GREAT MAN THEORY

1840sThomas CarlyleHighly influential, individual with personal charisma, intelligence, and wisdomLeaders are born and not made & possess certain traits w/c are inherited

*CharacteristicsInstrumental and supportive

Charismatic Theory (PPT)*based on personal qualities1. Charm2. personal power3. persuasiveness4. self-confidence5. extraordinary ideas6. strong convictions

Examples:1. Mahatma Ghandi2. Alexander the great3. Cory Aquino

Assumptions:1. Charm & grace to create followers2. Self-belief is the fundamental need of leaders3. follows who they admire

Style:gather followers through dint of personality & charm, rather than any form of external power or authority

Traits:1. Passion2. Extraordinary3. Persistence4. Determination5. Optimism

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TRAIT THEORY

1930sStogdill

Top 5 Qualities1. Honest2. Inspiring3. Forward looking4. competent5. Intelligent

*Strengths and advantagesNatural...

*Limitations

a leader possess or a person man to be leader

It can be a leader or experienced

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SITUATIONAL THEORY

Kenneth Blanchard and Paul HerseyFirst introduced as “Life cycle theory of Leadership”Mid 1970s

Fundamental underpinning of this theory:NO SINGLE BEST STYLE OF LEADERSHIP

2 fundamental concepts:1. Leadership style2. Individual maturity

(4 Leadership styles S1-S4)Telling or Directing

one way communicationdecisions are made by leader

Selling/Coachingtwo-way communication; leaders made the

decision but seeks suggestions to the members

Participating/ Supportingleader takes part on making decisions but the

control in the follower

Delegatingthe follower decides when & how the leader will

be involved

(Individual maturity level)

The right leadership style will depend on the person or group being led- the follower. The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership theory identified four levels of maturity M1 through M4

M1-lack the specific skills required for the job in hand, unable to or unwilling to take the responsibility for the job or task

M2-unable to take on responsibility; however, they are willing to do the task

M3-experienced and able to do the task but lack the confidence to take on responsibility

M4-experienced at the task and comfortable with their ability to do it well. They are able and willing to not only do task, but take the responsibility for the task as well.

Developing people and self-motivation

✴A good leader develops, “the competence and commitment of their people so they’re self-motivation rather than dependent on the others for direction and guidance.”

✴According to Hersey’s “The situational back”. The leader’s high, realistic expectation causes high performance of followers: The leader’s low expectations lead low performance of the followers

✴According to Kenneth Blanchard, “Four combinations of competence and commitment make up what call “development level.”

D1- low competence and high commitmentD2- low competence and low competenceD3-High competence and low/ variable commitmentD4-high competence and high commitment

In order to make an effective cycle, a teacher needs to motivate followers properly.

SKILLS:1.Diagnosing2.Adaptive3.Communicative

Variable that effectiveness of leadership style are factors:1.Personality of the leader2.Performance requirements of both leaders and followers3.Attitudes, needs and expectations of the leaders and the followers4.The degree of interpersonal contact5.Time pressure6.Organizational structure7.Nature of the organization8.State of the organization’s development9.Influence of leader outside the group

*The type of leader depends on the situation*-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONTINGENCE/CONTINGENCY THEORY

Fred Fiedler “leadership style is effective and ineffective depends on the situation”

Leaders ability to lead is contingent upon various situational factors including the leaders preferred style, the capabilities and behaviors of followers and also various other situational factors.

Contingency thoughts are a class of behavioral theory that contend that there is no one best way leading and that a leadership style that is effective in some situations may not be successful in others.

An effect of this is that leaders who are very effective at one place and time may become unsuccessful other who transplant to another situation or when the factors around them change.

4 important ideas of contingency theory

1. there is a universal/one best way to manage2. the design of an organization and its subsystem

must :fit” the environment3. Effective organization not only have a proper “fit

with the environment but also between its subsystem4. The needs of an organization are better identified

when its properly designed and the management style is appropriate both to the tasks undertaken and the nature of the workgroup

3 aspect of leadership role under structural

1. Leader member relations- this represents the amount of confidence and loyalty of

2. Task structured- refers to the numbers of correction solution to a given situational dilemma

3. Position of power- amount of organizational support

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PATH-GOAL THEORY(house-mitchell path goal theory)

-developed by robert house in 1971-a leader’s behavior is contingent to the satisfaction, motivation and performance of his subordinates-the leader can affect the 3 in different ways1. offering rewards2. clarifying paths3. removing obstacles

-adapting a certain leadership style, based on the following:1. directive leadership2. supportive3. participative4. achievement-oriented

“leader provides conclusions, support, removes obstacles to complete the task and points out the connection between performing the task and receiving the reward or clarifies the relationship between the path, employee’s state and the goal they want to attain.”----------------------------------------------------------------------------

- TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP

>Max Weber-1947>Bernard M. Bass-1981 “Transactional leadership is based on hypothesis that followers are motivated through rewards & punishments”>is based on “principles of social exchange theory” -individual engage in social interaction. expect and give social, political and psychological benefits or rewards.>It is a term used to classify a formally known group leadership theories that inquire the interactions between leaders and followers. A transactional leaders focuses more on a series of “transaction”

Characteristics(11):1. Hierarchy2. Competitive3. Task focus

4. Identify needs of followers5. provide rewards to meet needs6. Exchange for expected performance7. contract for mutual benefits8. caretaker9. set goals for employees10. focus on day-to-day operations11. management by exception

>Maintain status quo through policies, procedure, routinized performance, self-interest, & interpersonal dependence

Basic Management Process:1. Controlling2. Organizing3. Short-term Planning----------------------------------------------------------------------------

- TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

-MacGregor Burns-a type leadership style that leads to positive changes in those who follow-inspirational leadership that promotes emphasize, development, attends to needs & motives of followers, inspires through optimism-focuses merging the motives, desires, values, and goals of leaders and followers into a common cause.

