M.

aeruginosa are analyzed by coexistence and exudates

experiments which strongly inhibit the growth of M.

aeruginosa (Zhang et al., 2009). P. schweinfurthii extracts

inhibited the growth of phytoplankton (Tamire et al.,

2016). Nakai et al., (2010) reported that from the root of

P. australis anti-cyanobacterial compound are released.

While Potamogeton lucens exert little or no allelopathic

activity (Jasser, 1995).


Major Documentation Flora of Pakistan, Flora of America; Nakai et al., 2010;

Zhang, et al., 2014; Tamire et al., 2016:



67. Scrophularia altaica Murray

Family Scrophulari

aceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Figworts.

Habit Herb

Life form Annual,

Perennial

Habitat and Distribution The Scrophularia genus comprises about 200 flowering

plants species. The species of this genus is widely

distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere, but

rigorously found in Asia with only a few species in Europe

and North America.

Blooming Period June-August


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Not found





Reported

Not reported


Major Documentation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrophularia, retrieve, 2017;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrophularia



68. Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borss. Waalk

Family Malvaceae

Aromaticity: Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name:

Long-stalk

Sida, Heart-

Leaf Sida,

Habit Herb

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Native to India, grows in meadows and along roadsides. S.

cordifolia are distributed throughout the tropical and sub-

tropical savannas all over India, Pakistan and Srilanka.

Blooming Period October-December


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc.)

Sida cordifolia extensively used for the treatments of

different disease and problems. Mostly used for RTI, UTI,

erectile dysfunction, skin problem, nerve pain, tonic and

weight loss.

Part Used: Leaves, flowers, whole plant

Commercial Value Used in preparation of herbal medicine extensively



Reported

For scientific justification of Sida cordata traditional

application in diabetes its Ethyl acetate fraction was

examined.


Major Documentation Manandhar, 2002; Shah & Khan, 2014;

http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-

supplements/ingredientmono-837-

sida%20cordifolia.aspx?activeingredientid=837&activeingr

edientname=sida%20cordifolia

http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-837-sida%20cordifolia.aspx?activeingredientid=837&activeingredientname=sida%20cordifolia






69. Taverniera cuneifolia (Roth) Arn.

Family Taverniera

cuneifolia

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Wedge-Leaf

Taverniera,

East-indian

Moneywort

Habit Shrub

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Taverniera cuneifolia native to Pakistan and India and

found in waste places of plain area.

Blooming Period Around the year


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

T. cuneifolia is traditionally used for various diseases

treatment purposes such as expectorant, blood purification,

anti-inflammatory, wound healing, antiulcer and used in

treating spleen tumors (Mangalorkar et al., 2013)





Reported

Not reported


Major Documentation Mangalorkar et al., 2013; Flora of Pakistan, Flora of India



70. Euphorbia hirsuta L.

Family Euphorbiaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name:

Hairy Spurge,

Habit Herb

Life form Annual

Habitat and Distribution Nitrophilous and moist loving herbaceous plant, grows at

margins of rivers, streams, ditches, lagoons and marshes

places of sub-tropical regions at elevation 0-700 (1300).


Local Occurrence Common (Threatened status)

Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Traditionally used as analgesic, laxative and purgative





Reported

Not reported


Major Documentation http://www.botanical-

online.com/alcaloideseuphorbiaangles.htm ;

http://www.botanical-online.com/alcaloideseuphorbiaangles.htm

http://www.botanical-online.com/alcaloideseuphorbiaangles.htm



71. Myrsine africana. L.

Family Primulaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Cape myrtle,

African

boxwood

Habit Small

evergreen

shrubs

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution Widely distributed in Asia and Africa.

Blooming Period September-November


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

Blood purifier, anthelmintic, Laxative, Emmenagogue,

Hedge, Hedge Wood.

Part Used Flashy fruit and leaves




Reported

Not Reported

Crop Infested Growing in old fields, waste areas and roadsides

Major Documentation http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantklm/myrsinafr.htm

http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Myrsine

+africana

Gamble-1972, Gupta-1945, Chopra-1986, Ruffo

at.al,2002, Chopra et al-1986

http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantklm/myrsinafr.htm

http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Myrsine+africana

http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Myrsine+africana



72. Barleria cristata Lam

Family Acanthaceae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Philippine

violet

Habit Shrub

Life form Perennial

Habitat and Distribution B. cristata is native to Asia including Pakistan, China, India

etc. B. cristata can be found grow in warm and humid area

along pathways, slopes, watercourses, and xeric vegetation at

elevations below 100 m up to 2600 m. It is also neutralized in

in dry and wet regions of ruderal sites and semi-natural

habitats (Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodriguez, 2015).

Blooming Period September-December


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

It is grown as ornamental plant. The juice of leaves and roots

are used traditionally for the treatment of catarrhal infections

including tuberculosis, as diaphoretic and expectorant.





Reported

Not reported

Crop Infested Wheat,

Major Documentation http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/8509;

http://medplants.blogspot.com/2015/05/barleria-cristata-

vajradanti-semmulli.html


http://medplants.blogspot.com/2015/05/barleria-cristata-vajradanti-semmulli.html

http://medplants.blogspot.com/2015/05/barleria-cristata-vajradanti-semmulli.html



73. Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf

Family Legumi

nosae

Aromaticity Yes

Vernacular/ Common

Name

Angleto

n grass;

blueste

m, Hindi

grass

Habit Herb

Life form Perennia

l

Habitat and Distribution D. annulatum is globally distributed in tropical and

subtropical regions with its capability to grow on a varied

soils texture and tolerance to drought and salinity.

Blooming Period March-November.


Local Medicinal and


(Edible/ Medicinal/

Forage etc)

D. annulatum is commonly used as forage for cattles. It is

also used to control soil erosion on inclined patches for

improving degraded grassland (Cook et al., 2005). D.

annulatum also reported as antifungal (Shafique & Bajwa,

2004), antiviral, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities

(Awad et al., 2015).


Commercial Value Commercialized fodder grasses



Reported

D. annulatum germination and radicle growth is

significantly suppressed by Euphorbia granulata Forssk

(Hussain, 1980).

Crop Infested Wheat, Rice, Maize, Sugarcane,

Major Documentation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrophularia, retrieved on t 4,

2017; Shafique & Bajwa, 2004; Awad et al., 2015

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrophularia



4.3 Bioassay activity evaluation of 73 weeds from Pakistan for

allelopathic potential assessment

This study represents the comprehensive screening of allelopathic activity of weeds

from Pakistan by applying sandwich and dish pack methods. The source for existing

research of weed control towards classifying the potent organic compounds for

controlling weeds in crops is the screening of large quantities of plants. Strong

allelopathic weeds species have been acknowledged from analysis to provide direction

for further research. Under laboratory conditions 73 weeds were examined for their

allelopathic potentials through latest bioassay activity evaluation techniques. In

Pakistan, the allelopathic activity evaluation of plants through bioassay techniques is

quite rare. There is a dire need to develop a complete data base of plants having strong

allelopathic potential through application of these latest techniques. The research

information generated from the present work can be used as a benchmark for future

research on the allelochemical identification and characterization. During the follow up

work of present endeavor; methanolic leaf extracts of strongest allelopathic species

shall be tested for antioxidant activities on crops pathogens and will also be

recommended as allelopathic cover crop for biological control of weeds to support

agro-environment conservation.

The development and growth of vulnerable plants are effecting by allelochemicals

through reducing radicle, extension of sprouts, seed distension, root axis curling, seed

discoloration and lack of root hairs (Bhadoria, 2011, Appiah et al., 2015). Using of

chemical substances known as herbicides and pesticides are utmost influential and

effective way to control weeds and pests. To supplement the nutrient requirements and

pest control in ecological system heavy doses of synthetic chemicals i.e. fertilizers and

pesticides are being used. By their nature, many weeds have a natural ability to develop



resistance aginst herbicies. The demand of herbicides have been increased globally

while fungicides and insecticides are reduced because of disease and insect resistant

breeding and advanced pest management system. Resistance is developing in different

pests by continuous application of synthetic chemical in large quantity that is also a

serious threat to environment. In this context, the researcher pays more attention to

herbicidal resistant weeds.

Allelochemicals isolated from plants are imperative substitute of agrochemical which

can play vital role in reducing problems arises from poor agricultural techniques and

synthetic pesticides application in bulk quantity (Macías et al., 2003; Appiah et al.,

2015). In crop production practices the weed management through allelopathy is more

beneficial and environmental friendly substitute for conventional herbicide as

allelochemicals have shorter half-lives and different chemical structure with diverse

mode of action (Kruse et al., 2000; Narwal et al., 1998; Appiah et al., 2015). The

demand of organic products in market has been increased during last decades (Appiah

et al., 2015). Now it is officious to focus on study for finding some organic products to

control and weed management, thereby abating or side stepping the common practices

and applications of herbicides in upcoming days and reduce the hazardous effects on

human and environment. From past decade, the scientists are giving more attention to

organic compounds as alternative of pesticides.

Pakistan looses an amount of 28 billion annually due to weeds in wheat crops. The total

losses all over the world are more than its production. To avoid weeds losses new weed

control measures must be adopted. The major weeds like Ammi visnaga, Carthemus

oxyacantha, Avena fatua, Phalaris minor, Cirsium avense, Convolvulus arvensis,

Chenopodium album and Euphorbia helioscopia are very much competitive with wheat

and cause serious losses to wheat crop in Pakistan. (Hassan et al., 2003). Allelopathy



is natural friendly technique for controlling weeds and it also reduces the cost of

production of all cereal crops. It also acts as a source of some useful molecules, which

help in the reduction of weed problem in wheat crop. (Albuquerque et al., 2011). Maize

(Zea mays L.) is another important cereal crop of Pakistan, 36% of it is grown on rain-

fed areas, while 64% is cultivated under irrigated conditions. It is grown on an area of

990200 thousand hectares yielding 3734 (metric) tons annually with an average yield

of 3839 kg ha-1 (Akhtar et al. 2015). Weed species permeating the maiz crop are

functions of a complex collaboration among soil characteristics, climate and cultural

practices. These dynamics vary across regions and bend the composition and number

of predominant weeds of economic importance to corn production (Knezevic et al.

