AliFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaFor other persons named Ali, see Ali (name). For other uses, see Ali (disambiguation).

`Alî ibn Abî Ṭâlib

1st Shia Imam

4th Caliph of Rashidun Caliphate

Rashidun Caliph in Kufa

Al-Murtaza (Chosen One)

Amir Al-Mu'mineen (Commander of the Faithful)

Calligraphic representation of Ali

Islamic Caliphate during his reign

Fourth rightly guided Caliph (Sunni Islam's view), Successor of Muhammad (Shi'ah

Islam's view) and Amir al-Mu'minin

("Commander of the Faithful")

Full name Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib

( طالب أبي بن (علي

Reign 656–661

Born 13th Rajab 23 BH

≈ 600[1][2] or Sep. 20, 601[3] or Jul. 17, 607[4] CE

Birthplace Kaaba,[1] Mecca, Arabia

Died 21st Ramadan ul Mubarak 40   AH

≈ Jan. 27, 661 CE [2] [5]

Deathplace Great Mosque of Kufa, Kufa,Iraq

Place of burial Imam Ali Mosque, Najaf, Iraq

Predecessor • Uthman Ibn Affan

(As Fourth Sunni Caliph)

• Muhammad

(As First Shia Imam)

Successor • Hasan

(As Second Shia Imam)

• Hasan ibn Ali

(As Fifth Sunni Caliph),

Father Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib

Mother Fatima bint Asad

Brother(s) • Ja`far ibn Abī Tālib

• Aqeel ibn Abi Talib

• Talib ibn Abu Talib

Sister(s) • Fakhitah bint Abi Talib

• Jumanah bint Abi Talib

Spouse(s) • Fatimah

• Umamah bint Zainab

• Umm ul-Banin

• Leila bint Masoud

• Asma bint Umays

• Khawlah bint Ja'far

• Al Sahba'bint Rabi'ah

Son(s) • Muhsin ibn Ali

• Hasan ibn Ali

• Husayn ibn Ali

• Hilal ibn Ali

• Al-Abbas ibn Ali

• Abdullah ibn Ali

• Jafar ibn Ali

• Uthman ibn Ali

• Ubaid Allah bin Ali

• Abi Bakr bin Ali

• Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah

• Umar bin Ali

• Muhammad ibn AbiBakr(adopted)

Daughter(s) • Zaynab bint Ali

• Umm Kulthum bint Ali

• Ruqayyah bint Ali

Descendants Seyyed, Alavi

Other titles • Bab-e-Madinatul-ilm

("The door to the city of Knowledge")

• Abu Turab

("Father of the Soil")

• Murtadha

("One Who Is Chosen and Contented")

• Asadullah

("Lion of God")

• Haydar

("Braveheart")

Part of a series on

Ali

Views[show]

Life[show]

Legacy[show]

Perspectives[show]

Related articles[show]

Category

 Islam portal

V

T

E

Ali ibn Abi Talib (/ˈɑːli,   ɑːˈliː/ ;[6] Arabic:  طالب أبي بن translit.: ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Arabic ,علي

pronunciation: [ʕæliː ibn ʔæbiː tˤæːlib]; 13th Rajab, 22 or 16 BH – 21st Ramaḍān, 40 AH; September 20, 601 or July 17, 607 or 600[7] – January 27, 661)[2] was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, ruling over the Islamic Caliphate from 656 to 661.[8] A son of Abu Talib,[8] Ali was also the first young male who accepted Islam.[9][10] Sunnis consider Ali the fourth and final of the Rashidun (rightly guided Caliphs), while Shias regard Ali as the first Imam after Muhammad, and consider him and his descendants the rightful successors to Muhammad, all of whom are members of the Ahl al-Bayt, the household of Muhammad. This disagreement split the Ummah (Muslim community) into the Sunni and Shi`i branches.[1]

Many sources, especially Shia ones, record that Ali was the only person born in the sacred sanctuary of the Kaaba inMecca, the holiest place in Islam.[1][11][12] His father was Abu Talib and his mother was Fatima bint Asad,[1] but he was raised in the household of Muhammad, who himself was raised by Abu Talib, Muhammad's uncle and Ali's father. When Muhammad reported receiving a divine revelation, Ali was the first male to accept his message and first to convert to Islam at the age of 12, dedicating his life to the cause of Islam. [2][13][14][15]

Ali migrated to Medina shortly after Muhammad did. Once there Muhammad told Ali that God had ordered Muhammad to give his daughter, Fatimah, to Ali in marriage.[1] For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his service, leading parties of warriors in battles, and carrying messages and orders. Ali took part in the early caravan raids from Mecca and later in almost all the battles fought by the nascent Muslim community. Ali was appointed Caliph by the Companions of Muhammad (the Sahaba) in Medina after the assassination of the third caliph, `Uthman ibn Affan.[16][17] He encountered defiance and civil war during his reign. In 661, Ali was attacked one morning while praying in the Great Masjid of Al-Kufah, and died two days later.[18][19][20]

In Muslim culture, Ali is respected for his courage, knowledge, belief, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty to Muhammad, equal treatment of all Muslims and generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies, and therefore is central to mystical traditions in Islam such as Sufism. Ali retains his stature as an authority on Quranic exegesis, Islamic jurisprudence and religious thought.[21] Ali holds a high position in almost all Sufi orders which trace their lineage through him to Muhammad. Ali's influence has been important throughout Islamic history.[1]

Contents  [hide] 

1 In Meccao 1.1 Early life

o 1.2 Acceptance of Islam

o 1.3 After declaration of Islam

o 1.4 Migration to Medina 2 In Medina

o 2.1 Muhammad's era 2.1.1 Family life 2.1.2 Military career 2.1.3 Missions for Islam 2.1.4 Incident of Mubahala 2.1.5 Ghadir Khumm

o 2.2 Succession to Muhammad

o 2.3 After Muhammad

o 2.4 Ali and the Rashidun Caliphs 2.4.1 Siege of Uthman

3 Caliphateo 3.1 Election as Caliph

o 3.2 Reign as Caliph

o 3.3 First Fitna 3.3.1 Policies

o 3.4 Death

o 3.5 Burial 4 Aftermath 5 Knowledge

o 5.1 Works 6 Descendants 7 Views

o 7.1 Muslim views 7.1.1 Shia 7.1.2 Sunni 7.1.3 Sufi

o 7.2 As a "deity" 7.2.1 Alawites 7.2.2 Ali-Illahism 7.2.3 Druze

o 7.3 Non-Muslim views 8 Historiography 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading

o 12.1 Original sources

o 12.2 Secondary sources 13 External links

In Mecca[edit]

Early life[edit]Main articles: Family tree of Ali and Birthplace of Ali ibn Abi Talib

Ali's father Abu Talib was the custodian of the Ka`bah and a sheikh of the Banu Hashim, an important branch of the powerful Quraysh tribe. He was also an uncle of Muhammad. Ali's mother, Fatima bint Asad, also belonged to Banu Hashim, making Ali a descendant of Ishmael, the son of Ibrahim (Abraham).[22] Many sources, especially Shi`i ones, attest that Ali was born inside the Kaaba in the city of Mecca, where he stayed with his mother for three days. According to a tradition, Muhammad was the first person whom Ali saw as he took the newborn in his hands. Muhammad named him Ali, meaning "the exalted one". Muhammad had a close relationship with Ali's parents. When Muhammad was orphaned and later lost his grandfather Abdul Muttalib, Ali's father took him into his house.[1] Ali was born two or three years after Muhammad married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid.[23] When Ali was five or six years old, a famine occurred in and around Mecca, affecting the economic conditions of Ali's father, who had a large family to support. Muhammad took Ali into his home to raise him.[1][13][24]

Acceptance of Islam[edit]See also: Identity of the first male Muslim

The second period of Ali's life began in 610 when he declared Islam at age 10 and ended with the Hijra of Muhammad to Medina in 622.[1] When Muhammad reported that he had received a divine revelation, Ali, then only about ten years old, believed him and professed to Islam. [1][2][13][14] According

to Ibn Ishaq and some other authorities, Ali was the first male to embrace Islam.[25] Tabari adds other traditions making the similar claim of being the first Muslim in relation toZayd ibn Harithah or Abu Bakr.[10][26] Some historians and scholars believe Ali's conversion is not worthy enough to consider him the first male Muslim because he was a child at the time. [27] Shia doctrine asserts that in keeping with Ali's divine mission, he accepted Islam before he took part in any pre-Islamic Meccan traditional religion rites, regarded by Muslims as polytheistic (see shirk) or paganistic. Hence the Shia say of Ali that his face is honored, as it was never sullied by prostrations before idols. [13] The Sunnis also use the honorific Karam Allahu Wajhahu, which means "God's Favor upon his Face." The reason his acceptance is often not called a conversion is because he was never an idol worshipper like the people of Mecca. He was known to have broken idols in the mold of Abraham and asked people why they worshipped something they made themselves. [28] Ali's grandfather, along with some members of the Bani Hashim clan, were Hanifs, or followers of a monotheistic belief system prior to the coming of Islam.

After declaration of Islam[edit]Muhammad invited people to Islam in secret for three years before he started inviting them publicly. When he was commanded to invite his closer relatives to come to Islam [29] he gathered the Banu Hashim clan in a ceremony. According to al-Tabari, Ibn Athir and Abu al-Fida, Muhammad announced at invitational events that whoever assisted him in his invitation would become his brother, trustee and successor. Only Ali, who was thirteen or fourteen years old, stepped forward to help him. This invitation was repeated three times, but Ali was the only person who answered Muhammad. Recognizing Ali's continual and singular response to his call, Muhammad declared that Ali was his brother, inheritor and vice-regent and people must obey him. Most of the adults present were uncles of Ali and Muhammad, and Abu Lahab laughed at them and declared to Abu Talib that he must bow down to his own son, as Ali was now his Emir.[30] This event is known as the Hadith of Warning. During the persecution of Muslims and boycott of the Banu Hashim in Mecca, Ali stood firmly in support of Muhammad.[31]

Migration to Medina[edit]See also: Hijra (Islam)

In 622, the year of Muhammad's migration to Yathrib (now Medina), Ali risked his life by sleeping in Muhammad's bed to impersonate him and thwart an assassination plot so that Muhammad could escape in safety.[1][13][32] This night is called Laylat al-Mabit. According to some hadith, a verse was revealed about Ali concerning his sacrifice on the night of Hijra which says "And among men is he who sells his nafs (self) in exchange for the pleasure of Allah."[33][34]

Ali survived the plot, but risked his life again by staying in Mecca to carry out Muhammad's instructions: to restore to their owners all the goods and properties that had been entrusted to Muhammad for safekeeping. Ali then went to Medina with his mother, Muhammad's daughter Fatimah and two other women.[2][13]

In Medina[edit]

Muhammad's era[edit]See also: Muhammad in Medina and Military career of Ali

Ali was 22 or 23 years old when he migrated to Medina. When Muhammad was creating bonds of brotherhood among his companions, he selected Ali as his brother.[2][13][35] For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his service as his secretary and deputy, serving in his armies, the bearer of his banner in every battle, leading parties of warriors on raids, and carrying messages and orders.[36] As one of Muhammad's lieutenants, and later his son-in-law, Ali was a person of authority and standing in the Muslim community. [37]

Family life[edit]

Main article: Ali marital life

See also: Ahl al-Bayt, Hadith of the Event of the Cloak and The verse of purification

In 623, Muhammad told Ali that God ordered him to give his daughter Fatimah Zahra to Ali in marriage.[1] Muhammad said to Fatimah: "I have married you to the dearest of my family to me."[38] This family is glorified by Muhammad frequently and he declared them as his Ahl al-Bayt in events such as Mubahala and hadith like the Hadith of the Event of the Cloak. They were also glorified in the Quran in several cases such as "the verse of purification".[39][40]

Ali had four children born to Fatimah, the only child of Muhammad to have surviving progeny. Their two sons (Hasan and Husain) were cited by Muhammad to be his own sons, honored numerous times in his lifetime and titled "the leaders of the youth of Jannah" (Heaven, the hereafter.) [41][42]

At the beginning they were extremely poor. For several years after his marriage, Fatimah did all of the household work by herself. The shoulder on which she carried pitchers of water from the well was swollen and the hand with which she worked the handmill to grind corn was often covered with blisters.[43] Fatimah vouched to take care of the household work, make dough, bake bread, and clean the house; in return, Ali vouched to take care of the outside work such as gathering firewood, and bringing food.[44] Their circumstances were akin to many of the Muslims at the time and only improved following the Battle of Khaybar when the wealth of Khaybar was distributed among the poor. When the economic situations of the Muslims became better, Fatimah gained some maids but treated them like her family and performed the house duties with them.[45]

Their marriage lasted until Fatimah's death ten years later. Although polygamy was permitted, Ali did not marry another woman while Fatimah was alive, and his marriage to her possesses a special spiritual significance for all Muslims because it is seen as the marriage between two great figures surrounding Muhammad. After Fatimah's death, Ali married other wives and fathered many children.[1]

Military career[edit]

[show]

V

T

E

Campaigns of Ali

Main articles: Military career of Ali and List of expeditions of Muhammad

With the exception of the Battle of Tabouk, Ali took part in all battles and expeditions fought for Islam.[13] As well as being the standard-bearer in those battles, Ali led parties of warriors on raids into enemy lands.