4 different components of transformational leadership

1. Intellectual stimulation2. Individualized consideration3. inspirational motivation4. Idealized Influence

key points of transformational leadership:✴Networking✴Cooperative✴Process focus✴Promote employee development✴Attend to needs & motives of followers✴Inspire through optimism✴Influence change in in perception✴Provide intellectual stimulation✴Encouragement of follower creativity✴Role model✴Individualize consideration✴Provide some of direction✴Encouragement of self-management-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

INTEGRATIVE LEADERSHIP MODEL

integrative- combining and coordinating diverse elements into a wholeleaders- people oriented or task oriented

Integrative leadership-a holistic, reflective and responsive approach to leading oneself, leading others and leading in the organization.

-The process of discovering what is unconsciously motivating us and making it conscious in terms of the principles and intentions that integrative leaders choose to stand for. The purpose and mission they choose to hold, the mission and motivations from which they act; and the performance that is the whole result of those actions.

Werren Bennis- the process of becoming a leader is not much

different from the process of becoming integrated human.

Integrative Leadership model-also called 4-3-2-1 model4: four energies or domains of intelligence3: three levels of awareness2: two choices that we face in each situation1: the oneness or integration that we feel when all

The four domains of intelligence

1. Physical

2. Mental

3. Emotional

4. Spiritual

The three levels of awareness:1. conscious (Who am I as personally?)2. subconscious (Who am I as character?)3. Supraconscious (Who am I as my ideal or true

self?)

Oneness- the integration of our intent, thoughts, feelings and actions in alignment with a higher intent that leads to a state of flow psychologically, and a state of grace spiritually.

Leaders need to be aware of….

their own behavior and influence on others

individual differences of followers

group characteristics

motivation

task structures

environmental factors

situational variables

----------------------------------------------------------------------------- TAYLOR THEORY

Frederick Winslow Taylor was an American mechanical engineer and recognized as the father of Scientific Management Theory

Published the book of the principles of scientific management

All workers were motivated by money

“A fair day’s pay for a fair day’s work”

Taylors 3 Assumptions

1. Man is a rational economic animal concerned with maximizing his economic gain

2. People respond as individuals and as groups3. People can be treated in a standardized fashion,

like machines

Four principles of Scientific Management:1. Replace working by “rule of thumb”, or simple

habit and common sense, but instead use the scientific method in to study work and determine the most efficient way to perform specific tasks.

2. Rather than simply assign workers to just any job, match workers to their jobs based on capability and motivation, and train them to work at maximum efficiency

3. Monitor worker’s performance, and provide instructions and supervision to ensure that they’re using the most efficient ways of working

4. Allocate the work between managers spend their time planning and training, allowing the workers to perform their tasks effectively.

-Propose higher wages to higher productive workersDesigned the quickest and best method of becoming

-He conclude that productivity will increase through careful systematic design of workplace condition and proper training of workers

Fundamental principle of Scientific Management:1. The development of true science of management

e.g. The best method for performing task will be determined2. The scientific selection of the worker so that each

worker will be given responsibility for the task that he will be distinguished

3. Scientific education & development of worker4. The intimate friendly relation between

management and labor

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GILBRETH LEADERSHIP MODEL

Frank Bunker Gilbreth (July 7, 1868-June 14, 1924)Lillian Evelyn Maller (may 24,1876-January 7,1972)

The management theory of Frank & Lillian Gilbreth can be summed up by the following:1. Reduce the number of motion in a task to

increase efficiency2. Focus on the incremental study of motions & time

to understand an entire task3. The goal of increased efficiency is both increased

profit and greater worker satisfaction

“Therbligs” combination of 18 basic motions*Grasp*Transport*Loaded*Hold

emphasizes the benefits job specification and establishment of work standards and the effects of wage plans and fatigue on workers

They accomplish more in a shorter time-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

GANTT THEORY

Gantt charta forerunner of PERT(program, evaluation, and review technique) chart, depicts the relationship of the work planned or completed and the amount of time needed or used

Advantages1. It gives an easy and visual idea about the status

of the project2. It does not require any skills to create3. It is universal

Disadvantage1. It can be complicated for large projects2. It can be misleading

A tool which takes the form of a horizontal bar graph used for displaying the progression of a project*The horizontal axis is a time scale expressed either in absolute time or in relative time preferred to the beginning of the project*The vertical axis shows the activities or milestone to be completed*Rows of bars shows the beginning and ending dates of individual tasks in the project

Service-oriented is better than profit-oriented“More humanitarian approach of management.”----------------------------------------------------------------------------

- FAYOL THEORY-HENRI FAYOL (1841-1925)

-Studied the functions of managers and concluded that management is universal. All managers, regardless of the type of organization or their level in the organization, have essentially the same tasks: planning, organizing, issuing orders, coordinating and controlling.

-He believed in the division of work and argued that specialization increases efficiency. Fayol recommended centralization through the use of a scalar chain or levels of authority and unity of command and direction so that each employee receives orders from only one superior.

- He believed that although individual interests should be allowed to think through and implement plans and should be adequately remunerated for their services.

- Fayol encouraged development of group harmony through equal treatment and stability of tenure of personnel. A firm believer in order, he advocated “a place for everything and everything in its place.” He also urged that management be taught in the colleges.

Management Principles developed by Henri Fayol: 

1. DIVISION OF WORK: Work should be divided among individuals and groups to ensure  that effort and attention are focused on special

portions of the task. Fayol presented work specialization as the best way to use the human resources of the organization.                              

2. AUTHORITY: The concepts of Authority and responsibility are closely related. Authority was defined by Fayol as the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience. Responsibility involves being accountable, and is therefore naturally associated with authority. Whoever assumes authority also assumes responsibility.   