2003). Maize play momentous role in cropping system of Pakistan providing both feed

and food contemporaneously (Nabi 2013).

This research study mainly focused on screening of selected medicinal weed species

collected from different crops, fields, roadsides, meadows of Pakistan. Unfortunately,

in Pakistan yields of crops are very low because of weed interference e.g. wheat per

acre yields does not go beyond 30-35% of its potential in Pakistan (Waheed et al.,

2009). Population of the country has increasing at the fastest rate of world. To meet the

growing food requirements of the country, crops production should fulfill this demand.

The agricultural lands are squeezing so the increase in cropping land is impossible. To

get the potential yields from existing land, is only possible by increasing its yield by

vertical improvement. Increase in crop production may be possible by utilizing this

research information to reduce the resistance through biological control of weeds and

pests.



4.4 Allelopathic Evaluation of Weeds through Sandwich Method

This study represents the comprehensive screening of allelopathic activity of selected

weeds from Pakistan by applying sandwich method. The source for existing research

of weed control towards classifying the potent organic compounds for controlling

weeds in crops is the screening of large quantities of plants. Strong allelopathic weeds

species would be acknowledged from analysis to provide direction for further

researches. Under laboratory conditions 73 selected medicinal weeds were examined

for allelopathic potential.

This research statement only engrossed on recognition and introduction of allelopathic

potential in selected weeds from Pakistan. The next follow up work will focus on the

application of top strong allelopathic plants for cover crops and their application against

crop pathogens as pesticides.

The statistical analysis of the data is represented in Table 4.1, which described the

allopathic effect of leachates of 73 weeds plants on lettuce seedling elongation (Radicle

and hypocotyl percentage elongation). It is evident that elongation percentage of radical

and hypocotyl ranged 0-74% and 0-148% (10mg), 0-75% and 0-84% (50mg)

respectively in Sandwich method (Table: 4.2) as compared with control.



Table 4.1: Evaluation of allelopathic activity in 73 selected weeds through Sandwich method

S.No. Botanical Name Family Name

Extension（%） Criterion

R-10mg H-10mg

Control 100.00 100.00

16 Melilotus indica L. Papilionaceae 0.00 0.00 **

22 Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause Papilionaceae 0.00 0.00 **

18 Melilotus alba Desr Papilionaceae 0.82 3.41 **

69 Peganum harmala L. Nitrariaceae 5.05 30.61 **

14 Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. Brassicaceae 6.57 19.39 **

52 Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton Brassicaceae 7.58 24.49 **

6 Anagallis arvensis L . Primulaceae 9.09 33.67 *

126 Taverniera cuneifolia (Roth) Arn. Papilionaceae 13.70 33.77 *

81 Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk. Papilionacaea 13.73 35.92 *

36 Solanum nigrum L., Solanaceae 14.14 45.92 *

37 Urtica dioica Linn. Urticaceae 15.15 48.98 *

32 Achyranthes aspera Linn Amaranthaceae 15.66 41.84 *

60 Coriandrum sativum L. Apiaceae 16.33 51.13 *

110 Otostegia limbata (Benth.) Boiss Lamiaceae 17.16 55.34 *

1 Avena fatua L. Poaceae 18.03 80.67

20 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Asteraceae 18.11 29.55

15 Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Asteraceae 18.58 82.35

57 Xanthium strumarium L. Asteraceae 19.70 50.00

41

Centaurea iberica Trevir. ex

Spreng. Asteraceae 22.73 45.92

13 Trichodesma indicum (L.) Boraginaceae 24.04 67.23

93 Digera muricata (L.) Mart. Amaranthaceae 24.51 70.87

27 Solanum erianthum D Don Solanaceae 24.81 54.30

133 Helianthus annuus L. (petals) Asteraceae 25.98 66.02

106 Typha minima Funck ex Hoppe Typhaceae 27.27 42.86

121 Potamogeton lucens Linn. Potamogetonaceae 27.40 28.57

38 Malva parviflora L. Malvaceae 27.76 57.14

2 Verbena tenuisecta Briq. Verbenaceae 27.78 55.10

34 Cyperus iria L. Cyperaceae 28.79 69.39

97 Argyrolobium roseum (Camb.) Jaub &

Spac Papilionaceae 29.09 63.10

127 Euphorbia hirta L., Euphorbiaceae 30.13 71.92

10 Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae 30.81 66.33

23 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill ssp. asper Asteraceae 33.74 67.05

91 Pteris cretica L. Pteridaceae 34.31 60.19

90

Artemisia scoparia Waldst. &

Kitam. Asteraceae 34.80 57.28

44 Oxalis corymbosa DC. Oxalidaceae 35.35 77.55

11 Cannabis sativa Linn. Cannabaceae 36.07 90.76

28 Vicia sativa L. Papilionacaea 36.21 56.82

66 Saussurea heteromalla (D.Don) Hand.-

Mazz. Asteraceae 38.37 78.20



83 Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. Papilionaceae 39.71 85.44

19 Oenothera rosea L' Her. ex Ait. Onagraceae 41.56 77.27

125 Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss. Malvaceae 42.16 87.38

129 Barleria cristata L. Acanthaceae 42.82 81.05

25 Convolvulus arvensis Linn. Convolvulaceae 44.36 82.12

21 Taraxacum officinale L. Asteraceae 44.44 67.05

56

Ipomoea cornea ssp. fistulosa (Mart.

ex Choisy) Convolvulaceae 45.71 102.26

7 Phalaris aquatica Linn. Poaceae 45.86 75.50

116 Commelina benghalensis Linn. Commelinaceae 46.58 76.62

95 Adiantum caperis -veneris L. Pteridaceae 47.88 79.76

30 Vernonia anthelmintica (Linn.) Asteraceae 50.21 76.14

113 Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae 50.23 79.22

4 Chenopodium ambrosioides Briq. Chenopodiaceae 50.27 87.39

59 Carthamus oxyacantha M.Bieb. Asteraceae 50.61 76.69

3 Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae 50.75 90.07

101 Salvia aegyptiaca L. Lamiaceae 50.91 94.05

29 Lantana camara L . Verbenaceae 51.85 84.09

5 Sida alba L. Malvaceae 51.88 94.04

12 Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist Asteraceae 52.63 78.15

24 Rumex nepalensis Spreng Polygonaceae 54.32 88.64

98 Nerium oleander L. Apocynaceae 54.55 92.86

122 Scrophularia altaica Murray Scrophulariaceae 54.79 57.14

40 Euphorbia helioscopia L. Euphorbiaceae 56.33 93.23

99 Cissampelos pareira L. Menispermaceae 56.36 111.90

58 Aloe vera (L.) Burm. Asphodelaceae 57.58 88.10

96

Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. ex

D.Don) Lamiaceae 57.58 90.48

108 Anisomeles indica (L.) Lamiaceae 58.18 111.90

132 Pentanema divaricatum Cass. Asteraceae 59.48 73.06

134 Helianthus annuus L. (Sepals) Asteraceae 61.76 105.83

67 Lythrum salicaria Linn. Lythraceae 62.86 148.87

131

Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.)

Stapf Poaceae 67.41 89.04

9 Salvia moocroftiana Wall. Lamiaceae 68.42 86.09

8 Phalaris minor Retz. Poaceae 69.92 101.99

62 Cyperus rotundus Linnaeus Cyperaceae 71.84 99.25

74 Saxifraga rotundifolia L. Saxifragaceae 74.29 99.25

Mean 36.92 68.84

SD 19.17 27.55

Mean-1SD 17.76 41.30

Mean-1.5SD 8.17 27.52

Mean-2SD -1.41 13.75

Mean-2.5SD -10.99 -0.02

R is the length of seedling radicle and H is the length of seedling Hypocotyl



Fig. 4.1: Frequency Distribution of Percentage Inhibition among selected weeds through

sandwich method

Results indicate that growth of lettuce radicles were more inhibited than its hypocotyl

when treated by Sandwich method (Fig.4.1). The plant families with the highest number

of weeds species inspected were Asteraceae (13 species), Papilionaceae (8 species),

Poaceae (4 species) with Amaranthaceae and Lamiaceae having 3 species each. Eight

families have 2 species each i.e., Brassicaceae, Convolvulaceae, Euphorbiaceae,

Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, Oxalidaceae, Solanaceae, and Verbenaceae. Allelopathic effect

of only one species was examined from each of other 26 families including

Acanthaceae, Apiaceae, Apocynaceae, Asphodelaceae, Asteraceae, Boraginaceae,

Cannabaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Commelinaceae, Cyperaceae, Cyperaceae, Lythraceae,

Malvaceae, Menispermaceae, Nitrariaceae, Onagraceae, Plantaginaceae,

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

80-100 60-79 40-59 20-39 below 19

Nu

mb

er o

f M

edic

inal

wee

ds

Spec

ies

Percentage Inhibition

R-10mg

H-10mg

R-50mg



Polygonaceae, Potamogetonaceae, Primulaceae, Pteridaceae, Pteridaceae,

Saxifragaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Typhaceae and Urticaceae.

Sandwich method data of inhibition of radical at 10 mg categorized species into 5

classes (Table 4.1). Complete inhibition in the first group (80-100%) is shown by

Melilotus indica and Medicago parviflora. Strongest inhibitory activity i.e., 90-99%

was observed in 4 species (Melilotus alba, Peganum harmala, Coronopus didymus,

Nasturtium officinale). 80-86% inhibition was exhibited by Taverniera cuneifolia,

Crotalaria medicaginea, Solanum nigrum, Urtica dioica, Achyranthes aspera,

Coriandrum sativum, Otostegia limbata, Avena fatua, Parthenium hysterophorus,

Cirsium arvense, Xanthium strumarium, and Anagallis arvensis. The lowest inhibitory

activity in this study was observed in 7 plant species in the range of 20-39% by

Helianthus annuus, Lythrum salicaria, Dichanthium annulatum, Salvia moocroftiana,

Phalaris minor, Cyperus iria., and Saxifraga rotundifolia. Members of Papilionaceae

were ranked the strongest inhibitory plant species among the evaluated samples using

the sandwich method. Over all there were 8 species from papilionaceae out of which 5

exhibited 80-100 % inhibition while 3 others showed 60-79% inhibition of radical

growth (Table 4.2).