Ali first distinguished himself as a warrior in 624 at the Battle of Badr. He defeated the Umayyad champion Walid ibn Utba as well as many other Meccan soldiers. According to Muslim traditions Ali killed between twenty and thirty-five enemies in battle, most agreeing with twenty-seven.[46]

Ali was prominent at the Battle of Uhud, as well as many other battles where he wielded a bifurcated sword known as Zulfiqar.[47] He had the special role of protecting Muhammad when most of the Muslim army fled from the battle of Uhud[1] and it was said "There is no brave youth except Ali and there is no sword which renders service except Zulfiqar."[48] He was commander of the Muslim army in the Battle of Khaybar.[49] Following this battle Mohammad gave Ali the nameAsadullah, which in Arabic means "Lion of God". Ali also defended Muhammad in the Battle of Hunayn in 630.[1]

Missions for Islam[edit]

Arabic calligraphy which means "There is no brave youth except Ali and there is no sword which renders service except Zulfiqar."

Muhammad designated Ali as one of the scribes who would write down the text of the Quran, which had been revealed to Muhammad during the previous two decades. As Islam began to spread throughout Arabia, Ali helped establish the new Islamic order. He was instructed to write down the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the peace treaty between Muhammad and the Quraysh in 628. Ali was so reliable and trustworthy that Muhammad asked him to carry the messages and declare the orders. In 630, Ali recited to a large gathering of pilgrims in Mecca a portion of the Quran that declared Muhammad and the Islamic community were no longer bound by agreements made earlier with Arab polytheists. During the Conquest of Meccain 630, Muhammad asked Ali to guarantee that the conquest would be bloodless. He ordered Ali to break all the idols worshipped by the Banu Aus, Banu Khazraj, Tayy, and those in the Kaaba to purify it after its defilement by the polytheism of the pre-Islamic era. Ali was sent to Yemen one year later to spread the teachings of Islam. He was also charged with settling several disputes and putting down the uprisings of various tribes. [1][2]

Incident of Mubahala[edit]Main articles: Mubahala and Hadith of Mubahala

See also: Ahl al-Bayt

According to hadith collections, in 631 an Arab Christian envoy from Najran (currently in northern Yemen and partly in Saudi Arabia) came to Muhammad to argue which of the two parties erred in its doctrine concerning Jesus. After likening Jesus' miraculous birth to Adam's creation,[50] Muhammad called them to mubahala(conversation), where each party should bring their knowledgeable men, women and children, and ask God to curse the lying party and their followers.[51]Muhammad, to prove to them that he was a prophet, brought his daughter Fatimah, Ali and his grandchildren Hasan and Husayn. He went to the Christians and said "this is my family" and covered himself and his family with a cloak.[52] According to Muslim sources, when one of the Christian monks saw their faces, he advised his companions to withdraw from Mubahala for the sake of their lives and families. Thus the Christian monks vanished from the Mubahala place. Allameh Tabatabaei explains in Tafsir al-Mizan that the word "Our selves" in this verse[51] refers to Muhammad and Ali. Then he narrates that Imam Ali al-Rida, eighth Shia Imam, in discussion with Al-Ma'mun, Abbasid caliph, referred to this verse to prove the superiority of Muhammad's progeny over the rest of the Muslim community, and considered it the proof for Ali's right for caliphate due to God having made Ali like the self of Muhammad.[53]

Ghadir Khumm[edit]Main articles: Hadith of the pond of Khumm and Hadith of the two weighty things

The Investiture of Ali, at Ghadir Khumm (MS Arab 161, fol. 162r, AD 1309/8 Ilkhanid manuscript illustration).

As Muhammad was returning from his last pilgrimage in 632, he made statements about Ali that are interpreted very differently by Sunnis and Shias.[1] He halted the caravan at Ghadir Khumm, gathered the returning pilgrims for communal prayer and began to address them:[54]

According to Encyclopedia of Islam:

Taking Ali by the hand, he asked of his faithful followers whether he, Muhammad, was not closer (awlā) to the Believers than they were to themselves; the crowd cried out: “It is so, O Apostle of God!”; he then declared: “He of whom I am the mawla, of him Ali is also the mawla (man kuntu mawlāhu fa-ʿAlī mawlāhu)”.[55]

[56]

Shia's regard these statements as constituting the designation of Ali as the successor of Muhammad and as the first Imam; by contrast, Sunnis take them only as an expression of close spiritual relationship between Muhammad and Ali, and of his wish that Ali, as his cousin and son-in-law, inherit his family responsibilities upon his death, but not necessarily a designation of political authority. [57] [58] Many Sufis also interpret the episode as the transfer of Muhammad's spiritual power and authority to Ali, whom they regard as the wali par excellence.[1][59] On the basis of this hadith, Shia say that Ali later insisted that his religious authority was superior to that of Abu Bakr and Umar.[60]

Succession to Muhammad[edit]See also: Succession to Muhammad, Saqifah, Rashidun and Hadith of position

Ambigram depicting Muhammad (right) and Ali (left) written in a single word. The 180 degree inverted form shows both words.

After uniting the Arabian tribes into a single Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life, Muhammad's death in 632 signalled disagreement over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community.[61] While Ali and the rest of Muhammad's close family were washing his body for burial, at a gathering attended by a small group of Muslims at Saqifah, a close companion of Muhammad named Abu Bakr was nominated for the leadership of the community. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. The choice of Abu Bakr was disputed by some of the Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali had been designated his successor by Muhammad himself.[15][62]

Later when Fatimah and Ali sought aid from the Companions in the matter of his right to the caliphate, they answered 'O daughter of the Messenger of God! We have given our allegiance to Abu Bakr. If Ali had come to us before this, we would certainly not have abandoned him'. Ali said, 'Was it fitting that we should wrangle over the caliphate even before the Prophet was buried?' [63][64]

Following his election to the caliphate, Abu Bakr and Umar with a few other companions headed to Fatimah's house to force Ali and his supporters who had gathered there to give their allegiance to Abu Bakr. Then, it is alleged that Umar threatened to set the house on fire unless they came out and swore allegiance with Abu Bakr.[65] Fatimah, in support of her husband, started a commotion and threatened to "uncover her hair", at which Abu Bakr relented and withdrew. [45] Ali is reported to have repeatedly said that had there been forty men with him he would have resisted. [65] Ali did not actively assert his own right because he did not want to throw the nascent Muslim community into strife.[2] Other sources say that Ali accepted the selection of Umar as caliph and even gave one of his daughters, Umm Kulthūm, to him in marriage.[1]

18th century mirror writing inOttoman calligraphy. Depicts the phrase 'Ali is the vicegerent of God' in both directions.

This contentious issue caused Muslims to later split into two groups, Sunni and Shia. Sunnis assert that even though Muhammad never appointed a successor, Abu Bakr was elected first caliph by the Muslim community. The Sunnis recognize the first four caliphs as Muhammad's rightful successors. Shias believe that Muhammad explicitly named Ali as his successor at Ghadir Khumm and Muslim leadership belonged to him which had been determined by divine order. [15]

According to Wilferd Madelung, Ali himself was firmly convinced of his legitimacy for caliphate based on his close kinship with Muhammad, his intimate association and his knowledge of Islam and his merits in serving its cause. He told Abu Bakr that his delay in pledging allegiance (bay'ah) as caliph was based on his belief of his own prior title. Ali did not change his mind when he finally pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr and then to Umar and to Uthman but had done so for the sake of the unity of Islam, at a time when it was clear that the Muslims had turned away from him. [15][66] Ali also believed that he could fulfill his role of Imam'ate without this fighting. [67]

After Muhammad[edit]See also: Origin and development of the Quran

Another part of Ali's life started in 632 after the death of Muhammad and lasted until the assassination of Uthman Ibn Affan, the third caliph in 656. During those 24 years, Ali neither took part in any battle or conquest,[2] nor did he assume any executive position. He withdrew from political affairs, especially after the death of his wife, Fatimah Zahra. He used his time to serve his family and

worked as a farmer. Ali dug a lot of wells and planted gardens near Medina and endowed them for public use. These wells are known today as Abar Ali ("Ali's wells").[68]

Ali compiled a complete version of the Quran, mus'haf,[69] six months after the death of Muhammad. The volume was completed and carried by camel to show to other people of Medina. The order of this mus'haf differed from that which was gathered later during the Uthmanic era. This book was rejected by several people when he showed it to them. Despite this, Ali made no resistance against standardized mus'haf.[70]

Ali and the Rashidun Caliphs[edit]See also: Rashidun and The election of Uthman

At the beginning of the Abu Bakr's caliphate, there was a controversy about Muhammad's endowment to his daughter, especially Fadak, between Fatimah and Ali on one side and Abu Bakr on the other side. Fatimah asked Abu Bakr to turn over their property, the lands of Fadak and Khaybar. But Abu Bakr refused and told her that prophets did not have any legacy and that Fadak belonged to the Muslim community. Abu Bakr said to her, "Allah's Apostle said, we do not have heirs, whatever we leave is Sadaqa." Together with Umm Ayman, Ali testified to the fact that Muhammad granted it to Fatimah Zahra, when Abu Bakr requested her to summon witnesses for her claim. Fatimah became angry and stopped speaking to Abu Bakr, and continued assuming that attitude until she died. [71]

'Aisha also said that "When Allah's Apostle died, his wives intended to send 'Uthman to Abu Bakr asking him for their share of the inheritance." Then 'Aisha said to them, "Didn't Allah's Apostle say, 'Our (Apostles') property is not to be inherited, and whatever we leave is to be spent in charity?'". [72]

According to some sources, Ali did not give his oath of allegiance to Abu Bakr until some time after the death of his wife, Fatimah in the year 633 AD.[2] Ali participated in the funeral of Abu Bakr.[73]

He pledged allegiance to the second caliph Umar ibn Khattab and helped him as a trusted advisor. Umar particularly relied upon Ali as the Chief Judge of Medina. He also advised Umar to set Hijra as the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Umar used Ali's suggestions in political issues as well as religious ones.[74]

Ali was one of the electoral council to choose the third caliph which was appointed by Umar. Although Ali was one of the two major candidates, the council's arrangement was against him. Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas and Abdur Rahman bin Awf, who were cousins, were naturally inclined to support Uthman, who was Abdur Rahman's brother-in-law. In addition, Umar gave the casting vote to Abdur Rahman. Abdur Rahman offered the caliphate to Ali on the condition that he should rule in accordance with the Quran, the example set by Muhammad, and the precedents established by the first two caliphs. Ali rejected the third condition while Uthman accepted it. According to Ibn Abi al-Hadid's Comments on the Peak of Eloquence Ali insisted on his prominence there, but most of the electors supported Uthman and Ali was reluctantly urged to accept him. [75]

Siege of Uthman[edit]Main article: Siege of Uthman

Uthman Ibn Affan expressed generosity toward his kin, Banu Abd-Shams, who seemed to dominate him, and his supposed arrogant mistreatment toward several of the earliest companions such as Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud and Ammar ibn Yasir provoked outrage among some groups of people. Dissatisfaction and resistance openly arose since 650–651 throughout most of the empire.[76] The dissatisfaction with his rule and the governments appointed by him was not restricted to the provinces outside Arabia.[77] When Uthman's kin, especially Marwan, gained control over him, the noble companions, including most of the members of elector council, turned against him or at least withdrew their support, putting pressure on the caliph to mend his ways and reduce the influence of his assertive kin.[78]

At this time, Ali had acted as a restraining influence on Uthman without directly opposing him. On several occasions Ali disagreed with Uthman in the application of the Hudud; he had publicly shown sympathy for Abu Dharr al-Ghifari and had spoken strongly in the defense of Ammar ibn Yasir. He conveyed to Uthman the criticisms of other Companions and acted on Uthman's behalf as negotiator with the provincial opposition who had come to Medina; because of this some mistrust between Ali and Uthman's family seems to have arisen. Finally, he tried to mitigate the severity of the siege by his insistence that Uthman should be allowed water. [2]

There is controversy among historians about the relationship between Ali and Uthman. Although pledging allegiance to Uthman, Ali disagreed with some of his policies. In particular, he clashed with Uthman on the question of religious law. He insisted that religious punishment had to be done in several cases such as Ubayd Allah ibn Umar and Walid ibn Uqba. In 650 during pilgrimage, he confronted Uthman with reproaches for his change of the prayer ritual. When Uthman declared that he would take whatever he needed from the fey', Ali exclaimed that in that case the caliph would be prevented by force. Ali endeavored to protect companions from maltreatment by the caliph such as Ibn Mas'ud.[79] Therefore, some historians consider Ali one of the leading members of Uthman's opposition, if not the main one. But Wilferd Madelung rejects their judgment due to the fact that Ali did not have the Quraysh's support to be elected as a caliph. According to him, there is even no evidence that Ali had close relations with rebels who supported his caliphate or directed their actions. [80] Some other sources say Ali had acted as a restraining influence on Uthman without directly opposing him.[2] However, Madelung narrates Marwan told Zayn al-Abidin, the grandson of Ali, that

No one [among the Islamic nobility] was more temperate toward our master than your master. [81]

Caliphate[edit]

Caliphateخالفة

Main caliphates[show]

Parallel caliphates[show]

 Islam portal

V

T

E

See also: Rashidun Empire and Ali as caliph

Election as Caliph[edit]Ali was caliph between 656 and 661, during one of the most turbulent periods in Muslim history, which also coincided with the First Fitna.