3. DISCIPLINE: A successful organization requires the common effort of workers. Penalties should be applied judiciously to encourage this common effort.                                                                    

4. UNITY OF COMMAND: Workers should receive orders from only one manager.                             

5. UNITY OF DIRECTION: The entire organization should be moving towards a common objective in a common direction.                                              

6. SUBORDINATION OF INDIVIDUAL INTERESTS TO THE GENERAL INTERESTS: The interests of one person should not take priority over the interests of the organization as a whole.              

7. REMUNERATION: Many variables, such as cost of living, supply of qualified personnel, general business conditions, and success of the business, should be considered in determining a worker’s rate of pay.                                              

8. CENTRALIZATION: Fayol defined centralization as lowering the importance of the subordinate role. Decentralization is increasing the importance. The degree to which centralization or decentralization should be adopted depends on the specific organization in which the manager is working.                                                                

9. SCALAR CHAIN: Managers in hierarchies are part of a chain like authority scale. Each manager, from the first line supervisor to the president, possess certain amounts of authority. The President possesses the most authority; the first line supervisor the least. Lower level managers should always keep upper level managers informed of their work activities. The existence of a scalar chain and adherence to it are necessary if the organization is to be successful.                  

10. ORDER: For the sake of efficiency and coordination, all materials and people related to a specific kind of work should be treated as equally as possible.                                                          

11. EQUITY: All employees should be treated as equally as possible.       

12. STABILITY OF TENURE OF PERSONNEL: Retaining productive employees should always be a high priority of management. Recruitment and Selection Costs, as well as increased product-reject rates are usually associated with hiring new workers.                                                

13. INITIATIVE: Management should take steps to encourage worker initiative, which is defined as new or additional work activity undertaken through self direction.                                            

14. ESPIRIT DE CORPS (Spirit of cooperation): Management should encourage harmony and general good feelings among employees.

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WEBER THEORY

(1864-1920)

-a German sociologist

-“father of organization theory”

-he conceptualized a structure of authority that would facilitate the accomplishment of the organizational objectives

3 Bases of authority:

>Traditional authority

> Charisma

> Rational legal authority

-Weber recognized that if subordinates do not believe a person is qualified for the position, they may not accept that person’s authority

-He suggested the avoidance of traditional and charismatic leadership through systemic selection of personnel

-administrator are appointed, not elected

all personnel are selected for competence;

-the division of labor

-authority and responsibility is clearly defined

-positions are organized into hierarchy----------------------------------------------------------------------------

-JAMES MOONEY THEORY

>Coauthored the 1931 classics on the nature and development of organization entitled “ONWARD INDUSTRY”

>Alan C. Railey (1884-1957)

They stated that organizations should be studied from two view points: (1) The Employees who create and utilize the

process of organization; and(2) the objective of the process.

Mooney believed management to be the technique of directing people and organization the technique of relating functions. Organization is management’s responsibility.

Mooney enumerated the four universal principles of organization as follows:

A. The Co-ordination Principle;Co-ordination was considered the first principle and it contained the other two. It involved individuals performing activities together to obtain a common goal.

B. The Functional PrincipleThe functional principle was defined as the differentiation between various kinds of duty.

C. The Scalar Principle It was described as the rating of the duties involved for different members of the organization according to the degrees of authority and corresponding responsibility

D. Authority into a hierarchy.----------------------------------------------------------------------------

- URWICK THEORY

-Bureaucratic Theory -focused on organization-Was founded by Lyndall Fownes Urwick, an influential business management consultant and thinker in United Kingdom.-Urwick mainly focuses on the ideas of scientific management with the ideas of classical organization theory-Urwick 10 Principles of Organization by Lyndall Urwick.

According to Urwick (Notes on the Theory of Organization, 1952), an organization is built on ten principles: 1. The principle of the objective - Every organization and every part of the organization must be an expression of the purpose of the undertaking concern.2. The principle of specialization - The activities of every member of any organized group should be confined, as far as possible, to the performance of a single function. 3. The principle of co-ordination - The purpose of organizing where as distinguished from the purpose of the undertaking, is to facilitate co-ordination: unity of effort. 4. The principle of authority - In every organized group the supreme authority must rest somewhere. There should be a clear line of authority to every individual in the group 5. The principle of responsibility - The responsibility of the superior for the acts of the subordinate is absolute. 6. The principle of definition - The content of each position, both the duties involved, the authority and responsibility contemplated and the relationships with other positions should be clearly defined in writing and published to all concerned. 7. The principle of correspondence - In every position, the responsibility and the authority should correspond. 8. The principle of span of control - No person should supervise more than five, or at most, six direct subordinates whose work interlocks. 9. The principle of balance - It is essential that the various units of an organization should be kept in balance. 10. The principle of continuity - Re-organization is a continuous process: in every undertaking specific provision should be made for it."----------------------------------------------------------------------------

- BARNARD THEORY

-Chester Irving Barnard (1886–1961)

-was the president of the new Jersey Bell Telephone Company,

-he helped advance thinking about organizations when he published The Functions of the Executive in 1938 - an influential 20th century management book.

-He focused on creating a new theory around organizational structures, focusing on the organization as communication system

-He stress the importance of cooperation between management and labor

-Formal channels of communication must be known

-Authority depends on acceptance by the followers

-Small units are the building blocks for complex organization

Functions of the executives:

-Defining objectives

-Acquiring resources

-Coordinating activities

Barnard’s key concepts:

-Importance of an Individual's behaviors

-Compliance

-Communication

-Focused on importance of communication in informal organization.

The communication system is grounded in seven essential rules:

The channels of communication should be definite;

Everyone should know of the channels of communication;

Everyone should have access to the formal channels of communication;

Lines of communication should be as short and as direct as possible;

Competence of persons serving as communication centers should be adequate;

The line of communication should not be interrupted when the organization is functioning;

Every communication should be authenticated.