During sandwich method investigations, Melilotus indica has been identified as the

strongest allelopathic plant among all 73 weed species followed by Medicago

parviflora. M. indica showed strong inhibition on hypocotyl and radicle elongation of

lettuce seeds. M. indica belong to Papilionaceae family and is an annual herbaceous

plant, commonly known as yellow sweet clover. M. indica is native of south-western

Europe, also believed from India. It invaded almost the whole globe and in Pakistan

and now communal to all continents. M. indica “Yellow sweet clover” blooms during

April-October. It has different uses and some known usages are Honey production,



erosion control, soil improver, fodder, and medicines (Sarep, 2006; Brown & Brooks,

2002). Extracts from M. indica show fairly good antibacterial and antitumor activities

in screening experimentations (Karakas et al., 2012; Miri, et al., 2013). The occurrence

of C-glycosides, methylene-dioxypterocarpan, pterocarpane, prenylated pterocarpan

and flavone glycoside from this plant have also been reported (Yadava and Jain, 2005).

Yellow sweet clover examined along with other weeds and crops species for its

allelopathic potential. Previous research work also supported that M. indica has strong

allelopathic potential (Macías et al., 1997; Anaya et al., 1987; El-Khatib et al., 2004).

Medicago parviflora was found the second strongly inhibitory species during the

present sandwich analysis. Allelopathic activities or other ecological information of

Medicago parviflora were not reported previously.

Melilotus alba was ranked third most noxious weed during sandwich analysis among

the all selected weeds from Pakistan (Table 4.1). Melilotus alba commonly known as

white sweet clover and it is also a species of family Papilionaceae. M. alba is an erect

annual herbaceous plants species. Melilotus alba breeds in complete sun shine places

or fractional shadow, but cannot endure impenetrable shade. M. alba loves to grows in

soil that has calcareous and loamy characteristics; such as roadsides, abandoned fields

etc. (Cole, 1990). It is a common plant and blooms in March to September. M. alba

traditionally used as salad, cocked green, flavoring and also used as forage for livestock.

It plays a very important role in production of honey and soil restoration. Methanolic

extracts of M. alba have best antitumor activities (Karakas et al., 2012). Biochemical

compound flavones, volatile oils, resins, and tannins are reported from M. alba

(Grigorescu et al., 1986). From literature review it has been concluded that allelopathic

potential of M. alba is not reported yet while it inhibited the lettuce seedling growth

during sandwich analysis; so, it is a new finding in allelopathic analysis. M. alba in



combination with other plants have been used in weeds management. Aqueous extracts

of Croton inhibit seedling of M. alba (Sisodia and Siddiqui, 2010). White sweet clover

also analyzed in experimentation for weeds control treatment (Iqbal et al., 2010).

Peganum harmala is perennial glabrous herb of family Nitrariaceae commonly known

as Syrian rue, blooms in April-October. Syrian rue is distributed in many countries i.e.

India, Pakistan, Russia, USA, North Arica and Europe. Its seed powder is traditionally

used to treat problems such as asthma, colic and jaundice and as an anthelmintic against

tapeworms and for reducing temperature in chronic malaria. Seeds are reported as

narcotic, hypotonic, antispasmodic, antiperiodic, emetic, alterative, lactagogue,

antitumor and antinociceptive (Lamchouri et al., 1998; Monsef et al., 2004). More

phenolic acids are presents in leaves other than stems and roots of P.harmala

(Sodaeizadeh et al., 2009) while highest levels of alkaloids identified in seeds and roots

other than stems and leaves (Herraiz et al., 2010). Seven phenolic acids were extracted

from leaf extracts of P. harmala (Sodaeizadeh et al., 2009). Growth of dicot plants

lettuce and amaranth significantly inhibited by the alkaloids of Peganum harmala L.

than the tested wheat and ryegrass which are monocot plants (Shao et al., 20.13).

Extracts from the parts (leaf, stem and root) of P. harmala have allelopathic potential

towards Avena fatua and Convolvulus arvensis the result of this study also showed its

strong inhibitory properties when analyzed through sandwich method. The present

study and previous work recommended that it can be used as natural herbicide for weed

control.

Nasturtium officinale is perennial hydrophyte herb; a member of the mustard family

(Brassicaceae). N. officinale introduced from Europe and America and now commonly

found in Europe and Temperate Asia. Watercress grows at stream sides, dykes, flushes

etc with moving water, usually in chalk or limestone places (Flora of Pakistan, 2016).



N. officinale folk medicinal uses areincluded cardioprotective agent in Iran and now its

potential is proved by scientific investigation (S Bahramikia and R Yazdanparast 2008).

Watercress used for waste water treatment and also have potential as anticarcinogen

(Engelen et al., 2006). N. officinale defended against herbivory through releasing

allelochemicals by glucosinolate—myrosinase system (Newman et al., 1996). The SM

assessment showed that the watercress is potent and strong allelopathic weeds and

ranked 6th among the assessed selected weeds.

Crotalaria medicaginea is divaricately branched herbs and belongs to Leguminosae

family. Crotalaria medicaginea commonly called Trefoil Rattlepod. Trefoil Rattlepod

blooms during January to March and August to December that is why some scientists

considered it is annual and some put it in perennial plants list. Trefoil Rattlepod

commonly distributed in seashore sandy places, lush and grassy land, along tracks;

below 100-2800 m. widespread in South Asia, Himalaya regions to Australia (Flora of

China 2016). C.medicaginea contains exceptional nutriments because it has starch,

protein dietetic fiber, oligosaccharides, phyto-chemicals and minerals. They are often

nominated for diseases resistance because of its food richness quality (Kathirvel and

Kumudha, 2012). It is used as fodder for cattles. C. medicaginea is used traditionally

for treatment of white discharge by Chhattisgarh peoples (Tirkey, 2006). Its seeds

contain polysaccharide composed of d-galactose and d- mannose (Gupta & Bemiller,

1990). C. medicaginea leaf leachates did not affect the seedling growth when its

exudates were applied on Zea mays, mungo Glycine max and Eleusine coracana (Bhatt,

et al., 1994), while P. juliflora and P. cineraria exudates inhibited the C. medicaginea

seedling growth and germination (Goel and Nathawat 1990). During sandwich analysis

it has been listed among top ten potent and strong allelopathic weeds.



Coriandrum sativum is a medicinal plant species of family Umbelliferae commonly

known as Coriander. As a domestic remedy Coriander is a usually used for i digestive

problems, treating flatulence, diarrhoea and colic (Launert, 1981; Javadi et al., 2008).

It helps to reduce the gut spasm and nervous tension effects (Chevallier, 1996). The

seed is aromatic, carminative, expectorant, narcotic, stimulant and stomachic (Grieve,

1984; Launert, 1981; Omer et al., 2016; Talaat, et al., 2014; Stuart, 1998; Bown, 1995).

Some attentiveness is recommended, though, because the seeds become narcotic; if it

is used too regularly (Grieve, 1984). For rheumatic pain treatment, its seeds can be

applied externally and can also use as lotion (Chevallier, 1996; Stuart, 1979). The other

uses of Coriander include Fuel; Insecticide; Depurative Oil; Expectorant.

Antidiarrhoeal; Antihalitosis; Appetizer; Aromatherapy; Aromatic and Fungicide

(pfaf.org- 2017). C.sativum is annual herb grows 15-60 cm tall, branched and blooms

in early spring to early summer. Coriandrum sativum native of Italy and it is cultivated

in diverse area and also distributed in wild fields (Flora of Pakistan, 2017). Hoary cress

germination reduced from 13.8 to 27% by coriander and lovage (Raylic et al., 2013).

Akmal et al 2011 reported that seedlings of Trigonella and coriander inhibit the growth

of spinach. Zea mays radicle length is suppressed and plumule length is reduced

C.sativum during medicinal plants allelopathic evaluation (Baeshen, 2014). At high

densities lettuce seed germination is inhibited by all examined species including C.

sativum of family Apiaceae (Steven Lamoureux and Ross Koning 1998). Growth of

some weeds species are inhibited by aromatic and medicinal plants for example

caraway, coriander and fennel (Baličević, et al., 2015, Đikić, 2005). The result of this

allelopathic assement strongly support the previous research work. Hence, C.sativum

has medicinal importance and can be used as natural herbicide for weeds management.



The results presented in this research study hereby described the allelopathic potential

of weeds collected from different area of Pakistan. Information obtained from the

bioassay through sandwich could be aid in the development of natural herbicides

(bioactive compounds) from plant and also the utilization of these plants in sustainable

weed control.

4.5 Allelopathic Evaluation of Weeds through Dish Pack Method

This study represents the comprehensive screening of allelopathic activity of selected

weeds from Pakistan by applying Dish Pack Method (Table 4.2). The source for current

study of weed control towards classifying the strong allelochemicals for controlling

weeds in crops is the screening of large quantities of plants. Strong allelopathic weeds

would be acknowledged from analysis to provide direction for further researches.

Under laboratory conditions 73 medicinal weeds species were examined for their

allelopathic potentials.

The statistical analysis of the data is represented in Table 4.2, which described the

allopathic effect of leachates of 73 weeds plants on lettuce seedling elongation (Radicle

and hypocotyl percentage elongation). It is evident that elongation percentage of radicle

and hypocotyl ranged 7-150 % in Dish Pack method (Table: 4.2) as compared with

control.