Uthman's assassination meant that rebels had to select a new caliph. This met with difficulties since the rebels were divided into several groups comprising the Muhajirun, Ansar, Egyptians, Kufans and Basrites. There were three candidates: Ali, Talhah and al-Zubayr. First the rebels approached Ali, requesting him to accept being the caliph. Some of Muhammad's companions tried to persuade Ali in accepting the office,[82][83][84] but he turned down the offer, suggesting to be a counselor instead of a chief.[85]

Talhah, Zubayr and other companions also refused the rebels' offer of the caliphate. Therefore, the rebels warned the inhabitants of Medina to select a caliph within one day, or they would apply drastic action. In order to resolve the deadlock, the Muslims gathered in the Mosque of the Prophet on June 18, 656 to appoint the caliph. Initially Ali refused to accept simply because his most vigorous supporters were rebels. However, when some notable companions of Muhammad, in addition to the residents of Medina, urged him to accept the offer, he finally agreed. According to Abu Mekhnaf's narration, Talhah was the first prominent companion who gave his pledge to Ali, but other narrations claimed otherwise, stating they were forced to give their pledge. Also, Talhah and Zubayr later claimed they supported him reluctantly. Regardless, Ali refuted these claims, insisting they recognized him as caliph voluntarily. Wilferd Madelung believes that force did not urge people to give their pledge and they pledged publicly in the mosque. [16][17]

While the overwhelming majority of Medina's population as well as many of the rebels gave their pledge, some important figures or tribes did not do so. The Umayyads, kinsmen of Uthman, fled to the Levant or remained in their houses, later refusing Ali's legitimacy. Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas was absent and Abdullah ibn Umar abstained from offering his allegiance, but both of them assured Ali that they would not act against him.[16][17]

Reign as Caliph[edit]

Domains of Rashidun Caliphateunder four caliphs. The divided phase relates to the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali during the First Fitna.

  Strongholds of the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali during the First Fitna

  Region under the control ofMuawiyah I during the First Fitna

  Region under the control of Amr ibn al-As during the First Fitna

Since the conflicts in which Ali was involved were perpetuated in polemical sectarian historiography, biographical material is often biased. But the sources agree that he was a profoundly religious man, devoted to the cause of Islam and the rule of justice in accordance with the Quran and the Sunna; he engaged in war against erring Muslims as a matter of religious duty. The sources abound in notices on his austerity, rigorous observance of religious duties, and detachment from worldly goods. Thus some authors have pointed out that he lacked political skill and flexibility. [2]

Ali inherited the Rashidun Caliphate—which extended from Egypt in the west to the Iranian highlands in the east—while the situation in the Hejaz and the other provinces on the eve of his election was unsettled. Soon after Ali became caliph, he dismissed provincial governors who had been appointed by Uthman, replacing them with trusted aides. He acted against the counsel

of Mughira ibn Shu'ba and Ibn Abbas, who had advised him to proceed his governing cautiously. Madelung says Ali was deeply convinced of his right and his religious mission, unwilling to compromise his principles for the sake of political expediency, and ready to fight against overwhelming odds.[86] Muawiyah I, the kinsman of Uthman and governor of the Levant, refused to submit to Ali's orders; he was the only governor to do so. [2]

When he was appointed caliph, Ali stated to the citizens of Medina that Muslim polity had come to be plagued by dissension and discord; he desired to purge Islam of any evil. He advised the populace to behave as true Muslims, warning that he would tolerate no sedition and those who were found guilty of subversive activities would be dealt with harshly. [87] Ali recovered the land granted by Uthman and swore to recover anything that elites had acquired before his election. Ali opposed the centralization of capital control over provincial revenues, favoring an equal distribution of taxes and booty amongst the Muslim citizens; he distributed the entire revenue of the treasury among them. Ali refrained from nepotism, including with his brother Aqeel ibn Abu Talib. This was an indication to Muslims of his policy of offering equality to Muslims who served Islam in its early years and to the Muslims who played a role in the later conquests.[2][88]

The name of Ali with Islamic calligraphy.

Ali succeeded in forming a broad coalition especially after the Battle of the Camel. His policy of equal distribution of taxes and booty gained the support of Muhammad's companions, especially the Ansar who were subordinated by the Quraysh leadership after Muhammad, the traditional tribal leaders, and the Qurra or Quran reciters that sought pious Islamic leadership. The successful formation of this diverse coalition seems to be due to Ali's charismatic character. [2][89] This diverse coalition became known as Shi'a Ali, meaning "party" or "faction of Ali". However according to Shia, as well as non-Shia reports, the majority of those who supported Ali after his election as caliph, were shia politically, not religiously. Although at this time there were many who counted as political Shia, few of them believed Ali's religious leadership.[90]

First Fitna[edit]

[show]

V

T

E

First

Islamic

Civil War

See also: First Fitna

A'isha, Talhah, Al-Zubayr and the Umayyads, especially Muawiyah I and Marwan I, wanted Ali to punish the rioters who had killed Uthman. They wanted Ali to arrest Uthman ibn Affan's killer and not to fight Muawiyah I.[91][92] They encamped close to Basra. The talks lasted for many days and the subsequent heated exchange and protests during the parley turned from words to blows, leading to loss of life on both sides. In the confusion the Battle of the Camel started in 656, where Ali emerged victorious.[93]

However some historians believe that they used this issue to seek their political ambitions because they found Ali's caliphate against their own benefit. On the other hand, the rebels maintained that Uthman had been justly killed, for not governing according to Quran and Sunnah, hence no vengeance was to be invoked.[2][13][94] Historians disagree on Ali's position. Some say the caliphate was a gift of the rebels and Ali did not have enough force to control or punish them, [87] while others say Ali accepted the rebels' argument or at least did not consider Uthman just ruler. [95]

Under such circumstances, a schism took place which led to the first civil war in Muslim history. Some Muslims, known as Uthmanis, considered Uthman a rightful and just Caliph till the end, who had been unlawfully killed. Some others, who are known as party of Ali, believed Uthman had fallen into error, he had forfeited the caliphate and been lawfully executed for his refusal to mend his way or step down; thus Ali was the just and true Imam and his opponents are infidels. It is important to note that this was not the position of Ali himself. This civil war created permanent divisions within the Muslim community regarding who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate. [96]

The First Fitna, 656–661, followed the assassination of Uthman, continued during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended by Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate. This civil war (often called the Fitna) is regretted as the end of the early unity of the Islamic ummah (nation). [97] Ali appointed 'Abd Allah ibn al'-Abbas [98]  governor of Basra and moved his capital to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in Iraq. Following the Roman-Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sasanian wars that lasted for hundreds of years, there were deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire. The Iraqis wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in Kufa so as to bring revenues into their area and oppose Syria.[99] They convinced Ali to come to Kufa and establish the capital in Kufa, in Iraq. [99]

Later Muawiyah I, the governor of Levant and the cousin of Uthman, refused Ali's demands for allegiance. Ali opened negotiations hoping to regain his allegiance, but Muawiyah insisted on Levant autonomy under his rule. Muawiyah replied by mobilizing his Levantine supporters and refusing to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in his election. Ali then moved his armies North and the two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties led to the Battle of Siffin in 657.[2][100]

After a week of combat was followed by a violent battle known as laylat al-harir (the night of clamor), Muawiyah's army was on the point of being routed when Amr ibn al-Aas advised Muawiyah to have his soldiers hoist mus'haf (either parchments inscribed with verses of the Quran, or complete copies

of it) on their spearheads in order to cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army. [2][100] Ali saw through the stratagem, but only a minority wanted to pursue the fight.[15]

The two armies finally agreed to settle the matter of who should be Caliph by arbitration. The refusal of the largest bloc in Ali's army to fight was the decisive factor in his acceptance of the arbitration. The question as to whether the arbiter would represent Ali or the Kufans caused a further split in Ali's army. Ash'ath ibn Qaysand some others rejected Ali's nominees, 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abbas and Malik al-Ashtar, and insisted on Abu Musa Ash'ari, for his neutrality. Finally, Ali was urged to accept Abu Musa. Amr ibn al-As was appointed by Muawiyah as an arbitrator. Seven months later the two arbitrators met at Adhruh about 10 miles north west of Maan in Jordon in February 658. Amr ibn al-As convinced Abu Musa al-Ashaari that both Ali and Muawiyah should step down and a new Caliph be elected. Ali and his supporters were stunned by the decision which had lowered the Caliph to the status of the rebellious Muawiyah. Ali was therefore outwitted by Muawiyah andAmr ibn al-As.[101][102]

When the arbitrators assembled at Daumet-ul-Jandal, a series of daily meetings were arranged for them to discuss the matters in hand. When the time arrived for taking a decision about the caliphate, Amr bin al-A'as convinced Abu Musa al-Ashari into entertaining the opinion that they should deprive both Ali and Muawiya of the caliphate, and give to the Muslims the right to elect the caliph. Abu Musa al-Ashari also decided to act accordingly.[103] According to Poonawala, it seems that the arbiters and other eminent persons, with the exclusion of Ali’s representatives, met on January 659 to discuss the selection of the new caliph. Amr supported Muawiyah, while Abu Musa preferred his son-in-law, Abdullah ibn Umar, but the latter refused to stand for election in default of unanimity. Abu Musa then proposed, and Amr agreed, to depose both Ali and Muawiyah and submit the selection of the new caliph to a Shura. In the public declaration that followed Abu Musa observed his part of the agreement, but Amr declared Ali deposed and confirmed Muawiya as caliph. [2]

Ali refused to accept the verdict of him stepping down and for an election to be held and found himself technically in breach of his pledge to abide by the arbitration. [104][105][106] Ali protested, stating that it was contrary to the Qur'an and the Sunnah and hence not binding. Then he tried to organize a new army, but only the Ansar, the remnants of the Qurra led by Malik Ashtar, and a few of their clansmen remained loyal.[2] This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters.[104] The arbitration resulted in the dissolution of Ali's coalition and some have opined that this was Muawiyah's intention.[2][107] This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters. The most vociferous opponents in Ali's camp were the very same people who had forced Ali into the ceasefire. They broke away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan "arbitration belongs to God alone." This group came to be known as the Kharijites ("those who leave"). They considered everyone to be their enemy. In 659 Ali's forces and the Kharijites met in the Battle of Nahrawan.[103][103][108][109] The Qurra then became known as theKharijites ("those who leave"). The Kharijites then started killing Ali's supporters and other Muslims. They considered anyone who was not part of their group as an unbeliever. [109]

In 659 Ali's forces finally moved against the Kharijites and they finally met in the Battle of Nahrawan. Although Ali won the battle by a huge margin, the constant conflict had begun to affect his standing.[103] While dealing with the Iraqis, Ali found it hard to build a disciplined army and effective state institutions. He also spent a lot of time fighting the Kharijites. As a result, Ali found it hard to expand the state on its eastern front.[110]

At about the same time, unrest was brewing in Egypt. The governor of Egypt, Qais, was recalled, and Ali had him replaced with Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (the brother of Aisha and the son of Islam's first caliph Abu Bakr). Muawiyah allowed 'Amr ibn al-'As to conquer Egypt and 'Amr did so successfully.[111] Amr had first taken Egypt eighteen years earlier from the Romans but had been dismissed by Uthman.[111] Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr had no popular support in Egypt and managed to get together 2000 men but they dispersed without a fight. [111]

In the following years Muawiyah's army occupied many cities of Iraq, which Ali's governors could not prevent, and people did not support him to fight with them. Muawiyah overpowered Egypt, Hijaz, Yemen and other areas.[112] In the last year of Ali's caliphate, the mood in Kufa and Basra changed in

his favor as the people became disillusioned with Muawiyah's reign and policies. However, the people's attitude toward Ali differed deeply. Just a small minority of them believed that Ali was the best Muslim after Muhammad and the only one entitled to rule them, while the majority supported him due to their distrust and opposition to Muawiyah.[113]

A grand view of Ali Mausoleum, Najaf, Iraq

Policies[edit]What shows Ali's policies and ideas of governing is his instruction to Malik al-Ashtar, when appointed by him as governor of Egypt. This instruction, which is considered by many Muslims and even non-Muslims as the ideal constitution for Islamic governance, involved detailed description of duties and rights of the ruler and various functionaries of the state and the main classes of society at that time.[114][115][need quotation to verify]

Ali wrote in his instruction to Malik al-Ashtar:

Infuse your heart with mercy, love and kindness for your subjects. Be not in face of them a voracious animal, counting them as easy prey, for they are of two kinds: either they are your brothers in religion or your equals in creation. Error catches them unaware, deficiencies overcome them, (evil deeds) are committed by them intentionally and by mistake. So grant them your pardon and your forgiveness to the same extent that you hope God will grant you His pardon and His forgiveness. For you are above them, and he who appointed you is above you, and God is above him who appointed you. God has sought from you the fulfillment of their requirements and He is trying you with them. [116]

Since the majority of Ali's subjects were nomads and peasants, he was concerned with agriculture. He instructed to Malik to give more attention to development of the land than to the collection of the tax, because tax can only be obtained by the development of the land and whoever demands tax without developing the land ruins the country and destroys the people. [117]

This mosque in an-Najaf, Iraq, is widely considered by Shias to be the final burial place of Ali.

Death[edit]On the 19th of Ramadan 40 AH, which would correspond to January 25/26, 661 CE, while praying in the Great Mosque of Kufa, Ali was attacked by the Kharijite Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam. He was

wounded by ibn Muljam's poison-coated sword while prostrating in the Fajr prayer. [118] Ali ordered his sons not to attack the Kharijites, instead stipulating that if he survived, ibn Muljam would be pardoned whereas if he died, ibn Muljam should be given only one equal hit (regardless of whether or not he died from the hit).[119]

Ali died a few days later on January 31, 661 CE (21 Ramadan 40 A.H). [118] Hasan fulfilled Qisas and gave equal punishment to ibn Muljam upon Ali's death. [113]

Burial[edit]

Rawze-e-Sharif, the Blue Mosque, in Mazari Sharif, Afghanistan – where a minority of Muslims believe Ali ibn Abu Talib is buried.