Barnard formulated two interesting theories: >one of authority; and>the other of incentives.

As for incentives, he proposed two ways of convincing subordinates to cooperate:>tangible incentives>persuasion.

He gives great importance to persuasion, much more than to economic incentives

He described four general and four specific incentives. The specific incentives were:

Money and other material inducements;

Personal non-material opportunities for distinction;

Desirable physical conditions of work;

Ideal benefactions, such as pride of workmanship etc.

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HAWTHORNE STUDIES-is a psychological phenomenon that produces an improvement in human behavior or performance as a result of increased attention-Western Electric Chicago Hawthorne Plant, Cicero, Illinois-Elton Mayo – 1927-1932

-sociologist Fritz Rothlesberger-Experimental study-Relation between physical environment and productivity of workers-Principle of Human Motivation

Test I: Effect on Illumination

Test II: Relay Assembly

*no connection between illumination and level of productivity

Test II:

Changing a variable usually increased productivity, even if the variable was just a change back to the original condition.

Number and length of work breaks

Refreshments

Length of workdays and workweeks

Temperature

Humidity

The aptitudes of individuals are imperfect predictors of job performance.

Informal Organization affects productivity.

Work-Group norms affect productivity.

The workplace is a social system.----------------------------------------------------------------------------

- AUTOCRATIC-DEMOCRATIC-LAISSEZ FAIRE LEADERSHIP

>In 1939, a group of researchers led by psychologist Kurt Lewin set out to identify different styles of leadership. A study in 1938 known as “Leadership and Group Life” was conducted under the leadership of Kurt Lewin and included Ron Leppit and Robert White.

>This early study was very influential and established three major leadership styles.

>In the study, groups of schoolchildren were assigned to one of three groups with an authoritarian, democratic or laissez-fair leader. The children were then led in an arts and crafts project. Researchers then observed the behavior of children in response to the different styles of leadership.

Three Leadership Styles:

1. Authoritarian: also known as autocratic leaders

>Provide clear expectations for what needs to be done, when it should be done, and how it should be done.

>Clear division between the leader and the followers.

>Authoritarian leaders make decisions independently with little or no input from the rest of the group.

>Abuse of this style is usually viewed as controlling, bossy, and dictatorial.

>Authoritarian leadership is best applied to situations where there is little time for group decision-making or where the leader is the most knowledgeable member of the group.

2. Participative Leadership (Democratic)

>Lewin’s study found that participative leadership, also known as democratic leadership, is generally the most effective leadership style.

>Democratic leaders offer guidance to group members but seek input from other group members.

>In Lewin’s study, children in this group were less productive than the members of the authoritarian group, but their contributions were of a much higher quality.

>Participative leaders encourage group members to participate, but retain the final say

3. Delegative (Laissez- Faire) Leadership

>Researchers found that children under delegative leadership were the least productive of all three groups.

>The children in this group also made more demands on the leader, showed little cooperation and were unable to work independently.

>Delegative leaders offer little or no guidance to group members and leave decision-making up to group members.

>While this style can be effective in situations where group members are highly qualified in an area of expertise, it often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation.----------------------------------------------------------------------------

- MORENO-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

MASLOW HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

-Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation. Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other theories of human developmental psychology, all of which focus on describing the stages of growth in humans.

-Maslow studied what he called exemplary people such as Albert Einstein, Jane Addams, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass rather than mentally ill or neurotic people, writing that "the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a cripple psychology and a cripple philosophy.” Maslow studied the healthiest 1% of the college student population.Maslow's theory was fully expressed in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality.

-Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest and most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom, and the need for self-actualization at the top.

The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "d-needs":

>esteem

>friendship and love

>security; and

>physical needs

-With the exception of the most fundamental (physiological) needs, if these "deficiency needs" are not met,

-the body gives no physical indication but the individual feels anxious and tense.

-Maslow's theory suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon) the secondary or higher level needs.

-Maslow also coined the term Metamotivation to describe the motivation of people who go beyond the scope of the basic needs and strive for constant betterment. Metamotivated people are driven by B-needs (Being Needs), instead of deficiency needs (D-Needs).

Physiological needs

For the most part, physiological needs are obvious — they are the literal requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met, the human body simply cannot continue to function.Air, water, and food are metabolic requirements for survival in all animals, including humans. Clothing and shelter provide necessary protection from the elements. The intensity of the human sexual instinct is shaped more by sexual competition than maintaining a birth rate adequate to survival of the species.

Safety needs

With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety -- due to terrorist attack, war, natural disaster, or, in cases of family violence, childhood abuse, etc -- people (re-)experience post-traumatic stress disorder and trans-generational trauma transfer. In the absence of economic safety -- due to economic crisis and lack of work opportunities - these safety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, reasonable disability accommodations, and the like.

Safety and Security needs include:

>Personal security>Financial security>Health and well-being>Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts

Love and belonging

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs are social and involve feelings of belongingness. The need is especially strong in childhood and can over-ride the need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents which is sometimes called Stockholm syndrome. The absence of this aspect of Maslow's hierarchy - due to hospitalism, neglect, shunning,ostracism etc - can impact individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships in general, such as:

>Friendship>Intimacy>Family

Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs, or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, may ignore the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control and belonging.

Esteem

-All humans have a need to be respected and to have self-esteem and self-respect. -Esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. -People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. -Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. -People with low self-esteem need respect from others. -Note, however, that many people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. -Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.

Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one.

>The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention.>The higher one is the need for self-respect, the need for strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom.

* Deprivation of these needs can lead to an inferiority complex, weakness and helplessness.

Self-actualization

- “What a man can be, he must be.” This forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization. -This level of need pertains to what a person's full potential is and realizing that potential. Maslow describes this desire as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming. 