Table 4.2: Evaluation of allelopathic activity of volatiles in 73 selected weeds through Dish pack method

S. No. Botanical Names Family

Extension % Criteria

Radicle Hypocotyl

14 Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. Brassicaceae 1.93 7.48 ***

18 Melilotus alba Desr Papilionaceae 6.77 30.73 **

16 Melilotus indica L. Papilionaceae 9.67 41.53 **

38 Malva parviflora L. Malvaceae 10.81 49.85 **

36 Solanum nigrum L., Solanaceae 13.06 61.58 **

52 Nasturtium officinale W .T. Aiton Brassicaceae 22.14 66.05 **

37 Urtica dioica Linn. Urticaceae 25.68 83.58 *

34 Cyperus iria L. Cyperaceae 26.58 71.85 *

28 Vicia sativa L. Papilionacaea 31.98 79.91 *

22

Medicago parviflora E.H.L.

Krause Papilionaceae 39.19 83.58 *

32 Achyranthes aspera Linn Amaranthaceae 49.10 87.98

81 Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk. Papilionacaea 49.90 89.69

3 Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae 52.71 113.79

57 Xanthium strumarium L. Asteraceae 52.95 113.71

8 Phalaris minor Retz. Poaceae 53.68 70.60

1 Avena fatua L. Poaceae 57.54 93.02

44 Oxalis corymbosa DC. Oxalidaceae 59.03 114.55

132 Pentanema divaricatum Cass. Asteraceae 61.68 92.51

13 Trichodesma indicum (L.) Boraginaceae 65.76 107.14

113 Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae 68.50 66.31

56

Ipomoea cornea ssp. fistulosa

(Mart. ex Choisy) Convolvulaceae 68.58 115.38

29 Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae 69.37 122.43

9 Salvia moocroftiana Wall. Lamiaceae 70.60 81.40

15 Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Asteraceae 71.83 85.71

62 Cyperus rotundus Linnaeus Cyperaceae 71.91 100.47

129 Barleria cristata L. Acanthaceae 77.68 95.57

133 Helianthus annuus L. (sepals) Asteraceae 77.68 85.63

11 Cannabis sativa Linn. Cannabaceae 78.34 117.11

7 Phalaris aquatica Linn. Poaceae 81.73 127.91

6 Anagallis arvensis L. Primulaceae 82.69 122.92

12 Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist Asteraceae 82.69 99.67

126 Taverniera cuneifolia (Roth) Papilionaceae 83.64 99.42

125 Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss. Malvaceae 84.27 105.50

41

Centaurea iberica Trevir. ex

Spreng. Asteraceae 86.81 124.58

25 Convolvulus arvensis Linn. Convolvulaceae 87.50 149.48

66

Saussurea heteromalla (D.Don)

Hand.-Mazz. Asteraceae 89.14 114.98

20 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Asteraceae 89.93 116.74

59 Carthamus oxyacantha M.Bieb. Asteraceae 91.14 122.82

60 Coriandrum sativum L. Apiaceae 92.13 108.89



93 Digera muricata (L.) Mart. Amaranthaceae 93.69 100.77

4 Chenopodium ambrosioides Briq. Chenopodiaceae 93.81 110.47

21 Taraxacum officinale L. Asteraceae 94.14 85.04

116 Commelina benghalensis Linn. Commelinaceae 94.85 98.32

96

Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham.

ex D.Don) Lamiaceae 95.21 90.00

131

Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.)

Stapf Poaceae 95.31 100.96

90

Artemisia scoparia Waldst. &

Kitam. Asteraceae 95.72 100.00

91 Pteris cretica L. Pteridaceae 95.72 94.62

98 Nerium oleander L. Apocynaceae 96.74 109.23

122 Scrophularia altaica Murray Scrophulariaceae 96.99 105.50

134 Helianthus annuus L. (Petals) Asteraceae 97.93 95.57

83 Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. Papilionaceae 98.15 105.05

23 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill ssp. asper Asteraceae 98.65 93.84

97

Argyrolobium roseum (Camb.)

Jaub & Spach Papilionaceae 99.29 100.00

2 Verbena tenuisecta Briq. Verbenaceae 100.10 102.99

74 Saxifraga rotundifolia L. Saxifragaceae 100.80 89.69

101 Salvia aegyptiaca L. Lamiaceae 101.83 106.92

110 Otostegia limbata (Benth.) Boiss Lamiaceae 102.46 89.18

5 Sida alba L. Malvaceae 102.63 128.21

69 Peganum harmala L. Nitrariaceae 103.59 108.01

10 Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae 104.13 93.75

127 Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae 104.99 100.92

24 Rumex nepalensis Spreng Polygonaceae 106.31 118.04

95 Adiantum caperis -veneris L. Pteridaceae 106.42 102.31

106 Typha minima Funck ex Hoppe Typhaceae 107.14 87.65

19 Oenothera rosea L' Her. ex Ait. Onagraceae 111.22 99.67

27 Solanum erianthum D Don Solanaceae 112.61 120.23

121 Potamogeton lucens Linn. Potamogetonaceae 117.13 105.61

67 Lythrum salicaria Linn. Lythraceae 117.61 95.92

99 Cissampelos pareira L. Menispermaceae 117.65 105.08

58 Aloe vera (L.) Burm. Asphodelaceae 118.53 109.76

108 Anisomeles indica (L.) Lamiaceae 121.19 92.99

40 Euphorbia helioscopia L. Euphorbiaceae 233.48 102.47

30 Vernonia anthelmintica (Linn.) Asteraceae 234.24 115.81

Mean 83.10 97.08

SD 39.35 22.53

Mean-1SD 43.75 74.55

Mean-1.5SD 24.07 63.28

Mean-2SD 4.39 52.02

Mean-2.5SD -15.28 40.76



Fig. 4.2: Frequency Distribution of Percentage Inhibition among medicinal weeds

through Dishpack method

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

80-100 60-79 40-59 20-39 below 19 stimulatory

Nu

mb

er o

f M

edic

inal

wee

ds

Spec

ies

Percentage Inhibition

R-10mg



Fig. 4.3: Range of Percentage Inhibition in Radicle (-R) and Hypocotyl (-H) of 73

Weed Species by Dishpack (DP) method

In dish pack method (Table: 4.3), Coronopus didymus ranked at the top with 98%

inhibition rate of radical. Next 4 plants with strong inhibition are in the range of 86-

93% i.e., Melilotus alba, Melilotus indica, Malva parviflora and Solanum nigrum.

Nasturtium officinale, Urtica dioica, Cyperus iria., Vicia sativa, Medicago parviflora,

comes next in the ranking showing 60-79% inhibition in radical growth rate.

Achyranthes aspera, Crotalaria medicaginea, Amaranthus viridis, Xanthium

strumarium, Phalaris minor, Avena fatua, Oxalis corymbos showed 40-59%. 39 plant

species showed relatively weak inhibitory potential against the control plant species. 20

plant species exhibited stimulatory potential i.e., Verbena tenuisecta, Saxifraga

rotundifolia, Salvia aegyptiaca, Otostegia limbata, Sida alba, Peganum harmala,

Oxalis corniculata, Euphorbia hirta , Rumex nepalensis, Adiantum caperis-veneris,

Typha minima, Oenothera rosea, Solanum erianthum, Potamogeton lucens, Lythrum

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

SW-R (10) SW-H (10) SW-R (50) SW-H (50) DP-R DP_H



salicaria, Cissampelos pareira, Aloe vera, Anisomeles indica, Euphorbia helioscopia

and Vernonia anthelmintica. Euphorbia helioscopia and Vernonia anthelmintica

remain conspicuous by having more than 200% elongation rate.

Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. ranked at the top in radical inhibition during Dish pack

analysis. C. didymus is annual or biennial herb (Flora of Pkaistan, 2017), its decumbent

and angled stems grow 15-30 centimetres in length and commonly called Swine

Wartcress or Lesser swinecress. C. didymus of family Brassicaceae is perhaps native to

South America (Clapham et al., 1981; Stace, 2010). Swine Wartcress commonly

distributed throughout the world and grows in waste and agricultural fields, along with

pavement but mostly found in sandy soil. Extraction of C.didymus have substantial

antiallergic, antimicrobial, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic and

hepatoprotective activity (Busnardo et al., 2010; Mantena et al., 2005). Viral inhibitory

activity of Lesser swinecress extracts also reported against BVDV-1 virus (Ruffa et al.,

2004). Extracts of C. didymus has allelopathic effect on wheat germination and its early

seedling growth (Khaliq et al., 2013). The results of the present investigation also

support and proved that C. didymus has sturdiest volatile inhibitory properties against

L. sativa through dish pack.

Melilotus alba and M.indica also showed strong inhibition during dishpack method and

ranked at second and third respectively among all selected weeds. Malva parviflora was

recorded as forth most noxicious with strong inhibition. Malva parviflora is native plant

of Pakistan. It is annual erect herb, mostly found in all soil types and common in waste

land and found in sheep yards, watercourses, closed yards and roadsides. Premiarily

occurred in southern Australia and locally found in Pakistan. It has anti-bacterial and

anti-inflammatory properties (Shale et al., 1999; Shale et al., 2012). Previously reported



with strong allelopathic effect on photosynthesis and growth of cultivated plants such

as barley (El-Khatib. 2000; Al-Johani et al., 2012).

Solanum nigrum is found among fifth most strong allelopathic plants during Dish pack

analysis. S. nigrum also commonly known as black nightshade is an annual but some

time biannual tall herb reproducing only by seed. S. nigrum complex are largely

confined to disturbed situations such as cultivated land, roadsides, wasteland,

uncompetitive pastures, and exposed river beds and banks. Genotypes of the S. nigrum

complex with large fruits are sometimes cultivated, the fruit being used in pies, and

young shoots are also sometimes eaten as pot herbs (Edmonds and Chweya, 1997;

Mabberley, 1997). The taxon is very variable, and edible cultivars could undoubtedly

be selected and improved by standard plant breeding methods. Extracts of S. nigrum

have allelopathic potential against seed germination of different plants (Kadioglu et al.,

2005; Marinov, 2015).

4.6 Antifungal activity of allelopathic weeds Medicago parviflora,

Solanum nigrum, Melilotus alba and Melilotus indica against soil-born

phytopathogenic fungi

This research study based on the assessment to found the substitute of chemical

fungicides mostly used for fungal disease control. It will be an additional and valuable

advantage if these antifungal characteristics and properties found in noxious weeds.