According to Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid, Ali did not want his grave to be desecrated by his enemies and consequently asked his friends and family to bury him secretly. This secret gravesite was revealed later during the Abbasid caliphate by Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, his descendant and the sixth Shia Imam.[120] Most Shias accept that Ali is buried at the Tomb of Imam Ali in theImam Ali Mosque at what is now the city of Najaf, which grew around the mosque and shrine called Masjid Ali. [121][122]

However another story, usually maintained by some Afghans, notes that his body was taken and buried in the Afghan city ofMazar-E-Sharif at the famous Blue Mosque or Rawze-e-Sharif.[123]

Aftermath[edit]See also: Umayyad dynasty and Umayyad tradition of cursing Ali

Inside view of Imām Alī Shrine. (before the renovations in 2008)

After Ali's death, Kufi Muslims pledged allegiance to his eldest son Hasan without dispute, as Ali on many occasions had declared that just People of the House of Muhammad were entitled to rule the Muslim community.[124] At this time, Muawiyah held both the Levant and Egypt and, as commander of the largest force in the Muslim Empire, had declared himself caliph and marched his army into Iraq, the seat of Hasan's caliphate.

War ensued during which Muawiyah gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Hasan's army with large sums of money and deceiving promises until the army rebelled against him. Finally, Hasan was forced to make peace and to yield the caliphate to Muawiyah. In this way Muawiyah

captured the Islamic caliphate and tuned it to a secular kingdom (Sultanate). Umayyad caliphate later bacame a centralized monarchy by Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan.[125]

Umayyads placed the severest pressure upon Ali's family and his Shia, in every way possible. Regular public cursing of Imam Ali in the congregational prayers remained a vital institution which was not abolished until 60 years later by Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz. [126]

Madelung writes:

Umayyad highhandedness, misrule and repression were gradually to turn the minority of Ali's admirers into a majority. In the memory of later generations Ali became the ideal Commander of the Faithful. In face of the fake Umayyad claim to legitimate sovereignty in Islam as God's Vice-regents on earth, and in view of Umayyad treachery, arbitrary and divisive government, and vindictive retribution, they came to appreciate his [Ali's] honesty, his unbending devotion to the reign of Islam, his deep personal loyalties, his equal treatment of all his supporters, and his generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies.[21]

Knowledge[edit]See also: Nahj al-Balagha

Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious authority. A numerous range of disciplines from theology and exegesis to calligraphyand numerology, from law and mysticism to Arabic grammar and Rhetoric are regarded as having been first adumbrated by Ali.[122] According to a Hadith which is narrated by Shia and Sufis, Muhammad told about him "I'm the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate..."[122][127][128] Muslims regard Ali as a major authority on Islam. Ali himself gives this testimony:

Not a single verse of the Quran descended upon (was revealed to) the Messenger of God which he did not proceed to dictate to me and make merecite. I would write it with my own hand, and he would instruct me as to its tafsir (the literal explanation) and the ta'wil (the spiritual exegesis), thenasikh (the verse which abrogates) and the mansukh (the abrogated verse), the muhkam and the mutashabih (the fixed and the ambiguous), the particular and the general... [129]

According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Ali is credited with having established Islamic theology and his quotations contain the first rational proofs among Muslims of theUnity of God.[130] Ibn Abi al-Hadid has quoted

As for theosophy and dealing with matters of divinity, it was not an Arab art. Nothing of the sort had been circulated among their distinguished figures or those of lower ranks. This art was the exclusive preserve of Greece, whose sages were its only expounders. The first one among Arabs to deal with it was Ali.[131]

In later Islamic philosophy, especially in the teachings of Mulla Sadra and his followers, like Allameh Tabatabaei, Ali's sayings and sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of metaphysical knowledge, or divine philosophy. Members of Sadra's school regard Ali as the supreme metaphysician of Islam.[1]According to Henry Corbin, the Nahj al-Balagha may be regarded as one of the most important sources of doctrines professed by Shia thinkers, especially after 1500AD. Its influence can be sensed in the logical co-ordination of terms, the deduction of correct conclusions, and the creation of certain technical terms in Arabicwhich entered the literary and philosophical language independently of the translation into Arabic of Greek texts.[132]

Ali was also a great scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered in the field of Arabic grammar and rhetoric. Numerous short sayings of Ali have become part of general Islamic culture and are quoted as aphorisms and proverbs in daily life. They have also become the basis of literary works or have been integrated into poetic verse in many languages. Already in the 8th century, literary authorities such as 'Abd al-Hamid ibn Yahya al-'Amiri pointed to the unparalleled eloquence of Ali's sermons

and sayings, as did al-Jahiz in the following century.[1] Even staffs in the Divan of Umayyad recited Ali's sermons to improve their eloquence.[133] Of course, Peak of Eloquence (Nahj al-Balagha) is an extract of Ali's quotations from a literal viewpoint as its compiler mentioned in the preface, while there are many other quotations, prayers (Du'as), sermons and letters in other literal, historic and religious books.[134]

In addition, some hidden or occult sciences such as jafr, Islamic numerology, and the science of the symbolic significance of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, are said to have been established by Ali[1] through his having studied the texts of al-Jafr and al-Jamia.

Works[edit]

One of the first Qurans ever transcribed in the Islamic world by Ali ibn Abi Talib.

The compilation of sermons, lectures and quotations attributed to Ali are compiled in the form of several books.

Nahj al-Balagha  (Way of Eloquence) contains eloquent sermons, letters and quotations attributed to Ali which is compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi (d. 1015). Reza Shah Kazemi states: "Despite ongoing questions about the authenticity of the text, recent scholarship suggests that most of the material in it can in fact be attributed to Ali" and in support of this he makes reference to an article by Mokhtar Jebli.[122] This book has a prominent position in Arabic literature. It is also considered an important intellectual, political and religious work in Islam. [1][135][136] Masadir Nahj al-Balagha wa asaniduh, written byal-Sayyid ‘Abd al-Zahra' al-Husayni al-Khatib, introduces some of these sources.[137] Also, Nahj al-sa'adah fi mustadrak Nahj al-balaghah by Muhammad Baqir al-Mahmudi represents all of Ali's extant speeches, sermons, decrees, epistles, prayers, and sayings that have been collected. It includes the Nahj al-balagha and other discourses which were not incorporated by ash-Sharif ar-Radi or were not available to him. Apparently, except for some of the aphorisms, the original sources of all the contents of the Nahj al-balagha have been determined.[135] There are several Comments on the Peak of Eloquence by Sunnis and Shias such as Comments of Ibn Abi al-Hadid and comments of Muhammad Abduh.

Supplications (Du'a), translated by William Chittick.[138]

Ghurar al-Hikam wa Durar al-Kalim (Exalted aphorisms and Pearls of Speech) which is compiled by Abd al-Wahid Amidi (d. 1116) consists of over ten thounsads short sayings of Ali. [139]

Divan-i Ali ibn Abu Talib (poems which are attributed to Ali ibn Abu Talib).[2]

Descendants[edit]Main articles: Descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib and Alavi (surname)

Ali initially married Fatimah, who was his most beloved wife. After she died, he got married again. He had four children with Fatimah, Hasan ibn Ali, Husayn ibn Ali,Zaynab bint Ali [1]  and Umm Kulthum bint Ali. His other well-known sons were al-Abbas ibn Ali, born to Fatima binte Hizam (Um al-Banin),

and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah.[140] Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah was Ali's son from another wife from Hanifa clan of Central Arabia named Khawla bint Ja'far. [141]

Hasan, born in 625 AD, was the second Shia Imam and he also occupied the outward function of caliph for about six months. In the year 50 A.H., he was poisoned and killed by a member of his own household who, as has been accounted by historians, had been motivated by Mu'awiyah. [142]

Husayn, born in 626 AD, was the third Shia Imam. He lived under severe conditions of suppression and persecution by Mu'awiyah. On the tenth day of Muharram, of the year 680, he lined up before the army of the caliph with his small band of followers and nearly all of them were killed in the Battle of Karbala. The anniversary of his death is called the Day of Ashura and it is a day of mourning and religious observance for Shia Muslims.[143] In this battle some of Ali's other sons were killed.Al-Tabari has mentioned their names in his history: Al-Abbas ibn Ali, the holder of Husayn's standard, Ja'far, Abdallah and Uthman, the four sons born to Fatima binte Hizam; Muhammad and Abu Bakr. The death of the last one is doubtful.[144] Some historians have added the names of Ali's other sons who were killed in Karbala, including Ibrahim, Umar and Abdallah ibn al-Asqar. [145][146]

His daughter Zaynab—who was in Karbala—was captured by Yazid's army and later played a great role in revealing what happened to Husayn and his followers. [147]

Ali's descendants by Fatimah are known as sharifs, sayeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shia.[1]

Views[edit]

Muslim views[edit]Main article: Ali in Muslim culture

Except for Muhammad, there is no one in Islamic history about whom as much has been written in Islamic languages as Ali.[1]

In Muslim culture, Ali is respected for his courage, knowledge, belief, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty to Muhammad, equal treatment of all Muslims and generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies, and therefore is central to mystical traditions in Islam such as Sufism. Ali retains his stature as an authority on Quranic exegesis, Islamic jurisprudence and religious thought.[21] Ali holds a high position in almost all Sufi orders which trace their lineage through him to Muhammad. Ali's influence has been important throughout Islamic history.[1]

Shia[edit]Main article: Shia view of Ali

Zulfiqar with, and without the shield. The Fatimid depiction of Ali's sword as carved on the Gates of Old Islamic Cairo, namely Bab al-Nasr

The Shia regard Ali as the most important figure after Muhammad.[148] According to them, Muhammad suggested on various occasions during his lifetime that Ali should be the leader of Muslims after his

death. This is supported by numerous Hadiths which have been narrated by Shias, including Hadith of the pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith of the Cloak, Hadith of position, Hadith of the invitation of the close families, and Hadith of the Twelve Successors.

According to this view, Ali as the successor of Muhammad not only ruled over the community in justice, but also interpreted the Sharia Law and its esoteric meaning. Hence he was regarded as being free from error and sin (infallible), and appointed by God by divine decree (nass) through Muhammad.[149] It is believed in Twelver and Ismaili Shī‘ah Islam that ‘aql, divine wisdom, was the source of the souls of the Prophets and Imams and gave them esoteric knowledge called ḥikmah and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees. [1][150][151] Although the Imam was not the recipient of a divine revelation, he had a close relationship with God, through which God guides him, and the Imam in turn guides the people. Hiswords and deeds are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result it is a source of sharia law.[149][152][153]

Shia pilgrims usually go to Mashad Ali in Najaf for Ziyarat, pray there and read "Ziyarat Amin Allah"[154] or other Ziyaratnamehs.[155] Under the Safavid Empire, his grave became the focus of much devoted attention, exemplified in the pilgrimage made by Shah Ismail I to Najaf and Karbala.[15]

Sunni[edit]Main article: Sunni view of Ali

Sunnis view Ali as one of the greatest warrior champions of Islam. Examples include taking on the Quraish champion at the Battle of the Trench when nobody else dared. After multiple failed attempts of breaking the fort in the Battle of Khaybar, Ali was summoned, miraculously healed and conquered the fort.[156]

Sufi[edit]Almost all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being Naqshbandi, who go through Abu Bakr. Even in this order, there is Ja'far al-Sadiq, the great great grandson of Ali. Sufis believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad the saintly power wilayah that makes the spiritual journey to God possible.[1]

Eminent Sufi's such as Ali Hujwiri claim that the tradition began with Ali and Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as the Sheikh of the principles and practices of Sufism.[157]

Sufi's recite Manqabat Ali in the praise of Ali.

As a "deity"[edit]Main article: Ghulat

Ali is recorded in some traditions as having forbidden those who sought to worship him in his own lifetime.[158]

Alawites[edit]Some groups such as the Alawites (Nuṣayrī Arabic: نصيرية) are claimed to believe that Ali was God incarnate. They are described as ghulat (Ar: غالة) "exaggerators" by the majority of Islamic scholars. These groups have, according to traditionalist Muslims, left Islam due to their exaggeration of a human being's praiseworthy traits.[158]

Ali-Illahism[edit]In Ali-Illahism a syncretic religion centers on the belief that there have been successive incarnations of their Deity throughout history, and reserves particular reverence for Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad, who is considered one such incarnation.[159]

Druze[edit]

The Druze believe that God was incarnated in human beings, especially Ali and his descendants, including Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.