-This is a broad definition of the need for self-actualization, but when applied to individuals the need is specific. For example one individual may have the strong desire to become an ideal parent, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in another it may be expressed in painting, pictures, or inventions. As mentioned before, in order to reach a clear understanding of this level of need one must first not only achieve the previous needs, physiological, safety, love, and esteem, but master these needs.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

HIERZBERG

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MCGREGOR (X & Y) THEORY-Douglas McGregor

← He is an American social psychologist, proposed

his famous X-Y theory in his 1960 book 'The Human Side Of Enterprise'.

← McGregor's ideas suggest that there are two

fundamental approaches to managing people. Many managers tend towards theory x, and generally get poor results. Enlightened managers use theory y, which produces better performance and results, and allows people to grow and develop.

McGregor's X-Y theory

← is a salutary and simple reminder of the natural

rules for managing people, which under the pressure of day-to-day business are all too easily forgotten.

Theory x ('authoritarian management' style)

← -The average employee does not like work and

will attempt to avoid it.

← -As employees are lazy they do not want

responsibility and have no ambition.

← -Individuals prefer to be directed and want

security above everything else.

← -Individuals need to be closely supervised and

controlled.

←

Theory X workers could be described as follows:

← - Individuals who dislike work and avoid it where

possible

← - Individuals who lack ambition, dislike

responsibility and prefer to be led

← - Individuals who desire security

Theory y('participative management' style)

← -The average employee likes work, and is self-

motivated.

← -Employees can learn to not only accept but seek

greater responsibility.

← -Individuals are ambitious not lazy, and work is as

natural as rest and play.

← -Individuals exercise self control and self-

direction to achieve objectives that they are committed to. Threats of punishment are unnecessary.

← -The rewards of achievement generate

commitment from employees.

← -If individuals are given freedom there is

opportunity to increase productivity.

Theory Y workers were characterized by McGregor as:

← - Consider effort at work as just like rest or play

← - Ordinary people who do not dislike work.

Depending on the working conditions, work could be considered a source of satisfaction or punishment

← - Individuals who seek responsibility (if they are

motivated

←

XY Theory Management Application - Business Implications for Workforce Motivation

If Theory Y holds true, an organization can apply these principles of scientific management to improve employee motivation:

← >Decentralization and Delegation

← >Job Enlargement

← >Participative Management

← >Performance Appraisals

----------------------------------------------------------------------------- OUCHI (Z) THEORY

-DR. WILLIAM OUCHI-Theory Z

DEVELOPMENT OF THEORY Z

-McGregor, a psychologist and college president, identified a negative set of assumptions about human nature, which he called Theory X. He asserted that these assumptions limited the potential for growth of many employees.

-McGregor presented an alternative set of assumptions that he called Theory Y and were more positive about human nature as it relates to employees.

-1970s and 1980s, many United States industries lost market share to international competitors, particularly Japanese companies.

-Concerns about the competitiveness of U. S. companies led some to examine Japanese management practices for clues to the success enjoyed by many of their industries.

-It was in this atmosphere that THEORY Z was introduced into the management lexicon.

Theory z as an approach to management

← Theory Z represents a humanistic approach to

management.

← Theory Z is a hybrid management approach

combining Japanese management philosophies with U.S. culture.

← Theory Z breaks away from McGregor's Theory

Y. Theory Y is a largely psychological perspective focusing on individual dyads of employer-employee relationships while Theory Z changes the level of analysis to the entire organization.

← Theory Z organizations exhibit a strong,

homogeneous set of cultural values that are similar to clan cultures.

*Clan cultures - emphasize complete socialization of members to achieve congruence of individual and group goals.

Richard Tanner Pascale 7’S THEORY

Style

Systems

Staff

Structure

Strategy

Shared vision

Skills

Style

"Style" refers to the management style or the leadership style that is followed by the superiors in an organization to carry out different activities in the organization. Style is basically the way the management behaves and collectively spends it’s time to achieve organizational goals. There are a lot of different management and leadership styles in use but the most popular ones are:

← Exploitive Autocratic

← Benevolent Autocratic

← Participative

← Democratic

System

In an organization, "systems" refer to the procedures and processes such as information systems, manufacturing processes, budgeting and control processes. When taking into consideration the systems of any organization, things such as the customization of the systems, tailoring those systems to individual managers, the setting up of objectives for those systems, economizing those systems, the flexibility of the systems and blending those systems into the organizational environment, come into any manager’s mind.

Staff

The term "Staff" refers to the people in the organization and their socialization into the organizational culture. This includes Staffing that is the filling, and keeping filled, positions in the organizational structure through identifying work-force requirements, recruiting, selecting, placing, promoting, appraising, planning the careers, compensating, and training or otherwise developing both candidates and current job holders to accomplish their tasks effectively and efficiently. Plus this also implies towards the chosen culture of the organization, and the selection of employees according to that particular organizational culture and the fact that whether the employees have blended into and accepted the culture or not.

Structure

"Structure" is the organizational structure or the hierarchy of the organization that comprises of the authority and responsibility relationships in the firm. This function of the framework is concerned with the direction of delegation of authority, the organizational structures, whether Flat or Tall and the degree of Centralization or Decentralization. Structure is closely related to Staff as the size of the staff greatly impacts the type of structure that the organization has. It is also dependent upon the Style of management preferred by the superiors in the organization, as it is the preference of the top management that really matters in the real world on the type of organizational structure being applied.

Strategy

The systematic actions and the allocation of resources to achieve the organizational objectives and aims is referred to as "Strategy". There are many predefined strategies but the management can effectively create some other strategy through the use of creative techniques like brainstorming or professional approach such as the Delphi Technique.