Fungicidal assessment of plant extract of 04 notorious crops weeds which affecting and

reduce crop production. These weeds were selected on basis of their strong allelopathic

potential against Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) during sandwich and dish pack analysis of

weeds of Pakistan. Methanolic extract of all the selected weed plants i.e. Melilotus

indica L., Melilotus alba Desr., Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause and Solanum



nigrum L. are screened for their fungicidal activities against the soil-borne fungal

phytopathogens Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizoctonia oryzae, Fusarium fujikuroi, Fusarium

oxysporum, Pythium ultimum and Pyricularia oryzae. We used

microspectrophotometric assessment technique for the antifungal evaluation. Minimum

inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) of the

extracts were determined. The amended methanolic extract and known fungicide

Nystatin for respective fungal strain were consider as negative and positive control

respectively. Results indicated that growth of all the mentioned fungal strains were

significantly inhibited. The values of the weed extracts determined ranging between

0.781-25 mg/mL while MFC values ranging between 3.125-25 mg/mL.

This current research investigation is therefore, commenced to assess the worth of some

of the common crops weed extracts Melilotus indica, Melilotus alba , Medicago

parviflora and Solanum nigrum against the soil-borne fungal phytopathogens like

Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizoctonia oryzae, Fusarium fujikuroi, Fusarium oxysporum,

Pythium ultimum and Pyricularia oryzae.

Among the mentioned weeds extracts, Medicago parviflora showed highest activity

against Pythium ultimum among all extract and the lowest activity was shown by extract

Melilotus indica L. against Fusarium oxosporum. Overall all of the extract showed

potent activities against all fungal strains. Among the fungal strains, Pythium ultimum,

Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxosporum were highly susceptible compared to the

rest of the strains tested. Rhizoctonia oryzae, Fusarium fujikoroi and Pyricularia oryzae

were slightly resistant compared to the other strains tested. The positive control

Nystatin also showed potent activity against all fungal strains as shown in Fig. 4.4. The

highest activity shown by Nystatin against Pythium ultimum and Pyricularia oryzae.



Figure 4.4: Growth inhibition of fungal strains by crude extracts of plants.

4.6.1 Minimum Inhibitory Concentration

Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of all extracts was determined

against all tested fungal strains. About seven dilutions were prepared and

were tested for MIC in triplicate. The dilutions of extract ranges from (0.781-

25 mg/mL) and the positive control Nystatin was (156.25-5000 units/mL).

The minimum inhibitory concentration of all the extracts varied from strain

to strain. Fusarium oxysporum was the most susceptible strains among all

strains tested for MIC. The MIC shown by all extracts against Fusarium

oxysporum was in the range of 6.25-12.5. On the contrary the Pyricularia

oryzae and Fusarium fujikuroi were the most resistant strains among all

tested strains for MIC. Most of the extracts showed least minimum inhibitory

concentration against these strains. The MIC of all extracts against these

strains was 0.781 mg/mL. The positive control Nystatin also showed potent

activities against fungal strains tested. The MIC of Nystatin was in range of

15.25-1250 Unit/mL as shown in table 4.4.

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

120.0

Rhizoctoniasolani

Rhizoctoniaoryzae

Fusariumfujikuroi

Fusariumoxysporum

Pythiumultimum

Pyriculariaoryzae

% Ih

ibit

ion

Fungal strains

Melilotus indicus L. Melilotus alba Desr. Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause Solanum nigrum L. Nystatin



4.6.2 Minimum Fungicidal Concentration

The minimum fungicidal concentration of all the crude extracts was

established. The MFC values were in the range of 3.125-25 mg/mL. The

highest minimum fungicidal activity was observed against Pyricularia oryzae

and Fusarium fujikuroi that was 3.125 mg/mL. On the other side, no MFC

was shown against Pythium ultimum species by extract M. parviflora and in

addition all of the extracts showed poor MFC against Pythium ultimum and

Fusarium oxysporum with a concentration of 6.25-25 mg/mL as shown in

Table 4.3.



Table 4.3: Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal

concentration (MFC) of crude extracts of plants names

Names

MIC (mg/mL) MFC (mg/mL)

Pyt

hiu

m

ult

imu

m

Rh

izo

cto

nia

sola

ni

Pyr

icu

lari

a

ory

zae

Fu

sari

um

fuji

kuro

i

Rh

izo

cto

nia

ory

zae

Fu

sari

um

oxy

spo

rum

Pyt

hiu

m

ult

imu

m

Rh

izo

cto

nia

sola

ni

Pyr

icu

lari

a

ory

zae

Fu

sari

um

fuji

kuro

i

Rh

izo

cto

nia

ory

zae

Fu

sari

um

oxy

spo

rum

Melilotus

indica L.

12.

5 12.5 0.78 0.78 3.125 12.5 25 6.25 3.125 3.125 3.125 25

Melilotus a

lba Desr.

12.

5 12.5 0.78 0.78 6.25 12.5 25 25 3.125 3.125 12.5 25

Medicago

parviflora

E.H.L.

Krause

6.2

5 6.25 0.78 0.78 1.56 12.5 - 12.5 3.125 3.125 3.125 25

Solanum

nigrum L.

3.1

25 6.25 0.78 0.78 1.56 6.25 6.25 12.5 3.125 3.125 3.125 12.5

Nystatin*

(Unit/mL)

12

50 1250 156.3 156.3 625

125

0

250

0

250

0 312.5 312.5 1250 2500

Nystatin*: Nystatin was used in units/ml.

Weeds plants of notorious nature and allelopathic potential with limited reported

antifungal activity were selected for authentication of their use against fungal

pathogens. For this purpose, the top most noxious and allelopathic plants which were

examined by Sandwich and Dish pack screening methods. These notorious weeds

included Melilotus indica L., Melilotus alba Desr., Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause

and Solanum nigrum L. Methanolic extracts of above mentioned plants leaves were

tested against soil born phytopathogenic fungi, i.e. Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizoctonia

oryzae, Fusarium fujikuroi, Fusarium oxysporum, Pythium ultimum and Pyricularia

oryzae. Methanolic fractions exhibited more promising results than aqueous fractions

in suppressing the fungal growth (Buch and Arya, 2017).





Rhizoctonia solani (Ceratobasidiaceae family), a form of rot, commonly found in most

soils and cause several disease in almost all agricultural crops (Huang et al. 2008; Feng

et al. 2017). Susceptibility of all cultivars to this pathogen make them vulnerable for

pest attacks (Singh et al. 2002). R. solani effectively controlled with the application of

systemic fungicides and antibiotics (e.g. jinggangmycin or validamycin) (Yang et al.

2012; Feng et al. 2017). Biological control of R. solani are reported from about 100

years through microorganisms mostly by using fungal strains e.g. Trichoderma spp.,

Chlonostachys rosea and Coniothyrium minitans etc. (Daguerre et al., 2017) bacterial

strains like Streptomyces strains, Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas spp. etc and bacterial virus

strains isolated from the endosphere or rhizosphere (Gnanamanickam & Mew 1992;

Ahsan et al. 2017). Antifungal activities of different medicinal plant extracts diluted

with 50% Acetone e.g. Trachystemon orientalis, Smilax excelsa, siam weed and wild

sunflower etc. from Turkey and Sir Lanka have been reported against R. solani

(Dissanayake & Jayasinghe 2013; Onaran & Sağlam 2016). This research study focused

on the top most noxious weeds of agricultural system which have already affect the

yield production worldwide including Pakistan. Medicago parviflora is herbaceous

weed distributed in harvested crops and fields, never reported its medicinal,

antimicrobial or any other ecological properties. M. parviflora showed highest

antifungal activity against R. solani strain succeeded by M. alba, S. nigrum and M.

indica.

Rhizoctonia oryzae commonly known as teleomorph or Waitea circinate belong to

family Ceratobasidiaceae. This pathogenic fungus causes several diseases in crops like

sheath spot of rice, root rot and crown of wheat, stalk rot of maize and root rot of barley

(Paulitz et al. 2003; Aye et al. 2009; Doussoulin et al. 2016). Pesticides extracted from

plants are favored for risk reduction associated with chemical control techniques.



Clove, neem, rosemary and pelargonium extracts suppressed fungal growth including

R. oryzae (San & Matsumoto, 2011). The reported plants extracts used for biological

control of soil-borne pathogenic fungi R. oryzae have economical and medicinal

application while the plants used for antifungal activities are toxic weeds. Results of

this study indicated that M. parviflora again showed highest antifungal activity against

R. oryzae. S. nigrum leaf extracts were found to give the second-best suppression

against the tested fungi.

Worldwide many Fusarium spp. are distributed and have economic importance by

producing toxic and deadly secondary metabolites to environment which leads to cause

diseases in plants, animals and as well in human (Leslie & Summerell 2006). Known

reported species included Fusarium poae, F. verticillioides and members of the F.

solani species complex (FSSC), F. oxysporum species complex (FOSC) and the F.

graminearum species complex (Streit et al. 2012; Herron et al., 2015). However, most

agricultural plants are host to Fusarium fujikuroi (Leslie & Summerell 2006; Herron et

al., 2015). F. fujikuroi is hemibiotrophic fungus and can be transmitted to host vertically

(seed-borne) or horizontally (soil- or aerial-borne, or through wounds) where it causes

show root, stalk and ear rot, as well as wilting, stalk thinning and reduced aerial and

root growth (Wu et al. 2011; Karla et al. 2014). The other sturdiest pathogenic and

globally distributed fungus of this group is Fusarium oxysporum (soil-borne

ascomycete). Many commercially cultivated harvests and some other crops are host to

F. oxysporum strains which infected and killed the harvested crops. F. oxysporum

transmitted to host through root, block its vascular system and stops transportation

process which cause flaccid, streak and eventually the plant die. Additionally, Fusarium

oxysporum covers outside plant kingdom, into Animalia and deceitful human pathogen,

reported in immunocompromised patients the well-identified agents producing invasive



fungal diseases. These fungal infections in mammals are eventually fatal as resistant

developed in F. oxysporum against available antifungal drugs.