Non-Muslim views[edit]Main article: Non-Muslim view of Ali

Person Quote

Edward Gibbon(British 18th century historian)

The zeal and virtue of Ali were never outstripped by any recent proselyte. He united the qualifications of a poet, a soldier, and a saint; his wisdom still breathes in a collection of moral and religious sayings; and every antagonist, in the combats of the tongue or of the sword, was subdued by his eloquence and valour. From the first hour of his mission to the last rites of his funeral, the apostle was never forsaken by a generous friend, whom he delighted to name his brother, his vicegerent, and the faithful Aaron of a second Moses.[160]

Washington Irving(American author and essayist)

He was of the noblest branch of the noble race of Koreish. He possessed the three qualities most prized by Arabs: courage, eloquence, and munificence. His intrepid spirit had gained him from the prophet the appellation of The Lion of God; specimens of his eloquence remain in some verses and sayings preserved among the Arabs; and his munificence was manifested in sharing among others, every Friday, what remained in the treasury. Of his magnanimity, we have given repeated instances; his noble scorn of everything false and mean, and the absence in his conduct of everything like selfish intrigue.[161]

Thomas Carlyle(Scottish historian, critic, and sociological writer)

As for this young Ali, one cannot but like him. A noble-minded creature, as he shows himself, now and always afterwards; full of affection, of fiery daring. Something chivalrous in him; brave as a lion; yet with a grace, a truth and affection worthy of Christian knighthood.[162]

Sir William Muir(Scottish scholar and statesman)

Endowed with a clear intellect, warm in affection, and confiding in friendship, he was from the boyhood devoted heart and soul to the Prophet. Simple, quiet, and unambitious, when in after days he obtained the rule of half of the Moslem world, it was rather thrust upon him than sought.[163]

Dr. Henry Stubbe(Classicist, polemicist, physician, and philosopher)

He had a contempt of the world, its glory and pomp, he feared God much, gave many alms, was just in all his actions, humble and affable; of an exceeding quick wit and of an ingenuity that was not common, he was exceedingly learned, not in those sciences that terminate in speculations but those which extend to practice.[164]

Simon Ockley(British Orientalist and Professor of Arabic at the University of Cambridge)

One thing particularly deserving to be noticed is that his mother was delivered of him at Mecca, in the very temple itself; which never happened to any one else.[165]

Khalil Gibran(poet)In my view, ʿAlī was the first Arab to have contact with and converse with the universal soul. He died a martyr of his greatness, he died while prayer was between his two lips. The Arabs did not realise his value until appeared among their Persian neighbors some who knew the difference between gems and gravels.[166][167]

Jesuit Henri Lammens [168]  held a negative view of Ali and all of Islam.

Historiography[edit]

See also: Historiography of early Islam

The primary sources for scholarship on the life of Ali are the Quran and the Hadith, as well as other texts of early Islamic history. The extensive secondary sourcesinclude, in addition to works by Sunni and Shī‘a Muslims, writings by Christian Arabs, Hindus, and other non-Muslims from the Middle East and Asia and a few works by modern Western scholars. However, many of the early Islamic sources are colored to some extent by a positive or negative bias towards Ali. [1]

There had been a common tendency among the earlier western scholars against these narrations and reports gathered in later periods due to their tendency towards later Sunni and Shī‘a partisan positions; such scholars regarding them as later fabrications. This leads them to regard certain reported events as inauthentic or irrelevant. Leone Caetani considered the attribution of historical reports to Ibn Abbas and Aisha as mostly fictitious while proffering accounts reported without isnad by the early compilers of history like Ibn Ishaq. Wilferd Madelung has rejected the stance of indiscriminately dismissing everything not included in "early sources" and in this approach tendentiousness alone is no evidence for late origin. According to him, Caetani's approach is inconsistent. Madelung and some later historians do not reject the narrations which have been complied in later periods and try to judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.[169]

Until the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, few books were written and most of the reports had been oral. The most notable work previous to this period is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays, written by Sulaym ibn Qays, a companion of Ali who lived before the Abbasid. [170] When paper was introduced to Muslim society, numerous monographs were written between 750 and 950 AD. According to Robinson, at least twenty-one separate monographs have been composed on the Battle of Siffin.Abi Mikhnaf is one of the most renowned writers of this period who tried to gather all of the reports. 9th and 10th century historians collected, selected and arranged the available narrations. However, most of these monographs do not exist anymore except for a few which have been used in later works such as History of the Prophets and Kings by Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (d.923).[171]

Shia of Iraq actively participated in writing monographs but most of those works have been lost. On the other hand, in the 8th and 9th century Ali's descendants such as Muhammad al Baqir and Jafar as Sadiq narrated his quotations and reports which have been gathered in Shia hadith books. The later Shia works written after the 10th century AD are about biographies of The Fourteen Infallibles and Twelve Imams. The earliest surviving work and one of the most important works in this field is Kitab al-Irshad by Shaykh Mufid (d. 1022). The author has dedicated the first part of his book to a detailed account of Ali. There are also some books known as Manāqib which describe Ali's character from a religious viewpoint. Such works also constitute a kind of historiography. [172]

See also[edit]

Islam portal

Alevi Birthplace of Ali ibn Abi Talib Hashemites  Royal Family of Jordan Ahl al-Bayt Iʿtikāf Idris I  The First King of Morocco Founded 788, Ahl al-Bayt List of expeditions of Ali during Muhammad's era List of Muslim reports Sunni view of Ali Wali

Zulfiqar

Notes[edit]

1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa abac ad ae Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. "Ali".Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-12.

2. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x "Alī ibn Abu Talib". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved2010-12-16.3. Jump up^ Al-Haj Salmin, Muhammad Ali. Ali The Caliph. p. 3 & 6. Qassim Ali Jairazbhoy Publishers; 1931 1st Edition.4. Jump up^ Abu Mikhnaf, Lut bin Yahya. Kitab Maqtal Ali (144 AH / 761 CE). Hashami, Ibrahim bin Sulayman.Kitab Maqtal Amir

Al-Muminin (183 AH / 799 CE). Al-Kalbi, Hisham ibn Muhammad. Maqtal Amir ul-Muminin (201 AH / 817 CE). Reference: I.M.A.M. (Imam Mahdi Assoc. of Marjaeya) Publication (Muharram-Safar 1427 AH), Vol. 2-Issue 5.

5. Jump up^ Shad, Abdur Rahman. Ali Al-Murtaza. Kazi Publications; 1978 1st Edition. Mohiyuddin, Dr. Ata.Ali The Superman. Sh. Muhammad Ashraf Publishers; 1980 1st Edition. Lalljee, Yousuf N. Ali The Magnificent. Ansariyan Publications; Jan 1981 1st Edition.

6. Jump up^ "Ali". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.7. Jump up^ Ahmed 2005, p. 2348. ^ Jump up to:a b Biographies of the Prophet's companions and their successors, Ṭabarī, translated by Ella Landau-Tasseron,

pp.37-40, Vol:XXXIX9. Jump up^ Kelen 2001, p. 2910. ^ Jump up to:a b Watt 1953, p. xii11. Jump up^ Ali Ibn Abi Talib, Volume 1, page 52-53, Dr. Ali M. Sallabi, 201112. Jump up^ Sahih Muslim, Book 21, Hadith 5713. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i Tabatabaei 1979, p. 19114. ^ Jump up to:a b Ashraf 2005, p. 1415. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Diana, Steigerwald. "Alī ibn Abu Talib".Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1.

MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-02-865604-5.16. ^ Jump up to:a b c Ashraf 2005, p. 119 and 12017. ^ Jump up to:a b c Madelung 1997, pp. 141–14518. Jump up^ Lapidus 2002, p. 4719. Jump up^ Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, pp. 70–7220. Jump up^ Tabatabaei 1979, pp. 50–75 and 19221. ^ Jump up to:a b c Madelung 1997, p. 309 and 31022. Jump up^ Ashraf 2005, p. 523. Jump up^ Ashraf 2005, p. 6 and 724. Jump up^ Ashraf 2005, p. 725. Jump up^ Gleave 201526. Jump up^ * See also:**Ibn Majah in Sunan ibn Majah, Ibn Majah, al-Sunan, Vol. I, p. 44;**Hakim al-Nishaburiin Al-Mustadrak

alaa al-Sahihain, al-Hakim, al-Mustadrak, Vol. III, p. 112;** Ibn Hisham in As-Sirah an-Nabawiyyah, Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah, Vol. I, p.245.

27. Jump up^ Watt 1953, p. 8628. Jump up^ "Ali". Imamali. Retrieved 20 March 2015.29. Jump up^ Quran 26:21430. Jump up^ See:* Momen 1985, p. 12* Tabatabaei 1979, p. 3931. Jump up^ Ashraf 2005, pp. 16–2632. Jump up^ Ashraf 2005, p. 28 and 2933. Jump up^ Quran 2:20734. Jump up^ Tabatabaei, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. "Tafsir al-Mizan, Volume 3: Surah Baqarah, Verses 204–207". almizan.org.

Retrieved 2010-11-25.35. Jump up^ Ashraf 2005, pp. 30–3236. Jump up^ See:

Momen 1985 , p. 13 and 14 Ashraf 2005 , pp. 28–118

37. Jump up^ Mehboob Desia. Islam and non-violence. Gyan Book Pvt Ltd. p. 150. ISBN 8121210267.38. Jump up^ Singh 2003, p. 17539. Jump up^ Quran 33:3340. Jump up^ Madelung 1997, p. 14 and 1541. Jump up^ See:

Sahih al-Bukhari , 5:57:89 Sahih al-Bukhari , 5:57:96 Sahih al-Bukhari , 5:57:89 Sahih al-Bukhari , 9:88:220 Sahih Muslim , 31:5915

42. Jump up^ "Hasan ibn Ali". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved2014-01-01.43. Jump up^ Ashraf 2005, p. 42 and 43

44. Jump up^ Qazwini 1992, p. 14045. ^ Jump up to:a b Vaglieri, Veccia. "Fatima". Encyclopedia of Islam. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. Vol. 2 844–850. ISSN 1573-

3912.46. Jump up^ See:

Ashraf 2005 , p. 36 Merrick 2005 , p. 247

47. Jump up^ Khatab, Amal (May 1, 1996). Battles of Badr and Uhud. Ta-Ha Publishers. ISBN 978-1-897940-39-6.

48. Jump up^ Ibn Al Atheer, In his Biography, vol 2 p 107 " ذوالفقار اال سيف ال علي اال فتی "ال49. Jump up^ See:

Ashraf 2005 , pp. 66–68 Zeitlin 2007 , p. 134

50. Jump up^ Quran 3:5951. ^ Jump up to:a b Quran 3:6152. Jump up^ See:

Sahih Muslim , Chapter of virtues of companions, section of virtues of Ali, 1980 Edition Pub. in Saudi Arabia, Arabic version, v4, p1871, the end of tradition No. 32

Sahih al-Tirmidhi, v5, p654 Madelung 1997 , p. 15 and 16

53. Jump up^ Tabatabaei, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. "Tafsir al-Mizan, v.6, Al Imran, verses 61–63". almizan.org. Retrieved 2010-11-25.

54. Jump up^ Dakake 2008, pp. 34–3955. Jump up^ Veccia Vaglieri, Laura. "Ghadīr Khumm".Encyclopædia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill Online. Retrieved 2013-03-28.56. Jump up^ See:

Dakake 2008 , pp. 34–37 Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhaaj as-Sunnah 7/319

" مواله علي فهذا مواله كنت "من

57. Jump up^ Gleave, Robert M. "Ali ibn Abi Talib".Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE. Brill Online. Retrieved 2013-03-29.58. Jump up^ See also:

Dakake 2008 , pp. 43–48 Tabatabaei 1979 , p. 40

59. Jump up^ Dakake 2008, pp. 33–3560. Jump up^ Madelung 1997, p. 25361. Jump up^ Lapidus 2002, p. 31 and 3262. Jump up^ See:

Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970 , p. 57 Madelung 1997 , pp. 26–27, 30–43 and 356–360

63. Jump up^ Ibn Qutaybah, al-Imamah wa al-Siyasah, Vol. I, pp. 12–1364. Jump up^ Ibn Abi al-Hadid, Sharh; Vol. II, p.5.65. ^ Jump up to:a b Madelung 1997, p. 4366. Jump up^ See:

Madelung 1997 , p. 141 and 270 Ashraf 2005 , p. 99 and 100

67. Jump up^ Chirri 198268. Jump up^ "Abar Ali mosque". IRCICAARCH data. Retrieved 23 May 2015.69. Jump up^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Quran".Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on October 16,

2007. Retrieved2007-11-04.70. Jump up^ See:

Tabatabaei 1987 , p. chapter 5 Observations on Early Quran Manuscripts in San'a The Quran as Text, ed. Wild, Brill, 1996 ISBN 978-90-04-10344-3

71. Jump up^ See: Madelung 1997 , p. 50 and 51 Qazwini & Ordoni 1992 , p. 211 [Quran 27:16]

[Quran 21:89]

Sahih al-Bukhari , 4:53:325 Sahih al-Bukhari , 5:59:546 Sahih al-Bukhari , 5:57:60 Sahih Muslim , 19:4352

72. Jump up^ Sahih Al Bukhari, Volume 8, Book 80, Number 722 [sahih-bukhari.com]73. Jump up^ See:

Ashraf 2005 , p. 100 and 101 Madelung 1997 , p. 141 Sahih al-Bukhari , 5:59:546 Sahih al-Bukhari , 8:82:817 Sahih Muslim , 19:4352 Rizvi, Sa'id Akhtar , Imamate: The Vicegerency of the Prophet by, quoting Ibn Qutaybah Part 3- The Sunni Point of View The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire  by Edward Gibbon, section Reign of Abubeker; A.D. 632, June 7.