Shared Vision

"Shared vision" or Super ordinate goals are the values held and shared by the members of an organization. By using the term Shared Values, the 7S theorists emphasize that goal statements are very important in determining the destiny of the organization; they also point out that the organization members must share values equally. Therefore, special attention is given to personal and organizational values in order to increase organizational effectiveness.

Skills

These are the distinctive capabilities of an organization. In traditional management literature the term "skills" refers to the personal skills (e.g. technical, human, conceptual) while in the 7S framework "skills" not only means this but it also points towards the capabilities of the organization as a whole.----------------------------------------------------------------------------

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ARGYRIS-Chris argyris-Born July 16, 1923 in New Jersey, USA.-He is an American business theorist, Professor Emeritus at Harvard Business School-And a Thought Leader at Monitor Group.-He is commonly known for seminal work in the area of "Learning Organizations"

-Focusing his research on the coexistence of personal and organizational needs, found that individuals give priority to meeting their own needs.

-Argyris recommends that leaders help workers achieve self-actualization and maintains one’s personality to grow from passivity and dependence to activity and independence.

-Incongruency between the mature personality and management based on classic principles makes workers subordinate, dependent, and passive, causing them psychological failure and job dissatisfaction.

Theory of Action

-Argyris’ concept of Action Science begins with the study of how human beings design their actions in difficult situation.

-Involves the way they plan, implement and review their actions.

-It regard to how to act in situations;

Espoused Theory - the words we use to convey what we, do or what we would like others to think we do.

Single and Double Loop Learning

-Learning involves in detection and correction of error.

-Where something goes wrong, it is suggested, an initial port of call for many people is to look for another strategy that will address and work.

-In other words, given or chosen goals, values, plans and rules are operationalized rather than questioned. According to Argyris, this is Single-Loop Learning.

-An alternative response is to question to governing variables themselves, to subject them to critical scrutiny. This they describe as Double-Loop Theory.

Organizational Learning

-It suggest that each member of an organization constructs his or her own representation or image of the theory-in-use of the whole-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIKERT’S MANAGEMENT THEORY

-RENSIS LIKERT( August 5 ,1903 - September 3, 1981)-was an American educator and organizational psychologist best known for his research on management styles. He developed the Likert Scale and the linking pin model.

-His theory of management is based on his work at the University of Michigan’s Institute for Social Research

-Has identified three types of variables in organization:

1.Causal

– include leadership behavior, organizational structure, policies and controls.

2.Intervening

– are perceptions, attitudes ,and motivations.

3.End result

– are measures of profits, costs, and productivity.

Four types of management systems:

1.Exploitative-authoritative management system

>In this type of management system the job of employees/subordinates is to abide by the decisions made by managers and others with a higher status in the organization. The subordinates do not participate in the decision making. The organization's sole concern is completion of work. Fear and threats may be used to insure completion. No teamwork is involved.

2.Benevolent-authoritative management system

>Just as in an exploitive authoritative system, decisions are made at the top of the organization. However, employees are motivated through rewards rather than fear and threats. Information may flow from subordinates to managers, but it is restricted to “what management want to hear”.

3.Consultative management system

>In this type of management system, subordinates are motivated by rewards and a degree of involvement in the decision-making process. Management will constructively use subordinates' ideas and opinions. However, involvement is incomplete, and major decisions are still made by senior management. More information flows from subordinates to management, although it is incomplete and euphemistic.

4.Participative management system

>Management have complete confidence in their subordinates/employees. Communication is free, and subordinates are fully involved in decision making. Subordinates comfortably express opinions and engage in teamwork. Teams are linked together by common members

Likert-type scale

-is a psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires , and is the most widely used scale in survey research.

Typical five-level of Likert item:

Strongly disagree 1

Disagree 2

Neither agree nor disagree 3

Agree 4

Strongly agree 5

Linking pin model

>is an idea developed by Rensis Likert. It presents an organization as a number of overlapping work units in which a member of a unit is the leader of another unit.These individuals are the linking pins within the organization and so they become the focus of leadership development activities.

Central aspect of his theory:

>Employee-centered supervision is more productive than job-centered supervision.

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BLAKE & MOUTON

-Robert Blake and Jane Mouton (1930-1987) maintain that there are two critical dimensions of leadership:

(1) Concern for people : The leader cares little about people and operates in fear of something going wrong. This person's focus is on achieving results and productivity.

(2) Concern for production : This leader cares little about productivity and operates wholly from a desire to be loved and approved of.

← The Five Styles Explained

-Here's a snapshot of the five different leadership styles resulting from the grid:

'Impoverished' The leader exerts (and expects) minimal effort and has little concern for either staff satisfaction or work targets. This is a leader who is going through the motions is indifferent, non-committal, resigned and apathetic. S/he is doing just enough to keep their job

'Country Club' The leader is attentive to his/her people's needs and has developed satisfying relationships and work culture - but at the expense of achieving results. The leader is defined as agreeable, eager to help, non-confrontational, comforting and uncontroversial.

'Middle of the Road' (Politician) This leader is a compromiser who wants to maintain the status quo and avoid any problems. Is aware of and wants a focus on productivity but not at the expense of the morale of his/her team.

'Authoritarian' The leader concentrates almost exclusively on achieving results. People are viewed as a commodity to be used to get the job done. Communication is de-emphasized and conflict is resolved by suppressing it. Leadership is controlling, demanding and over-powering.

'Team' The leader achieves high work performance through 'leading' his/her people to become dedicated to the organizational goals. There is a high degree of participation and teamwork, which satisfies the basic need of people to be involved and committed to their work. The leader may be characterized as open-minded, flexible and one who inspires involvement.