Previous research studies have already been reported many in vitro efficacy of different

higher plant extracts and their constituents examined for successful biocontrol of

Fusarium fujikuroi and Fusarium oxysporum because of their fungi toxicants nature

with less harming ecosystem capability due to their biodegradability (Najar et al.

2011; Ankita and Dwivedi, 2012; Bashar & Chakma, 2014). Among all the tested plants

extracts only few showed 100 % suppress the mentioned soil-borne fungi i.e. F.

fujikuroi and F. oxysporum. The present research study is to assess the potential of

methanolic extract of allelopathic weeds leaves extracts to control the pathogenic

fungus F. fujikuroi and F. oxysporum. The result of obtained from research work

indicated that S. nigrum and M. parviflora showed 106.2 % and 105.5 % suppression

respectively to the tested Fusarium species.

Pythium ultimum is also a soil-borne pathogenic fungus of family Pythiaceae. P.

ultimum causes a wide range of problems like damping-off, seedling blight root rot and

stem rot diseases of hundreds of diverse plant hosts including corn, soybean, carrot,

cucumber, melon, potato, wheat, fir, and many ornamental species (Cheung et al. 2008;

Farr & Rossman 2014). P. ultimum is abundantly found in soil moisture and high soil

temperature regions of the world. It is very problematic to control soil-borne pathogenic

P. ultimum only with fungicides like mefenoxam, thiadiazole, etridiazole,

propamocarb, dimethomorph, and phosphonates and this method also uneconomical

(Gholve et al., 2014). Biologically P. ultimum controlled through microorganisms

included some bacterial strains of Bacillus, Streptomyces and Pseudomonas species and

fungal strains like Trichoderma, Gliocladium and Candida (Berendsen et al., 2012).

Garlic extracts and essential oils of Thymus vulgaris, Lavandula sp. and Mentha



piperita and Methanol extract, obtained from Tagetes patula plant, controlled P.

ultimum (Mares et al. 2004; Cruz et al. 2013). The reported plants used for antifungal

assessment are either ornamental or have agricultural importance but here in this

research the plants selected for antifungal assessment are totally unwanted plants.

Medicago parviflora showed highest while Melilotus indica showed lowest activity

against Pythium ultimum among all tested weeds extract.

Pyricularia oryzae is a virulent specie of family Magnaporthaceae employ a

hemibiotrophic stratagem to enter host and sequentially establishing infection at

biotrophic and necrotrophic stages (Kankanala et al. 2007; Marcel et al. 2010). Rice

blast is the most destructive reported problem worldwide caused by P. oryzae, which

lead to a notable reduction in yields about 30 % of rice production (Koga, 2001; TeBeest

et al. 2007; Skamnioti and Gurr, 2009; Moghaddam and Soltani, 2013). Previous

research studies disclose that fungal resistant to chemical treatments and genetic

manipulation have been established (Kim & Kim,1997). Turmeric, garlic, van tulsa and

Ginger extracts are reported as significant antifungal agent against P.

oryzae (Khanzada, and Shah, 2012; Gurjar et al. 2012). In this current investigations,

M. parviflora and S. nigrum leaf extracts show highest suppressive activity respectively

against Pyricularia oryzae.

Fungitoxicity effects of the phyto-extracts indicate the potentials of selected plant

species as a source of natural fungicidal material. These extracts exhibit significant

fungicidal properties that support the importance of these plants in agroecosystem. In

the case of fungal infection, these mechanisms include synthesis of bioactive organic

compounds (Domenico et al. 2012) and antifungal proteins (Morrisey and Osbourn,

1999) and peptides (Selitrennikoff, 2001; Dissanayake & Jayasinghe 2013)



All the selected and assessed unwanted plants for fungicidal activities show strong

fungal inhibition. Results showed that Medicago parviflora and Solanum nigrum have

strong suppressive potential for the fungal growth of all tested soil born

phytopathogenic fungi. Outcome of the present research study could be an important

step towards the possibilities of using natural unwanted plant products as biopesticides

in the control of plant diseases caused by R. solani, R. oryzae, F. fujikuroi, F.

oxysporum, P. ultimum and P. oryzae. Further studies are needed to determine the

chemical identity of the bioactive compounds responsible for the observed antifungal

activity. Natural plant-derived fungicides may be a source of new alternative active

compounds, in particular with antifungal activity.

Overall results indicate that growth of lettuce radicles were more inhibited than its

hypocotyl when treated by both methods Sandwich and dishpack (Fig.4.3). Sandwich

method data of inhibition of radical at 10 mg categorized species into 5 classes (Table

4.1). Complete inhibition in the first group (80-100%) is shown by Melilotus indica and

Medicago parviflora. Strongest inhibitory activity i.e., 90-99% was observed in 4

species (Melilotus alba, Peganum harmala, Coronopus didymus, Nasturtium officinale.

80-86% inhibition was exhibited by Taverniera cuneifolia, Crotalaria medicaginea,

Solanum nigrum, Urtica dioica, Achyranthes aspera, Coriandrum sativum, Otostegia

limbata, Avena fatua, Parthenium hysterophorus, Cirsium arvense, Xanthium

strumarium, and Anagallis arvensis. The lowest inhibitory activity in this study was

observed in 7 plant species in the range of 20-39% by Helianthus annuus, Lythrum

salicaria, Dichanthium annulatum, Salvia moocroftiana, Phalaris minor, Cyperus iria,

and Saxifraga rotundifolia. Members of Papilionaceae were ranked the strongest

inhibitory plant species among the evaluated samples using the sandwich method. Over



all there were 8 species from papilionaceae out of which 5 exhibited 80-100 %

inhibition while 3 others showed 60-79% inhibition of radical growth (Table 4.1).

In dish pack method (Table: 4.2), Coronopus didymus ranked at the top with 98%

inhibition rate of radical. Next 4 plants with strong inhibition are in the range of 86-

93% i.e., Melilotus alba, Melilotus indica, Malva parviflora and Solanum nigrum,

Nasturtium officinale, Urtica dioica, Cyperus rotundus, Vicia sativa, Medicago

parviflora, comes next in the ranking showing 60-79% inhibition in radical growth rate.

Achyranthes aspera, Crotalaria medicaginea, Amaranthus viridis, Xanthium

strumarium, Phalaris minor, Avena fatua, Oxalis corymbos showed 40-59%. 39 plant

species showed relatively weak inhibitory potential against the control plant species. 20

plant species exhibited stimulatory potential i.e., Verbena tenuisecta, Saxifraga

rotundifolia, Salvia aegyptiaca, Otostegia limbata, Sida alba, Peganum harmala,

Oxalis corniculata, Euphorbia hirta , Rumex nepalensis, Adiantum caperis-veneris,

Typha minima, Oenothera rosea, Solanum erianthum, Potamogeton lucens, Lythrum

salicaria, Cissampelos pareira, Aloe vera, Anisomeles indica, Euphorbia helioscopia

and Vernonia anthelmintica. Euphorbia helioscopia and Vernonia anthelmintica

remain conspicuous by having more than 200% elongation rate.

Weeds plants of notorious nature and allelopathic potential with limited reported

antifungal activity were selected for authentication of their use against fungal

pathogens. For this purpose, the top most noxious and allelopathic plants which were

examined by Sandwich and Dish pack screening methods. These notorious weeds

included Melilotus indica L., Melilotus alba Desr., Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause

and Solanum nigrum L. Methanolic leaf extracts of above mentioned plants were tested

against soil-born phytopathogenic fungi, i.e. Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizoctonia oryzae,

Fusarium fujikuroi, Fusarium oxysporum, Pythium ultimum and Pyricularia oryzae.



Methanolic fractions exhibited more promising results than aqueous fractions in

suppressing the fungal growth (Buch and Arya, 2017). All the selected and assessed

unwanted plants for fungicidal activities show strong fungal inhibition. Results showed

that Medicago parviflora and Solanum nigrum have strong suppressive potential on

fungal growth of all tested soil-borne phytopathogenic fungi. New herbicides and

antifungals are needed, particularly in the developing world, to treat cropping system

weeds competition for nutrients and fungal infections. The current study showed that

Medicago perviflora has strong inhibition potential to lettuce seedling and also on

fungal species. Outcome of this present research study could be an important step

towards the possibilities of using natural unwanted plant products as herbicides and

biopesticides for biological control of weeds and crops diseases caused by fungi.

Conclusion and Recomendations


CHAPTER 05

CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

From the past, few decades the trend to understand the myth of allelopathy get more

attention among researcher and hence research studies in this regards proved the

allelopathic behavior of crops and weeds by crop rotation, cover crops, green manure,

intercropping, etc. Research studies prevail to explain the effects (positive and negative)

of plants on their communities. Abilities and chemistry of allelopathic plants (crops and

weeds) depend on the composition of soil, nutritional availability, community of

neighboring plants, ecological and environmental conditions and genetic makeup etc.

Modern techniques, methods have helped in recognizing latent biological compounds,

make easy to know that how the allelochemicals synthesis, releases to soil, mode of

action and how effects the environment.

The results presented in the current research study hereby described the allelopathic

potential of weeds collected from different area of Pakistan. The top strongest and

potent allopathic weeds were applied for further fungicidal assessment, the results

showed strong inhibition against crop pathogenic fungi. Results showed that Medicago

parviflora and Solanum nigrum have strong suppressive potential against fungal growth

of all tested soil-borne phytopathogenic fungi. It has been concluded that selected

weeds may have strong allelochemical potential that can help in the development of

Conclusion and Recomendations


bioactive compounds from plant species to be used as natural herbicides for sustainable

control of weeds. This present research study could be an important step towards the

possibilities of using natural unwanted plant products as bio-pesticides in the control of

plant diseases caused by R. solani, R. oryzae, F. fujikuroi, F. oxysporum, P. ultimum

and P. oryzae

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Using this research information as benchmark for future research works on the

allelochemical identification and characterization.

Information as such could aid in the development of bioactive compounds from

plant species into natural herbicides and also the utilization of these plants in

sustainable weed control.