74. Jump up^ Ashraf 2005, pp. 107–11075. Jump up^ See:

Madelung 1997 , pp. 70–72 Dakake 2008 , p. 41 Momen 1985 , p. 21

76. Jump up^ Madelung 1997, p. 87 and 8877. Jump up^ Madelung 1997, p. 9078. Jump up^ Madelung 1997, pp. 92–10779. Jump up^ Madelung 1997, p. 109 and 11080. Jump up^ See:

Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970 , p. 67 and 68 Madelung 1997 , p. 107 and 111

81. Jump up^ Madelung 1997, p. 33482. Jump up^

Nahj Al-Balagha  Nahj Al-Balagha Sermon 3 For Isnad of this sermon and the name of the names of scholars who narrates it see Nahjul Balagha, Mohammad Askari

Jafery (1984), pp. 108–11283. Jump up^ Ashraf 2005, p. 11984. Jump up^ Madelung 1997, pp. 141–14385. Jump up^ Hamidullah 1988, p. 12686. Jump up^ Madelung 1997, p. 148 and 14987. ^ Jump up to:a b Ashraf 2005, p. 12188. Jump up^ See:

Lapidus 2002 , p. 46 Madelung 1997 , p. 150 and 264

89. Jump up^ Shaban 1971, p. 7290. Jump up^ Momen 1985, p. 6391. Jump up^ Nahj al Balagha Sermon 7292. Jump up^ Medieval Islamic civilization By Josef W. Meri Page 13193. Jump up^ See:

Lapidus (2002), p.47 Holt (1977a), p.70 - 72 Tabatabaei (1979), p.50 - 53 Nahj Al-Balagha  Sermons 8, 31, 171, 173,

94. Jump up^ See: Madelung 1997 , p. 147 and 148 Lewis 1991 , p. 214

95. Jump up^ Lewis 1991, p. 21496. Jump up^ See:

Lapidus 2002 , p. 47 Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970 , p. 72 Tabatabaei 1979 , p. 57

97. Jump up^ See: Lapidus 2002 , p. 47 Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970 , pp. 70–72 Tabatabaei 1979 , pp. 50–53

98. Jump up^ "'Abd Allah ibn al-'Abbas". Encyclopedia Britannica. I: A-Ak - Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago, IL: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 2010. p. 16.ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8.

99. ^ Jump up to:a b Iraq a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom War By Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi, p. 32100. ^ Jump up to:a b See:

Lapidus 2002 , p. 47 Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970 , pp. 70–72 Tabatabaei 1979 , p. 53 and 54

101. Jump up^ Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia edited by Alexander Mikaberidze Page 836 [1]102. Jump up^ Ground Warfare: H-Q edited by Stanley Sandler Page 602103. ^ Jump up to:a b c d A Chronology of Islamic History 570-1000 CE By H U Rahman Page 59104. ^ Jump up to:a b A Chronology of Islamic History 570-1000 CE By H U Rahman Page 60

105. Jump up^ Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes] A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 836. ISBN 978-1-59884-337-8.

106. Jump up^ Sandler, Stanley (2002). Ground Warfare An International Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-344-5. Retrieved 2013-04-30.

107. Jump up^ See: Madelung 1997 , pp. 241–259 Lapidus 2002 , p. 47 Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970 , pp. 70–72 Tabatabaei 1979 , p. 53 and 54

108. Jump up^ Timani, Hussam S. (2008). Modern Intellectual Readings of the Kharijites. Peter Lang. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-8204-9701-3.

109. ^ Jump up to:a b Timani, Hussam S. (2008). Modern Intellectual Readings of the Kharijites. Peter Lang. p. 62.ISBN 978-0-8204-9701-3.

110. Jump up^ A Chronology of Islamic History 570-1000 By H. U. Rahman111. ^ Jump up to:a b c A Chronology of Islamic History 570-1000 By H. U. Rahman Page 62112. Jump up^ Madelung 1997, pp. 267–269 and 293–307113. ^ Jump up to:a b Madelung 1997, p. 309114. Jump up^ Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 81115. Jump up^ United Nations Development Program, Arab human development report, (2002), p. 107116. Jump up^ Nasr, Dabashi & Nasr 1989, p. 75117. Jump up^ Lambton 1991, p. xix and xx118. ^ Jump up to:a b Tabatabaei 1979, p. 192119. Jump up^ Kelsay 1993, p. 92120. Jump up^ Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid 1986121. Jump up^ Redha 1999122. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2006). "'Ali ibn Abu Talib". Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Taylor &

Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-96691-7. , Pages 36 and 37123. Jump up^ Balkh and Mazar-e-Sharif124. Jump up^ Madelung 1997, p. 313 and 314125. Jump up^ Madelung 1997, p. 319-325

Robinson 2011 , p. 208-211 Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970 , p. 74-76

126. Jump up^ Madelung 1997, p. 334127. Jump up^ Momen 1985, p. 14128. Jump up^ World of Tasawwuf129. Jump up^ Corbin 1993, p. 46130. Jump up^ Nasr 2006, p. 120131. Jump up^ Nasr, Dabashi & Nasr 1996, p. 136132. Jump up^ Corbin 1993, p. 35

133. Jump up^ " المؤمنين ) أمير باالصلع ويعني فاضت ثم ففاضت االصلع خطب من خطبة سبعين حفظتالسالم " عليه البالغة  عليا نهج مصادر في مقدمة

134. Jump up^ See: Sources of Nahj Al-Balagha

135. ^ Jump up to:a b Mutahhari, 1997 The Glimpses of Nahj al Balaghah Part I – Introduction136. Jump up^ Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 3137. Jump up^ Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought and Culture, Vol. VII, No. 1 issue of Al-Tawhid138. Jump up^ Ali ibn Abi Talib (1990). Supplications (Du'a). Muhammadi Trust. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-9506986-4-9.139. Jump up^ Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 4140. Jump up^ Stearns & Langer 2001, p. 1178141. Jump up^ After Fatima's death, Ali married Khawla bint Ja'far of the Bani Hanifa tribe (source: ali-muawiya)142. Jump up^ Tabatabaei 1979, p. 194143. Jump up^ Tabatabaei 1979, pp. 196–201144. Jump up^ Al-Tabari 1990, pp. vol.XIX pp. 178–179145. Jump up^ The Sanctified Household

146. Jump up^ List of Martyrs of Karbala by Khansari " :( ) ع اميراالمؤمنين ( 1فرزندان او- شهادت علي ابوبكربن .( است . 2مشكوك علي- ) 3جعفربن ) ابولفضل- علي بن . 4عباس علي- بن بن- 5عبدالله عبدالله

. علي بن العباس . 6علي االصغر- بن . 7عبدالله علي- بن . 8عثمان علي- بن بن- 9عمر االصغر محمد علي- 10علي. بن العباس محمدبن ."

147. Jump up^ "Zaynab Bint ʿAlĪ". Encyclopedia of Religion. Gale Group. 2004. Retrieved 2008-04-10.148. Jump up^ "Yawm-e Ali". TheIsmaili.org. 2011-06-10. Retrieved 2011-06-10.149. ^ Jump up to:a b Nasr 1979, p. 10 preface150. Jump up^ Nasr 1979, p. 15 preface151. Jump up^ Corbin 1993, pp. 45–51152. Jump up^ Gleave, Robert. "Imamate". Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1. MacMillan.ISBN 0-02-865604-0.

153. Jump up^ Momen 1985, p. 174 preface154. Jump up^ Trust, p. 695155. Jump up^ Trust, p. 681156. Jump up^ "Ali". Sunnah. Retrieved 14 May 2015.157. Jump up^ "Khalifa Ali bin Abu Talib - Ali, The Father of Sufism". Alim.org. Retrieved 2013-12-31.158. ^ Jump up to:a b See:

Peters 2003 , pp. 320–321 Halm 2004 , pp. 154–159

159. Jump up^ Layard, Austen Henry, Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, Page 216160. Jump up^ The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, London, 1911, volume 5, pp. 381–2161. Jump up^ Lives of the Successors of Mahomet, London, 1850, p. 165162. Jump up^ On Heroes, Hero-Worship, And The Heroic In History, 1841, Lecture 2: The Hero as Prophet. Mahomet: Islam, May 8,

1840163. Jump up^ The Life of Mahomet, London, 1877, p. 250164. Jump up^ An Account of the Rise and Progress of Mahometanism, 1705, p. 83165. Jump up^ History of the Saracens, London, 1894, p. 331166. Jump up^ Morteza Motahhari, Islam and Religious Pluralism167. Jump up^ George Jordac, The Voice of Human Justice168. Jump up^ Henri Lammens, Fatima and the Daughters of Muhammad, Rome and Paris: Scripta Pontificii Instituti Biblici, 1912.

Translation by Ibn Warraq.169. Jump up^ Madelung 1997, p. xi, 19 and 20170. Jump up^ Lawson 2005, p. 59171. Jump up^ Robinson 2003, p. 28 and 34172. Jump up^ Jafarian, Rasul; Translated by Delārām Furādī, Publisher:Message of Thaqalayn

References[edit]

Ahmed, M. Mukarram (2005). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.ISBN 978-81-261-2339-1. Gleave, Robert M. (2015). Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE. Brill. ISSN 1573-3912. Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid  (1986). Kitab Al-Irshad: The Book of Guidance into the Lives of the Twelve Imams. Routledge Kegan &

Paul. ISBN 978-0-7103-0151-2. Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir  (1990). History of the Prophets and Kings, translation and commentary issued by R. Stephen

Humphreys. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0154-5. (volume XV.) Ashraf, Shahid (2005). Encyclopedia of Holy Prophet and Companions. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 978-81-261-1940-0. Kelen, Betty (2001). Muhammad: The Messenger of God. Taylor Production.ISBN 978-0-929093-12-3. Chirri, Mohammad (1982). The Brother of the Prophet Mohammad. Islamic Center of America, Detroit, Michigan. Alibris. ISBN 978-0-

942778-00-7. Corbin, Henry  (1993) [1964]. History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications

for The Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 978-0-7103-0416-2. Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard. Dakake, Maria Massi (2008). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-7033-6. Halm, Halm (2004). Shi'ism. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1888-0. Hamidullah, Muhammad (1988). The Prophet's Establishing a State and His Succession. University of California. ISBN 978-969-8016-

22-7. Holt, P.M.; Lambton, Ann K.S.; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (1970). Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-

29135-4. Kelsay, John (1993). Islam and War: A Study in Comparative Ethics. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-25302-8. Lambton, Ann K. S. (1991). Landlord and Peasant in Persia. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-293-7. Lawson, Todd, ed. (2005). Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought.

I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-470-2. Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3. Lewis, Bernard  (1991). The Political Language of Islam. University of Chicago Press.ISBN 978-0-226-47693-3. Madelung, Wilferd  (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-

521-64696-3. Merrick, James L. (2005). The Life and Religion of Mohammed as Contained in the Sheeah Traditions. Kessinger

Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4179-5536-7. Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi‘i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-

0-300-03531-5. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein ; Dabashi, Hamid; Nasr, Vali (1989). Expectation of the Millennium. Suny press. ISBN 978-0-88706-843-0. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Leaman, Oliver (1996). History of Islamic Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-13159-9. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2006). Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6799-2. Peters, F. E. (2003). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition. Princeton University

Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11461-3. Qazwini, Muhammad Kazim; Ordoni, Abu Muhammad (1992). Fatima the Gracious. Ansariyan Publications. OCLC 61565460.

Redha, Mohammad (1999). Imam Ali Ibn Abi Taleb (Imam Ali the Fourth Caliph, 1/1 Volume). Dar Al Kotob Al ilmiyah. ISBN 978-2-7451-2532-3.

Robinson, Chase F. (2003). Islamic Historiography. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-62936-2. Shaban, Muḥammad ʻAbd al-Ḥayy (1971). Islamic History. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-29131-6. Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2007). Justice and Remembrance: Introducing the Spirituality of Imam Ali. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-526-5. Stearns, Peter N.; Langer, William Leonard (2001). The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. Houghton

Mifflin Books. ISBN 978-0-395-65237-4. Tabatabaei, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn  (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 978-0-87395-272-9.| Translated by Seyyed Hossein

Nasr. Tabatabaei, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1987). The Quran in Islam: Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims. Zahra. ISBN 978-

0-7103-0265-6. Watt, William Montgomery  (1953). Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford University Press. Zeitlin, Irving M. (2007). The Historical Muhammad. Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-3998-7.

Further reading[edit]Original sources[edit]

Al-Bukhari, Muhammad . Sahih Bukhari, Book 4, 5, 8. Ali ibn Abi Talib (1984). Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence), compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi. Alhoda UK. ISBN 978-0-940368-43-9. Ali ibn al-Athir . In his Biography, vol 2. Ibn Taymiyyah , Taqi ad-Din Ahmad. Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah. (In Arabic) Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj . Sahih Muslim, Book 19, 31.

Secondary sources[edit]Books

Abdul Rauf, Muhammad; Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1996). Imam 'Ali ibn Abi Talib: The First Intellectual Muslim Thinker. Al Saadawi Publications. ISBN 978-1-881963-49-3.

Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir  (1987 to 1996). History of the Prophets and Kings, translation and commentary issued in multiple volumes. SUNY Press. Check date values in: |date= (help) volumes 6–17 are relevant.

Motahhari, Morteza  (1997). Glimpses of the Nahj Al-Balaghah, translated by Ali Quli Qara'i. Islamic Culture and Relations Organizati. ISBN 978-964-472-071-0.