Blake Mouton Leadership Grid

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------FIEDLER’S LEAST PREFERRED CO-WORKER (LPC)

THEORY

Resumptions:Leaders prioritize between task focus and people focus

3 Key factors that drive effective:1.relationships

2. power3. task structure

Description:leaders will think of a person with which they worked that they would like to least work with again

a high LPC leader generally scores the other person as positive and a low LPC leaders scores them as negative

High LPC leaders have close and positive relationship & get in a supportive way, prioritizing relationship before the task

“LOW LPC LEADERS PUT THE TASK FIRST”

Leader member realtion: goodTask structure: structuredLeader’s pposition power: strongMost effective leader: Low LPC

----------------------------------------------------------------------------- HERSEY & BLANCHARD (SITUATIONAL)

-Kenneth Blanchard & Paul Hershey

>First named as “Life Cycle Theory of Leadership”

>1970- Renamed as Situational-Leadership Theory

Leadership styles

S1: Telling - is characterized by one-way communication in which the leader defines the roles of the individual or group and provides the what, how, when, and where to do the task

S2: Selling - while the leader is still providing the direction, he or she is now using two-way communication and providing the socioemotional support that will allow the individual or group being influenced to buy into the process.’

S3: Participating - this is now shared decision making about aspects of how the task is accomplished and the leader is providing less task behaviors while maintaining high relationship behavior.

S4: Delegating - the leaders is still involved in decisions; however, the process and responsibility has been passed to the individual or group. The leader stays involved to monitor progress.Of these, no one style is considered optimal for all leaders to use all the time. Effective leaders need to be flexible, and must adapt themselves according to the situation.

Maturity LevelsM1 - They generally lack the specific skills required for the job in hand and are unable and unwilling to do or to take responsibility for this job or task.M2 - They are still unable to take on responsibility for the task being done; however, they are willing to work at the task.M3 - They are experienced and able to do the task but lack the confidence to take on responsibility.M4 - They are experienced at the task, and comfortable with their own ability to do it well. They able and willing to not only do the task, but to take responsibility for the task

Development Level of the Follower

D4 – High Competence, High CommitmentExperienced at the job, and comfortable with their own ability to do it well. May even be more skilled than the leader. D3 – High Competence, Variable CommitmentExperienced and capable, but may lack the confidence to go it alone, or the motivation to do it well / quickly.D2 – Some Competence, Low CommitmentMay have some relevant skills, but won’t be able to do the job without help. The task or the situation may be new to them. D1 – Low Competence, High CommitmentGenerally lacking the specific skills required for the job in hand, but has the confidence and / or motivation to tackle it.

Variables that affects the Leadership Styles:

← >Personality of the leader

← >Performance requirements of the leader and

the followers

← >Attitudes, Needs and Expectation of the leader

and the followers

← >Degree of interpersonal contact

← >Time pressure

← >Organizational Structure

← >Nature of the organization

← >State of Organizational development

← >Influence of leader outside the group

----------------------------------------------------------------------------- VROOM & YETTON NORMATIVE MODEL

-They address decision making as a social process and emphasize how managers do rather than should behave in their normative model.

Alternative decision processes:

← A= autocratic

← C= consultative

← G= group

← I= First variant

← II= Second variant

TYPES OF MANAGEMENT DECISION STYLES

← AI- Solves the problem using information available to you at that time.

← AII- Obtains necessary information from your subordinates then decides on the solution to the problem yourself.

← CI- Shares the problem with relevant subordinates individually, getting their ideas or suggestions without bringing them together as a group.

← CII- Shares the problem with your subordinates as a group, collectively obtaining their ideas and suggestions.

← GII- Shares a problem with your subordinates as a group. Together you generate and evaluate alternatives and attempt to reach agreement on a solution.

7 Decision rules that do most of the work of the model

1.The information rule – if the quality of the decision is important and if the leader does not possess enough information or expertise to solve the problem alone, Al is eliminated.2. The goal congruence rule – if the quality of the decision is important and if the subordinates do not share the organizational goals to be obtained in solving the problem, GII is eliminated.3.The unstructured problem rule – in decisions in which the quality of the decision is important, if the leader lacks the necessary information or expertise to solve the problem alone and if the problem is unstructured, the method used must allow the leader not only to collect the information but also to do so in efficient and effective manner. AI, AII and CI are eliminated.4. The acceptance rule – if the acceptance of the decision by subordinates is critical to effective implementation and if it is not certain that an autocratic decision made by the leader would receive the acceptance, AI and AII are eliminated.5. The conflict rule – if the acceptance of the decision is critical, and an autocratic decision is not certain to be accepted and subordinates are likely to be in conflict or disagreement over the appropriate solution, AI, AII, CI and CII are eliminated from the feasible set.6. The fairness rule – if the quality of the decision is unimportant and if the acceptance is critical and not certain to result from an autocratic decision, AI, AII, CI and CII are eliminated.

7. The acceptance priority rule – if the acceptance is critical and not ensured by an autocratic decision and if subordinates can be trusted, AI, AII, CI and CII are eliminated.

3 classes of outcomes that influence the ultimate effectiveness of decisions:

1.the quality of the decision2.acceptance of the decision by the subordinates3.Available time needed to make decision.----------------------------------------------------------------------------

- SERVANT LEADERSHIP>Coined by Robert Greenleaf >The idea of the servant as a leader came out of reading Hermann Hesse’s The Journey To The East.

>Servant does the menial chores also sustained by the party’s spirits though his extraordinary presence. When the servant left the group, the group fell into disarray and the journey was abandoned.

>“Servants leadership puts serving first, takes a holistic approach, shares decision making, and builds community”

>First published an essay in 1970 entitled “Servant as a Leader”

>"The servant-leader is servant first… It begins with the

>natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. That person is sharply different from one who is leader first, perhaps because of the need to assuage an unusual power drive or to acquire material possessions…The leader-first and the servant-first are two extreme types. Between them there are shadings and blends that are part of the infinite variety of human nature."