Further studies are needed to determine the chemical identity of the

bioactive compounds responsible for the observed antifungal activity.

Natural plant-derived fungicides may be a source of new alternative

active compounds, in particular with antifungal activity.

Genetical and evolutionary studies in this field are introductory. Manipulation

and identification of allelopathic genes will be the revolutionary achievements

of researchers for control and weed management.

Importantly in future research allelochemicals formulation into a commercial

weed and phytopathogenic pest control product.

It is also recommended as allelopathic cover crop for biological control of

weeds to support agro-environment conservation

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http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/8058. Retrieved on June 28th, 2016.

http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Avena+fatua. Retrieved on Aug

12th, 2017.

http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Coriandrum+sativum. Retrieved on

Aug 12th, 2017.

http://www.q-bank.eu/Plants/BioloMICS.aspx?Table=Plants%20-

%20Species&Rec=75&Fields=All (Q-bank, 2013. Comprehensive databases of

quarantine plant pests and diseases. Q-bank.) Retrieved on May 9th, 2017.

https://florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.sg/Special-Pages/plant-detail.aspx?id=1670

Retrieved on April 11, 2015.

PFAF, 2013. Database. Plants for a Future. http://www.pfaf.org/user/plantsearch.aspx.

Retrieved on July 2nd, 2017.

http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm

http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Anisomeles+indica


http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Avena+fatua

http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Coriandrum+sativum

https://florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.sg/Special-Pages/plant-detail.aspx?id=1670

ANNEXURE

Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment

ANNEXURE

Annexure A: Weeds of Pakistan S.No Name Family

1 Abutilon indicum L Malvaceae

2 Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae

3 Acrachne racemosa (B. Heyne ex Roem. & Schult.) Ohwi Poaceae

4 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Amaranthaceae

5 Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae

6 Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Simaroubaceae

7 Alhagi maurorum Medic. Papilionaceae

8 Alloteropsis cinicina (L.) Poaceae

9 Alopecurus nepalensis Trin. ex Steud. Poaceae

10 Alternanthera pungens Kunth Amaranthaceae

11 Alternanthera sessilis L. Amaranthaceae

12 Alysicarpus monilifer (L.) Moraceae

13 Amaranthus blitoides S. watson Amaranthaceae

14 Amaranthus hybridus L. Amaranthaceae

15 Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae

16 Anagallis arvensis L. Primulaceae

17 Argyreia nervosa (Burm. f.) |Convolvulaceae

18 Aristida adscensionis L. Pocaeae

19 Aristida cyanantha Nees ex Steud. Pocaeae

20 Arnebia hispidissima (Lehm.) A. DC. Boraginaceae

21 Artemesia scoparia Waldst. & Kit., Pl. Rar. Hung Asteraceae

22 Asparagus officinalis L. Asparagaceae

23 Asphodelus tunifolius Caven Asphodelaceae

24 Astragalus eremophilus Boiss. Papilionaceae

25 Astragalus hvmosus L. Papilionaceae

26 Atriplex stocksii Boiss. | Chenopodiaceae

27 Avena fatua L. Poaceae

28 Bidens pilosa L. Asteraceae

29 Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex Roxb. Nyctaginaceae

30 Bolboschoenus affinis Roth. Cyperaceae

31 Bolboschoenus maritimus (L.) Palla Cyperaceae

32 Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf Poaceae

33 Brachiaria reptans (L.) Poaceae

34 Brassica tournefortii Gouan |Brassicaceae

35 Briza minor L.

36 Bromus catharticus Vahl Poaceae

37 Bromus pectinatus Thunb. Poaceae

ANNEXURE


38 Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L'Hér. ex Vent. Moraceae

39 Buglossoides arvensis (L.) I.M. Johnst Boraginaceae

40 Bulbostylis barbata Rottb. Cyperaceae

41 Bulbostylis densa Wall. Cyperacea

42 Capparis cartilaginea Decne. Capparidaceae

43 Cyperus iria L Cyperaceae

44 Corchorus olitorius L Tiliaceae

45 Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae

46 Corchorus tridens L. Tiliaceae

47 Calendula arvensis L. Asteraceae

48 Calendula officinalis L. Asteraceae

49 Calotropis procera (Aiton) R. Br. Asclepiadaceae

50 Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae

51 Bromus catharticus Vahl, Symb. Capparidaceae

52 Carduus argentatus L. Asteraceae

53 Carthamus oxyacantha M. Bieb. Asteraceae

54 Carthamus persicus Desf. ex Willd. Asteraceae

55 Carthamus tinctorus L. Asteraceae

56 Cassia accidentalis L Caesalpiniaceae

57 Cassia occidentalis hort. ex Steud. Caesalpiniaceae

58 Celosia argentea L. Amaranthaceae

59 Cenchrus ciliaris L. Poaceae

60 Centaurea iberica Trevir. ex Spreng Asteraceae

61 Centaurium pulchellum (Sw.) E.H.L. Krause Gentianaceae

62 Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic Brassicaceae

63 Chenopodium album L. Chenopodiaceae

64 Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Chenopodiaceae

65 Chenopodium murale L. Chenopodiaceae

66 Chloris barbata Sw. Poaceae

67 Cichorium intybus L. Asteraceae

68 Cirsium arvense (L.) Asteraceae

69 Cistanche tubulosa (Schenk) Hook. f. Orobanchaceae

70 Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Cucurbitaceae

71 Cleome viscosa L. Capparidaceae

72 Cleome brachycarpa Vahl ex DC. Capparidaceae

73 Cnicus benedictus L. Asteraceae

74 Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae

75 Convolvulus arvensis L. Convolvulaceae

76 Convolvulus spicatus Peter ex Hallier f. Convolvulaceae

77 Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist Asteraceae

78 Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist Asteraceae

79 Conyzanthus squamatus (Spreng.) Tamamsch. Asteraceae

80 Corchorus aestuans L. Tiliaceae

81 Corchorus depressus (Linn.) Tiliaceae

ANNEXURE


82 Corchorus olitorius L. Tiliaceae

83 Coronopus didymus (L.) Brassicaceae

84 Cousinia minuta Boiss. Asteraceae

85 Cressa cretica L Convolvulaceae

86 Crotalaria medicaginea Lamarck, Encycl Papilionaceae

87 Cucumis prophetarum L.f. Cucurbitaceae

88 Cucumis melo (MilL.) J.H. Kirkbr. Cucurbitaceae

89 Cirsium wallichii DC. Asteraceae

90 Cuscuta japonica Choisy Convolvulaceae

91 Cymbopogon commutatus (Steud.) Stapf Poaceae

92 Cymbopogon distans (Nees ex Steud.) Will. Watson Poaceae

93 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Poaceae

94 Cyperus alulatus J. Kern Cyperaceae

95 Cyperus bulbosus Vahl Cyperaceae

96 Cyperus compressus L. Cyperaceae

97 Cyperus difformis L. Cyperaceae

98 Cyperus haspan L., Cyperaceae

99 Cyperus iria L. Cyperaceae

100 Cyperus laevigatus L., Cyperaceae

101 Cyperus longus L. Cyperaceae

102 Cyperus niveus Retz. Cyperaceae

103 Cyperus nutans Vahl Cyperaceae

104 Cyperus rotundus L Cyperaceae

105 Cyperus esculentus L. Cyperaceae

106 Cyperus strigosus L. Cyperaceae

107 Dampiera stricta (Sm.) R.Br. Goodeniaceae

108 Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. Poaceae

109 Datura alba F. Muell. Solanaceae

110 Datura innoxia Mill. Solanaceae

111 Descurainia Sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl Brassicaceae

112 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Poaceae

113 Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf Poaceae

114 Digera arvensis Forssk. Amaranthaceae

115 Digera muricata (L.) Mart. Amaranthaceae

116 Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler Poaceae

117 Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers. Poaceae

118 Digitaria nodosa Parl. Poaceae

119 Digitaria setigera Roth Poaceae

120 Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv. Poaceae

121 Elaeocarpus glabrescens Mast. Elaeocarpus

122 Euphorbia prostrata Aiton Euphorbiacae

123 Echinochloa colona (L.) Poaceae

124 Echinochloa frumentacea Link Poaceae

125 Echinops echinatus L. Asteraceae

ANNEXURE


126 Eclipta prostrata (L.) Asteraceae

127 Eclipta alba L. Asteraceae

128 Eleocharis atropurpurea (Retz.) J. Presl & C. Presl Cyperaceae

129 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae

130 Emex spinose L. Polygonaceae

131 Emex spinosa (L.) Polygonaceae

132 Eragrostis pilosa (L.) Poaceae

133 Erigeron allochrous Botsch. Asteraceae

134 Erigeron canadensis L. Asteraceae

135 Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E. Hubb. Poaceae

136 Eruca sativa Mill. Brassicaceae

137 Euphorbia helioscopia L. Euphorbiaceae

138 Euphorbia indica Lam. Euphorbiacae

139 Euphorbia oblongata JPG Euphorbiaceae

140 Euphorbia prostrata Aiton Euphorbiaceae

141 Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. Euphorbiaceae

142 Fimbristylis miliacea L. Vahl Cyperaceae

143 Fagonia cretica L. Zygophyllaceae

144 Fagonia indica Burm. f. Zygophylaceae

145 Farsetia jacquemontii Hook. f. & Thomson Brassicaceae

146 Filago pyramidata L. Asteraceae

147 Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forssk.) Bubani Cyperaceae