Motahhari, Morteza  (1981). Polarization Around the Character of 'Ali ibn Abi Talib. World Organization for Islamic Services, Tehran. Cleary, Thomas (1996). Living and Dying with Grace: Counsels of Hadrat Ali. Shambhala Publications, Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-

57062-211-3. Corn, Patricia (2005). Medieval Islamic Political Thought. Edinburgh University Press.ISBN 978-0-7486-2194-1. Gordagh, George (1956). Ali, The Voice of Human Justice. ISBN 978-0-941724-24-1.(in Arabic) Khatab, Amal (1996). Battles of Badr and Uhud. Ta-Ha Publishers. ISBN 978-1-897940-39-6. Kattani, Sulayman (1983). Imam 'Ali: Source of Light, Wisdom and Might, translation by I.K.A. Howard. Muhammadi Trust of Great

Britain and Northern Ireland. ISBN 978-0-9506986-6-3. Lakhani, M. Ali.; Reza Shah-Kazemi; Leonard Lewisohn (2007). The Sacred Foundations of Justice in Islam: The Teachings of Ali Ibn

Abi Talib, Contributor Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr. World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN 978-1-933316-26-0.Encyclopedia

Shah-Kazemi, Reza, Ali ibn Abi Talib, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014. ISBN 1610691776

Encyclopaedia of Islam Online . Brill. 2004. E-ISSN 1573-3912. Encyclopædia Britannica Online . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Martin, Richard C. Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1. MacMillan.ISBN 978-0-02-865604-5. Encyclopædia Iranica . Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University. ISBN 978-1-56859-050-9. Meri, Josef W.; Jere L. Bacharach (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-96691-7. Jones, Lindsay (2004). Encyclopedia of Religion. Gale Group. ISBN 978-0-02-865733-2.

Ahl al-BaytFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Part of a series on

Muhammad

Life [show]

Career[show]

Miracles[show]

Views[show]

Succession [show]

Praise[show]

Perspectives[show]

Related[show]

 Islam portal

V

T

E

Ahl al-Bayṫ (Arabic:  البيت Turkish: Ehl-i Beyt) is a phrase meaning, literally, "People of ,أهلthe House" or "Family of the House". Within the Islamic tradition, the term refers to the family of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[1]

In Shia Islam and Alevism, the Ahl al-Bayt are central to Islam and interpreters of the Quran and sunnah. Shias believe they are successors of Muhammad and consist of Muhammad, Fatimah, Ali, Hasan and Husayn (known collectively as the Ahl al-Kisa, "people of the mantle") and the Imams. There are differing opinions on the scope and importance ofAhl al-Bayt.

In Sunni Islam, according to the Islamic Traditions Muhammad's household refers to Muhammad himself; his wives; his daughter Fatimah; his cousin and son-in-law Ali; and their two children, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali and all Muhammad's descendants and sometimes the descendants of his paternal uncles, Abu Talib and al-‘Abbas.[1] Some Sunnis consider only the family up until Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali to be members of the Ahl al-Bayt. In Sunni and Shia thought, every Muslim has the obligation to love [clarification needed] the Ahl al-Bayt.[citation needed]

Contents  [hide] 

1 Etymology 2 In the Qur'an 3 Interpretation 4 Significance 5 Ahl al-Bayt according to Shia Islam 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links

Etymology[edit]

The term Ahl signifies the members of a household of a man, including his fellow tribesmen, kin, relatives, wife or wives, children and all those who share a family background, religion, housing, city and country with him.[citation needed]

Bayt refers to habitation and dwelling, whether tented or built. It can also be roughly translated as "household". The Ahl-Al-Bayt of a person refers to his family members and all those who live in his house. Ahlul Bayt is the polite form of addressing the members and wife of the family.[2]

In the Qur'an[edit]

The Qur'an uses the term Ahl al-Bayt twice as a term of respect for wives.[3] The first instance refers to Muhammad's wives,[Quran 33:33] and the second refers to Abraham's wife Sara.[Quran 11:73]

According to some interpretations, the Qur'an also implicitly refers to Ahl al-Bayt in 42:23 using the term al-qurbā.[4][5]

Interpretation[edit]

Part of a series on

Islam

Beliefs [show]

Practices [show]

Texts and laws [show]

History [hide]

Timeline

Muhammad

Ahl al-Bayt

Sahabah

Rashidun

Imamate

Caliphate

Spread of Islam

Denominations [show]

Culture and society [show]

Related topics [show]

 Islam portal

V

T

E

There has been much debate concerning which people constitute Ahl al-Bayt. Although there have been many disagreements, there is a consensus amongst Sunni and Shi'a Muslims that the "Ahl al-Kisa" hadith refers specifically to Ali, Fatimah, Hasan and Husayn. Mention of the Ahl al-Bayt, Muhammad's household, is present in a verse of the Qur'an as follows: [6]

O wives of the Prophet! you are not like any other of the women; If you will be on your guard, then be not soft in (your) speech, lest he in whose heart is a disease yearn; and speak a good word.And stay in your houses and do not display your finery like the displaying of the ignorance of yore; and keep up prayer, and pay the poor-rate, and obey Allah and His Messenger. Allah only desires to keep away the uncleanness from you, O people of the House! and to purify you a (thorough) purifying.And keep to mind what is recited in your houses of the communications of Allah and the wisdom; surely Allah is Knower of subtleties, Aware.

—Sura Al-Ahzab (33), ayat 32-34.[7]

The precise definition of the term in this verse has been subject to varying interpretations. In one tradition, according to which Muhammad's companion Salman al-Farsi is included as a member, it is used to distinguish from the muhajirun(Muslim emigrants from Mecca) and ansar (Medinan converts to Islam). According to Sunni doctrine, the term includes the wives and dependants of Muhammad, as it addresses them in the preceding verse - an interpretation which is attributed to `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas and Ikrimah ibn Abi-Jahl, both of whom were companions of Muhammad. This is supported[improper synthesis?] by various traditions attributed to Muhammad wherein he addresses each of his wives asAhl al-Bayt.[8] Further members of the household, according to the Sunni perspective, include Ali, Fatimah, Hasan and Husayn, who are mentioned in the tradition of the mantle. Some versions of this tradition recognise Umm Salamah, a wife of Muhammad, as a part of the household. Thus, according to the Encyclopaedia of Islam, "[t]he current orthodox view is based on a harmonizing opinion, according to which the term ahl bayt includes the ahl al-ʿabāʾ, i.e. the Prophet, ʿAlī, Fāṭima, al-Ḥasan and al-Ḥussain, together with the wives of the Prophet." [1]According to Laura Veccia Vaglieri in Encyclopaedia of Islam "there is a story narrated in many traditions according to which Muḥammad sheltered under his cloak, in varying circumstances including the Mubahala, his grandchildren Ḥasan and Hussein, his daughter Fatimah and his son-in-law Ali; and therefore it is these five who are given the title Ahl al-Kisa or “People of the Mantle”. Some have attempted to add Muḥammad’s wives to the list; however, the number of the privileged is limited to these five." [9]

Other interpretations include the family of Ali, as well as the families of Muhammad's relatives such as Aqeel, Ja'far, and ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib|al-Abbas. Early Islamic jurists Malik ibn Anas and Abū Ḥanīfa included the clan of Banu Hashim within the definition, while al-Shafi'i included the whole of Banu Muttalib.[1]

In Shia thought, the household is limited to Muhammad, Fatimah, Ali, Hasan, Husayn, and their descendants (altogether known as the Ahl al-Kisa); as per their deduction from the tradition of the mantle. They interpret the change in pronoun in the Qur'anic verse as showing that only the aforementioned members constituteAhl al-Bayt.[1] Madelung writes that "[t]his change of gender has

inevitably contributed to the birth of various accounts of a legendary character, attaching the latter part of the verse to the five People of the Mantle." [10] Shias view these individuals as infallible and sinless Imams and regard devotion to them as an essential part of the religion.[1]

Shia Muslims also support this claim with a hadith mentioned in the Sunni Ṣaḥīḥ collection. Many Sunni scholars remark that the verse of purification was revealed concerning five people: Muhammad, Ali, Fatimah, Hasan and Husayn.[11]

'A'isha reported that Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) went out one morning wearing a striped cloak of the black camel's hair that there came Hasan b. 'Ali. He wrapped him under it, then came Husain and he wrapped him under it along with the other one (Hasan). Then came Fatima and he took her under it, then came 'Ali and he also took him under it and then said: Allah only desires to take away any uncleanliness from you, O people of the household, and purify you (thorough purifying)

—Sahih Muslim, The Book Pertaining to the Merits of the Companions of the Holy Prophet (Kitab Al-

Fada'il Al-Sahabah), Chapter 9: Thee Merits of the Family of the Prophet [12] The last sentence of

verse 33:33.[13]

The tradition about this hadith goes from different sources to Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad. She narrated that once her father visited her home, he had fever and was not feeling well, he asked for a Yemeni cloak which Fatimah brought to him and folded it around him. Later he was joined in that Yemeni cloak by his grandsons Hasan and Hussein, who were followed by their father Ali ibn Abi Talib, who was cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad. Finally Fatimah asked the permission to enter that cloak. When all five of them joined together under the cloak, Muhammad narrated the Qur'anic verse 33:33[13] to those under the cloak that all five of them are chosen ones, and he further stated that he wants God to keep all impurities out of reach and away from all of us. Muhammad then prayed to God to declare all five of them as his Ahlul Bayt and keep away the Najasat (impurities). God, at that request immediately sent Gabriel (Jibral) to reveal to Muhammad that all the five under the cloak are dearest and closest to God and they are Taher ("purest of the pure") without any traces of impurities. [citation needed]

The Twelver and Ismaili branches of Shia Islam differ in regards to the line of Imamate. While the Twelver believe in a lineage known as the Twelve Imams, the Ismaili believe that the descendants of Isma'il ibn Jafar, rather than his brother Musa al-Kadhim, were the inheritors of the Imamate instead.

According to Anas ibn Malik, Muhammad, for six months straight used to pass by the door of Fatimah whenever he left for fajr prayers and said, "it is time for salat, of family of the house (Ahel al biat)! 'Surely Allah desires to remove all imperfection from you, of family of the house, and purify you completely.'" From surah Al Ahzab 33, verse 33,[13] Sunan al-Tirmidhi- Vol. 2 sahih 902

Most, but not all Shi'a believe that these A'immah to be the divinely chosen leaders of the Muslim community.[1][14] This is based on the hadith, "People of the Cloak", where the Prophet referred to only Fatimah, Ali, Hasan, Hussain and Himself (stating that wives were not part of the Ahl al Bayt because they could be divorced and were no longer part of the household when their husband died), a hadith which many Sunni Muslims believe in. Collectively Muhammad, Fatimah and the Twelve Imams are known as the The Fourteen Infallibles.

Significance[edit]

Muslims accord Muhammad's household a special status and venerate it.[15] This is derived from verses in the Qur'an and hadith which stipulate love towards Muhammad's relatives – though in some cases interpretations differ, an example being: "Say: "No reward do I ask of you for this except the love of those near of kin".[16] According to classical exegete al-Tabarani (260–360 AH / 873–970

CE) the verse most likely refers to Muslim believers related by blood ties. Another interpretation adopted by Shia applies the verse to the ahl al-bayt; while another view interprets the verse as commanding love for relatives in general. The latter view is favored by contemporary academic scholar Madelung.[17]

Sharia (Islamic law) prohibits the administration of sadaqah (charity) or zakat (tax) to Muhammad's kin (including the Banu Hashim), as Muhammad forbade this income for himself and his family. [18]The explanation given by jurists is that these alms are considered the defilements of the people, who offer them to purify themselves from sin, hence it would be unbecoming of the kin to handle or use them. Instead, they are accorded part of the spoils of war. [19][20] Muslims in their daily prayers invoke blessings upon them by saying: "O God, bless Muhammad and his family." In many Muslim communities, high social status is attributed to people claiming to be blood-descendants of Muhammad's household, and are labelled sayyids or sharifs.[21]

Most Sunni Sufi circles (tariqah) trace their spiritual chain back to Muhammad through Ali.[citation needed] In Shia thought, Muhammad's household is central to the religion. In one version of Muhammad's farewell sermon, he is represented as saying that God has given believers two safeguards: the Qur'an and his family; in other versions the two safeguards are the Qur'an and his Sunnah (statements and actions of Muhammad). Popular Shia belief ascribes cosmological importance to the family in various texts, wherein it is said that God would not have created Jannah (heaven) and earth, paradise, Adam and Eve, or anything else were it not for them. The majority of Shia regard the heads of the family as divinely chosen Imams who are infallible and sinless.[1]

Ahl al-Bayt according to Shia Islam[edit]

The Ahl al-Kisa together with the Imams make up the Shia definition of Ahl al-Bayt. Ahl al-Bayt are seen as divinely appointed individuals and teachers of the Islamic faith after Muhammad. Members of the Ahl al-Bayt include: - Prophet Muhammad- Lady Fatima tuz Zahra- Imam Ali Ibn Abi Talib- Imam Hassan- Imam Hussain- Lady Zaynab bint Ali- Imam Ali Zainul Aabideen- Imam Muhammad Ibn Ali- Imam Jafaar Ibn Muhammad- Imam Musa Ibn Jafaar- Imam Ali Ibn Musa- Imam Muhammad Ibn Ali- Imam Ali Ibn Muhammad- Imam Hassan Ibn Ali- Imam Hujjat Ibn Hassan [22]

See also[edit]

Islam portal

Family tree of Muhammad Family tree of Shaiba ibn Hashim Bani Shaiba Banu Hashim Banu Quraysh

Banu Kinanah Hashemite Desposyni , a Christian analogue referring to the brothers of Jesus

Notes[edit]

1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h Ahl al-Bayt, Encyclopedia of Islam2. Jump up^ Mufradat al-Qur'an by Raghib Isfahani; Qamus by Firoozabadi; Majm'a al-Bahrayn3. Jump up^ Böwering, Gerhard; Patricia Crone, Wadad Kadi, Mahan Mirza, Muhammad Qasim Zaman, Devin J. Stewart (2012-

11-11). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691134840. The term ahl al-bayt (the people of the house) is used in the Qur'an as a term of respect for wives, referring to Abraham's wife Sarah (Q. 11:73), for example, and to the Prophet Muhammad's wives, who are declared to be purified by divine act: "God's wish is to remove uncleanness from you" (Q. 33:32-33).