>Practical relationship which supports people who choose to serve first, and then lead as a way of expanding service to individuals and institutions

>Encourages collaboration, trust, foresight, listening and ethical use of power and empowerment

>Has the potential to create positive thoughts throughout the society ethical perspective on leadership that identifies key moral behaviors that leaders must continuously demonstrate in order to make progress on Greenleaf’s (1977/2002) “best test.” The “best test,” which gives us the ethical ends for action, combined with Spears’ distillation of traits that identified the means, create a powerful framework for a review of the literature that furthers the conceptual framework for servant-leadership.

Characteristics of the Servant-leadership

Listener- a leader has a deep commitment to listening intently to others. It also encompasses getting in touch with one’s own inner voice and seeking to understand what one’s body, spirit and mind are communicating. Listening coupled with regular periods of reflection, is essential to the growth of servant-leader

Empathy- servant-leader strives to understand and empathize with others.

Healing-learning to heal is a powerful force of transformation and integration.

Awareness- General awareness and self-awareness, strengthens the servant-leader

Characteristics of a Servant leader

*Persuasion

*Conceptualization-seek to nurture their abilities to ‘dream great dreams.’ The ability to look at problem from a conceptualizing perspective means that one must think beyond day-to-day realities

*Foresight- ability to understand the lessons from the past, realities of the present, consequences of the future

*Stewardship- holding something in trust for another

*Commitement of the growth of people

*Building community-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

BUREAUCRATIC LEADERSHIP

-This style of leadership follows a close set of standards. Everything is done in an exact, specific way to ensure safety and/or accuracy. You will often find this leadership role in a situation where the work environment is dangerous and specific sets of procedures are necessary to ensure safety.

-Bureaucratic administration means fundamentally domination through knowledge

-Max Weber

CHARACTERISTIC OF BUREAUCRATIC LEADERSHIP:

>Leaders impose strict and systematic discipline on the followers and demand business-like conduct in the workplace

>Leaders are empowered via the office they hold - position power

>Followers are promoted based on their ability to conform to the rules of the office

>Follower should obey leaders because authority is bestowed upon the leader as part of their position in the company

Purpose of bureaucracy

>is to successfully implement the actions of an organization of any size in achieving its purpose and mission, and the bureaucracy is tasked to determine how it can achieve its purpose and mission with the greatest possible efficiency and at the least cost of any resources.

Weber’s Idea on Bureaucratic leadership

Weber's ideal bureaucracy is characterized by hierarchical organization, delineated lines of authority in a fixed area of activity, action taken on the basis of and recorded in written rules, bureaucratic officials need expert training, rules are implemented by neutral officials, career advancement depends on technical qualifications judged by organization, not individuals While recognizing bureaucracy as the most efficient form of organization, and even indispensable for the modern state, Weber also saw it as a threat to individual freedoms, and

ADVANTAGE OF BUREAUCRATIC LEADERSHIP-Positive work environment-quality work-ultimate control

DISADVANTAGES OF BUREAUCRATIC LEADERSHIP-poor communication-lack of creativity

-Power obsession

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RELATIONAL AND SHARED LEADERSHIP

(Relational Leadership)

>Refers to a model or perspective on leadership that focuses on the idea that leadership effectiveness has to do with the ability of the leader to create positive relationships within the organizations. (Margaret J. Wheatley,1992)

5 Components:>Inclusive>Empowering>Purposeful>Ethical >Process-Oriented

Inclusive

← Being understanding, valuing, and actively

engaging diversity in views, approaches, styles and aspects of individuality such as sex or culture that add multiple perspectives to a group’s activity.

Empowering

← Thriving on change demands, the empowerment

of every person in the organization – no ifs, ands, or buts.

Purposeful

← Having a commitment to a goal or activity.

← Ability to collaborate and to find common ground

with others to facilitate positive change. Creating positive change can mean working hard, toward resolving differences among participants, finding a common direction, and building a shared vision to improve the organization, or enhance others in some way

Ethical

← Emphasizes ethical and moral leadership.

← Driven by values and standards and leadership

that is good-moral-in nature.Process-Oriented

← How the group goes about being a group,

remaining a group, and accomplishing a group’s purposes.

(Shared Leadership)

>Also known as Partnership-as-Leadership, Distributed Leadership, and Community of leaders.

>The idea of leadership as partnership suggests the basic concept of 2 or more people sharing power and joining forces to move toward accomplishment of a shared goal. (Russ S. Moxley,2000)

>Effective delegation in the shared leadership model involves giving people responsibility and freedom, responsibility to find the information and resources needed to work on their task, and the freedom to do it in their own way

>One person does not delegate, because members choose to do what they do best.

5 Requirements for the partnership model to work:

← Balance of power - for this model to be a

partnership one person cannot have power and the others don’t. They must be equal partners.

← Shared purpose or goal – must understand the

ultimate goal of the group. This model is very powerful when everyone is working toward the same goal.

← Share responsibility for the work of the group

– each person in the partnership must take an active role and be accountable for completing their individual contribution.

← Respect for the person – each person in the

group brings with them skills and ideas that are valuable. The partnership must recognize and embrace the differences in the group.

← Partnering in the nitty-gritty – working together

in complex, real world situation.

The virtues in building stronger and healthier communities and organizations:

← Concern

← Trust

← Respect

← Appreciation

← Affection

← Hope

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CHAOS THEORY

-developed by MArgaret Wheatley-it is scientific principle describing the unpredictability if the system-the primary tool for this theory os the sytems’ theory which is used to describe process that change over time.-when a system become dislodged, it goes through a period of oscilation-Chaos is the final state in a system’s movement away from order-Chaos theory see how organizations function as unified systems

Factors affecting CHAOS theory-effective leadership-a guiding vision-strong values-organizational beliefs-open communication