148 Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl Cyperaceae

149 Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Cyperaceae

150 Fimbristylis quinquangularis (Vahl) Kunth Cyperaceae

151 Fimbristylis squarrosa Vahl Cyperaceae

152 Fumaria parviflora Lam. Fumariaceae

153 Galium aparine L. Rubiaceae

154 Galium tricorne Stokes Rubiaceae

155 Gynandropsis pentaphylla Blanco Capparidaceae

156 Heliotropium europaeum L. Boraginaceae

157 Heliotropium arborescens L. Boraginaceae

158 Heliotropium strigosum Willd. Boraginaceae

159 Hyoscyamus niger L. Solanaceae

160 Hypecoum pendulum L. Papaveraceae

161 Ifloga spicata (Forssk.) Sch. Bip. Asteraceae

162 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Poaceae

163 Indigofera cordifolia B. Heyne ex Roth Fabaceae

164 Indigofera hochstetteri Baker Papilionaceae

165 Indigofera linifolia (L. f.) Retz. Papilionaceae

166 Indigofera oblongifolia Forssk. Papilionaceae

167 Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br. Convolvulaceae

168 Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. Convolvulaceae

169 Ipomoea alba Willd. Convolvulaceae

ANNEXURE


170 Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. Poaceae

171 Justicia adhatoda L. Acanthaceae

172 Sceletium tortuosum (Kanna) Aizoaceae

173 Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. Cyperaceae

174 Lactuca dissecta D. Don Asteraceae

175 Lactuca serriola L. Asteraceae

176 Lamium album L. Lamiaceae

177 Lamium amplexicaule L. Lamiaceae

178 Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae

179 Lathyrus aphaca L. Fabaceae

180 Lathyrus sativus L. Fabaceae

181 Launaea nudicaulis (L.) Asteraceae

182 Launaea angustifolia (Desf.) Kuntze Asteraceae

183 Launaea procumbens (Roxburgh) Ramayya & Rajagopa Asteraceae

184 Launaea resedifolia L. Asteraceae

185 Leersia hexandra Sw. Poaceae

186 Lepidium sativum L. Brassicaceae

187 Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees Poaceae

188 Leptochloa panicea (Retz.) Ohwi Poaceae

189 leptochloa panicea (Retz.) Ohwi Asteraceae

190 Leptodenia pyrotechnica Apocynaceae

191 Linum corymbulosum Rchb. Linaceae

192 Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng. Lamiaceae

193 Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae

194 Malcolmia africana (L.) Brassicaceae

195 Malcolmia africana (L.) W.T. Aiton Brassicaceae

196 Malva neglecta Wallr. Malvaceae

197 Malva parviflora L. Malvaceae

198 Malva verticillata L. Malvaceae

199 Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Malvaceae

200 Medicago laciniata (L.) Papilionaceae

201 Medicago lupulina L. Fabaceae

202 Medicago polymorpha L. Fabaceae

203 Medicago sativa L. Fabaceae

204 Medicago citrina. (Font Quer) Greuter Fabaceae

205 Melilotus alba L. Fabaceae

206 Melilotus indica (L.) Papilionaceae

207 Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M. Roem. Cucurbitaceae

208 Nepeta compestris Benth. Lamiaceae

209 Nerium indicum Mill. Apocynaceae

210 Neslia apiculata Fisch., C.A. Mey. & Avé-Lall. Brassicaceae

211 Nonea philistaea Boiss. Boraginaceae

212 Nonea pulla (L.) DC. Boraginaceae

213 Ochthochloa compressa (Forssk.) Hilu Poaceae

ANNEXURE


214 Oenothera rosea L'Hér. ex Aiton Onagraceae

215 Oligomeris linifolia (Vahl.) Resedaceae

216 Onosma chitralicum I.M. Johnst. Boraginaceae

217 Orobanche alba Stephan. Orobanchaceae

218 Oryza sativa Linn. Poaceae

219 Oxalis stricta L. Oxalidaceae

220 Oxyria digyna (L.) Polygonaceae

221 Persicaria maculosa Gray Polygonaceae

222 Paspalum scrobiculatum L. Poaceae

223 Panicum repens L. Poaceae

224 Papaver alpinum L. Papaveraceae

225 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Asteraceae

226 Paspalidium geminatum (Forssk.) Stapf. Poaceae

227 Paspalidium punctatum (Burm.) Poaceae

228 Paspalum distichum L. Poaceae

229 Peganum harmala L. Nitrariaceae

230 Pennisetum divisum (J.F. GmeL.) Henrard Poaceae

231 Phalaris minor Retz. Poaceae

232 Phragmite karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. Malvaceae

233 Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. Poaceae

234 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Verbenaceae

235 Phyllanthus niruri L. Euphorbiaceae

236 Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. Euphorbiacae

237 Physalis peruviana L. Solanaceae

238 Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae

239 Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae

240 Plantago ovate Forssk Plantaginaceae

241 Plantago amplexicaulis Cav. Polygonaceae

242 Poa annua L. Poaceae

243 Poa bulbosa L. Poaceae

244 Polygonum barbatum L. Polygonaceae

245 Polygonum biaristatum Aitch. & Hemsl. Polygonaceae

246 Polygonum plebejum R. Br. Polygonaceae

247 Polypogon hissaricus (Roshev.) Bor Poaceae

248 Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Poaceae

249 Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae

250 Portulaca quadrifida L. Portulacacae/

Aizoaceae

251 Psammogeton biternatum Edgew. Apiaceae

252 Pycreus flavidus (Retz.) T. Koyama Cyperaceae

253 Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex Royle Ranunculaceae

254 Ranunculus muricatus L. Ranunculaceae

255 Rhynchosia capitata (B. Heyne ex Roth) DC. Papilionaceae

256 Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. Papilionaceae

257 Robinia pseudoacacia L. Papilionaceae

ANNEXURE


258 Rottboellia exaltata L. f. Poaceae

259 Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) Clayton Poaceae

260 Rumex dentatus L. Polygonaceae

261 Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae

262 Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. ex Benth. Lamiaceae

263 Solanum surattense Burm. f. Solanaceae

264 Saccharum bengalense Retz. Poaceae

265 Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. Poaceae

266 Sagittaria guayanensis Kunth Alismataceae

267 Salsola baryosma (Schult.) Chenopodiaceae

268 Saponaria vaccaria L. Caryophyllaceae

269 Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. Compositae

270 Scandix pecten-veneris L. Umbelliferae

271 Schoenoplectus juncoides (Roxb.) Palla Cyperaceae

272 Schoenoplectus lateriflorus (J.F. GmeL.) Lye Cyperaceae

273 Schoenoplectus litoralis (Schrad.) Palla Cyperaceae

274 Schoenoplectus mucronatus (L.) Cyperaceae

275 Scirpus juncoides Roxb. Cyperaceae

276 Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) Spreng. ex Steud. Papilionaceae

277 Sesbania sesban (L.) Fabaceae

278 Sesuvium sesuvioides Verdc. Aizoaceae

279 Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. Poaceae

280 Setaria palmifolia (J. Koenig) Stapf Poaceae

281 Silene arenosa C. Koch Caryophyllaceae

282 Silene conoidea L. Caryophyllaceae

283 Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke Caryophyllaceae

284 Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae

285 Sisymbrium irio L. Brassicaceae

286 Solanum nigrum L., Solanaceae

287 Solanum surattense Burm. f. Solanaceae

288 Sonchus arvensis L. Asteraceae

289 Sonchus asper (L.) Asteraceae

290 Sonchus oleraceus L. | Asteraceae

291 Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Poaceae

292 Spergula arvensis L. Caryophyllaceae

293 Spergula fallax (Lowe) E.H.L. Krause Caryophyllaceae

294 Sporobolus coromendelianus (Ritz.) Kunth Poaceae

295 Stellaria media (L.) Caryophyllaceae

296 Sueda fruticosa Forssk. ex J.F. Gmel. Chenopodiaceae

297 Tribulus Terrestris L. Zygophylaceae

298 Tagetes minuta L. Asteraceae

299 Tamarix dioica Roxb. ex Roth Tamaricaceae

300 Taraxacum officinale L. Asteraceae

301 Torilis leptophylla (L.) Rchb. f. Umbelliferae

ANNEXURE


302 Torilis nodosa (L.) Umbelliferae

303 Trianthema monogyna L. Asteraceae

304 . Trianthema portulacastrum L. Aizoaceae

305 Trianthema triquetra Rottl & Willd Aizoaceae

306 Tribulus longipetalus Viv. Zygophylaceae

307 Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae

308 Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae

309 Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm. Boraginaceae

310 Trichosanthes dioica Roxb. Cucurbitaceae

311 Trifolium repens L. Fabaceae

312 Trigonella corniculata (L.) Papilionaceae

313 Trigonella monantha C.A. Mey. Papilionaceae

314 Tulipa stellata Hook. Liliaceae

315 Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC. Brassicaceae

316 Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae

317 Verbascum conomendelienum Scrophulariaceae

318 Verbena officinalis L. Verbenaceae

319 Verbena tenuisecta Briq. Verbenaceae

320 Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. Asteraceae

321 Vernonia cinerea (L.) Asteraceae

322 Veronica didyma Ten. Scrophulariaceae

323 Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Poaceae

324 Vicia hirsuta (L.) Papilionaceae

325 Vicia monantha Retz. Papilionaceae

326 Vicia peregrina L. Papilionaceae

327 Vicia sativa L. Papilionaceae

328 Vicia tetrasperma (L.) Moench Papilionaceae

329 Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty Poaceae

330 Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Maréchal Papilionaceae

331 Vigna trilobata (L.) Verdc. Papilionaceae

332 Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal Solanaceae

333 Withania somnifera (L.) Solanaceae

334 Xanthium strumarium L. Asteraceae

335 Zeuxine strateumatica (L.) Orchidaceae

336 Zygophyllum simplex L. Zygophylaceae

ANNEXURE


Annexure B: Top ten noxious allelopathic medicinal weeds (Sandwich

Method) 16. Melilotus indica L.


ANNEXURE


18. Melilotus alba Desr

69. Peganum harmala L.

ANNEXURE



52. Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton

ANNEXURE


06. Anagallis arvensis L .

81. Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk.

ANNEXURE


36. Solanum nigrum L.


ANNEXURE


Annexure C: Top ten noxious allelopathic medicinal weeds (Dish Pack

Method)


18. Melilotus alba Desr

ANNEXURE


16. Melilotus indica L.

38. Malva parviflora L.

ANNEXURE


36. Solanum nigrum L.

52. Nasturtium officinale W .T. Aiton

ANNEXURE



34. Cyperus Sp .

ANNEXURE


28. Vicia sativa L.


ANNEXURE


Annexure D: Antifungal Assessment Using Microtiter Plate Technique

(a)

(b)

allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental...

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