4. Jump up^ Ali, Sayeeda. "The Ahl al-Bayt" al-islam.org5. Jump up^ "THE HOLY QURAN SPEAKS ABOUT Ahlul Bayt" islamicbooks.info6. Jump up^ H. Algar, “Al-E Aba,” Encyclopædia Iranica, I/7, p. 7427. Jump up^ Quran 33:32–348. Jump up^ See:

"Ahl al-Bayt", Encyclopedia of Islam Madelung (1997) p. 15

9. Jump up^ "Fāṭima." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Brill Online, 2014. Reference. 08 April 2014

10. Jump up^ Madelung (1997) pp. 14-1511. Jump up^ al-Bahrani, Ghayat al-Marum, p. 126:al-Suyuti, al-Durr al-Manthur, Vol. V, p.199; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, al Musnad, Vol.

I, p.331; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, al-Tafsir al-Kabir, Vol. I, p.783; Ibn Hajar, al-Sawa'iq p.8512. Jump up^ Sahih Muslim, 31:595513. ^ Jump up to:a b c Quran 33:3314. Jump up^ Madelung, 1997, pp. 13-1715. Jump up^ al-Munajjid, Shaykh Muhammad. "What is the virtue of Ahl al-Bayt".http://islamqa.info. Retrieved 15 November 2014.16. Jump up^ Quran 42:2317. Jump up^ Madelung (1997) p. 1318. Jump up^ al-Munajjid, Shaykh Muhammad. "Ruling on giving zakaah to Ahl al-Bayt".http://islamqa.info. Retrieved 15

November 2014.19. Jump up^ Madelung (1997) p. 1420. Jump up^ A verse in the Qur'an reads: "That which Allah giveth as spoil unto His messenger from the people of the townships, it

is for Allah and His messenger and for the near of kin and the orphans and the needy and the wayfarer, that it become not a commodity between the rich among you.", (Quran 59:7)

21. Jump up^ Ahl al-Bayt, Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world.22. Jump up^ [1]

References[edit]

Madelung, Wilferd  (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64696-0.

Ordoni, Abu Muhammad; Muhammad Kazim Qazwini (1992). Fatima the Gracious. Ansariyan Publications. ASIN B000BWQ7N6.

Tahir-ul-Qadri, Muhammad (2006). Virtues of Sayyedah Fatimah. Minhaj-ul-Quran Publications. ISBN 969-32-0225-2.

Tritton, A.S; Goldziher, I.; Arendonk, C. van. "Ahl al-Bayt". In P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.

RashidunFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[hide]This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.

This article needs additional citations for verification. (June 2013)The neutrality of this article is disputed. (June 2013)

Part of a series on

Islam

Beliefs [show]

Practices [show]

Texts and laws [show]

History [hide]

Timeline

Muhammad

Ahl al-Bayt

Sahabah

Rashidun

Imamate

Caliphate

Spread of Islam

Denominations [show]

Culture and society [show]

Related topics [show]

 Islam portal

V

T

E

[hide] 

Part of a series on

Sunni Islam

Beliefs [show]

Five Pillars [show]

Rightly-Guided Caliphs[show]

Sunni Schools of Law [show]

Sunni Schools of Divinity [show]

Movements [show]

Holy sites [show]

Hadith collections [show]

 Islam portal

V

T

E

The Rashidun Caliphs (meaning "Rightly Guided", "Righteously Guided", "Righteous"

Caliphs; Arabic:  الراشدون al-Khulafāʾu ar-Rāshidūn), often simplyالخلفاءcalled, collectively, "the Rashidun", is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn Affan and Ali) of the Rashidun Caliphate, the first caliphate founded after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The concept of "Rightly Guided Caliphs" originated with the laterAbbasid Caliphate based in Baghdad. It is a reference to the Sunni imperative "Hold firmly to my example (sunnah) and that of the Rightly Guided Caliphs" (Ibn Majah, Abu Dawood).[1]

Contents  [hide] 

1 Historyo 1.1 Abu Bakr

o 1.2 Umar ibn al-Khattab

o 1.3 Uthman ibn Affan

o 1.4 Ali ibn Abi Talib 2 Military expansion 3 Social policies

o 3.1 Civil activities

o 3.2 Settlements 4 Muslim views

o 4.1 Sunni perspectives

o 4.2 Shia tradition

5 Timeline 6 See also 7 Notes 8 External links

History[edit]

The first four Caliphs who ruled after the death of Muhammad are often described as the "Khulafāʾ Rāshidūn". The Rashidun were either elected by a council (see the election of Uthman and Islamic democracy) or chosen based on the wishes of their predecessor. In the order of succession, the Rāshidūn were:

1. Abu Bakr  (632–634 CE).2. Umar ibn al-Khattab , (Umar І, 634–644 CE) – Umar is often spelled Omar in some Western

scholarship.3. Uthman ibn Affan  (644–656 CE) – Uthman is often spelled Othman (or Osman) in some

non-Arabic scholarship.4. Ali ibn Abi Talib  (656–661 CE) – During this period however, Muawiyah ibn Abi

Sufyan (Muawiyah I) and Amr ibn al-As controlled the Levant and Egypt regions independently of Ali.

In addition to this, there are several views regarding additional rashidun. Hasan ibn Ali, the eldest grandson ofMuhammad, briefly succeeded Ali ibn Abi Talib as caliph in 661 CE and is recognized by several historians as part of the Rashidun.[2] Hasan ibn Ali abdicated his right to the caliphate in favour of Muawiyah I in order to end the potential for ruinous civil war.

The names of the first four caliphs inscribed at the dome of Yeni Mosquein Eminönü, Istanbul. Construction was begun during the regency of Safiye

Sultan and completed by Turhan Hatice Valide Sultan, the mother of SultanMehmed IV.

Umar ibn Abdul Aziz (Umar ІІ), who was one of the Umayyad caliphs, has often been regarded by Sunni historians as one of the Rashidun, as quoted byTaftazani. More rarely, the Ottoman caliph Fatih Sultan Mehmed (Mehmed II) is also sometimes regarded to be among the rightly guided caliphs. In the Ibaditradition however, only the first two caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar are considered to be the "Two Rightly Guided Caliphs".

Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani also includes the Abbassid caliphs, including Harun al-Rashid, in his enumeration.

Abu Bakr[edit]Main article: Abu Bakr

Abu Bakr (Abdullah ibn Abi Qahafa) (Arabic:  أبي بن الله عبد translit.: 'Abdullāh bin Abī Quhāfah, c. 573 CE unknown exact date 634/13 AH) was a ,قحافةsenior companion (Sahabi) and the father-in-law of Muhammad. He ruled over the Rashidun Caliphate from 632-634 CE when he became the first Muslim Caliph following Muhammad's death.[3] As caliph, Abu Bakr succeeded to the political and administrative functions previously exercised by Muhammad, since the religious function and authority of prophethood ended with Muhammad's death according to Islam. Abu Bakr was called Al-Siddiq (The Truthful)[4]and was known by that title among later generations of Muslims. He prevented the recently converted Muslims from dispersing, kept the community united and consolidated Islamic grip on the region by containing the Ridda, while extending the Dar Al Islam all the way to the Red Sea.

Umar ibn al-Khattab[edit]Main article: Umar

UmarCommander of the Faithful

(Amir al-Mu'minin)

Views[hide]

Sunni view of Umar

Ten Promised Paradise

Shi'a view of Umar

Related articles[hide]

Rashidun Caliph

Succession to Muhammad

Succession to Abu Bakr

Military conquests

Reforms  (Pact of Umar)

Category

 Islam portal

V

T

E

Umar (Arabic:  الخطاب بن translit.: `Umar ibn al-Khattāb, c. 586–590 – 644[4]) c. 2 ,عمرNov. (Dhu al-Hijjah 26, 23Hijri [5] ) was a leading companion and adviser to Muhammad, and became the second Muslim caliph after Muhammad's death and ruled for 10 years. [6] He succeeded Abu Bakr on 23 August 634 as the second caliph, and played a significant role in Islam. Under Umar the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate ruling the whole Sassanid Persian Empire and more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire.[7] His legislative abilities, his firm political and administrative control over a rapidly expanding empire and his brilliantly coordinated multi-prong attacks against the Sassanid Persian Empire that resulted in the conquest of the Persian empire in less than two years, marked his reputation as a great political and military leader. Among his conquests are Jerusalem, Damascus, and Egypt. [8] He was killed by a Persian captive.

Uthman ibn Affan[edit]Main article: Uthman ibn Affan

UthmanThe Generous – (Al Ghani)

Related articles[hide]

Rashidun Caliph

The election

Siege of Uthman

Uthman Quran

Khadijah's Daughters

Category

 Islam portal

V

T

E

`Uthman ibn `Affan (Arabic:  عفان بن was one of the (c. 579 – 17 July 656) (عثمانcompanions of Muhammad. Uthman was born into the Umayyad clan of Mecca, a powerful family of the Quraysh tribe. He became caliph at the age of 70. Under his leadership, the empire expanded into Fars (present-day Iran) in 650 and some areas of Khorasan (present-day Afghanistan) in 651, and the conquest of Armenia was begun in the 640s.[9] His rule ended when he was assassinated.

Uthman is perhaps best known for forming the committee which compiled the basic text of the Quran as it exists today,[10] based on text that had been gathered separately on parchment, bones and rocks during the life time of Muhammad and also on a copy of the Quran that had been collated by Abu Bakr and left with Muhammad's widow after Abu Bakr's death. The committee members were also reciters of the Quran and had memorised the entire text during the lifetime of Muhammad. This work was undertaken due to the vast expansion of Islam under Uthman's rule, which encountered many different dialects and languages. This had led to variant readings of the Quran for those converts who were not familiar with the language. After clarifying any possible errors in pronunciation or dialects, Uthman sent copies of the sacred text to each of the Muslim cities and garrison towns, and destroyed variant texts.[11]

Ali ibn Abi Talib[edit]Main articles: Ali as Caliph and First Fitna

Part of a series on

Ali

Views[show]

Life[show]

Legacy[show]

Perspectives[show]

Related articles[show]

Category

 Islam portal

V

T

E

Ali was the cousin of Muhammed and grew up in the same household. He was the second person after Khatija, the first wife of Muhammed, to accept Islam in Makkah. He was only 10 years old at the time of his conversion. At the age of 21, he married Muhammed's youngest daughter to Khatija, Fatima and became the son-in-law of Muhammed. He had three sons and two daughters with Fatima; Hassan, Hussain, Muhsin, Umme-kulsum and Zainab. Muhsin died in childhood. [citation needed] He was a scribe of the Quran and kept a written copy of it. He memorized verses from the Quran as soon as they were revealed.[citation needed] During the Khilafat of Uthman, Umar and Abu Bakr, he was part of the Majlis-e-Shura and took care of Madina in their absence. [citation needed]

After the death of Uthman, Medina was in political chaos for a number of days. After four days, when the rebels who assassinated Uthman felt that it was necessary that a new Khalifa should be elected before they left Madina, Many of the companions approached Ali to take the role of caliph, which he refused to do initially.[citation needed] The rebels then offered Khalifat to Talha and Zabair who also refused. The ansars also declined their offer to choose a new Kahlifa. Thus, the rebels threatened to take drastic measures if a new Khalifa was not chosen within 24 hours. To resolve the issue, all Muslim leaders gathered at the mosque of the Prophet. They all agreed that the best person who fit all the qualities of a Caliph was Ali. Therefore, Ali was persuaded into taking the post. Talha and Zubair and some others then performed Bayyat at Hazrat Ali's hand followed by a general Bayyat on 25th Zil Hajj 656 AD.

After his appointment as caliph, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides such as Malik al-Ashtar. Ali then transferred his capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in what is now Iraq. The capital of the province of Syria, Damascus, was held by Muawiyah, the governor of Syria and a kinsman of Uthman, Ali's slain predecessor.[12]

His caliphate coincided with the First Fitna or civil war when Muslims were divided over who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate,[13] and which was ended, on the whole, by Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate.

He was assassinated, and died on the 21st of Ramadan in the city of Kufa (Iraq) in 661 CE by Abdur Rehman ibn Muljim, a Kharijite who was later killed by Ali's son Imam Hassan (Muhammad's grandson) according to the will of Ali.[citation needed]

Military expansion[edit]Main article: Rashidun Caliphate § Military expansion

Further information: Arab–Byzantine wars

The Rashidun Caliphate greatly expanded Islam beyond Arabia, conquering all of Persia, besides Syria (637), Armenia (639) Egypt (639) and Cyprus (654).

Social policies[edit]

During his reign, Abu Bakr established the Bayt al-Mal (state treasury). Umar expanded the treasury and established a government building to administer the state finances. [14]

Upon conquest, in almost all cases, the caliphs were burdened with the maintenance and construction of roads and bridges in return for the conquered nation's political loyalty. [15]

Civil activities[edit]Civil welfare in Islam started in the form of the construction and purchase of wells. During the caliphate, the Muslims repaired many of the aging wells in the lands they conquered. [16]

In addition to wells, the Muslims built many tanks and canals. Many canals were purchased, and new ones constructed. While some canals were excluded for the use of monks (such as a spring purchased by Talhah), and the needy, most canals were open to general public use. Some canals were constructed between settlements, such as the Saad canal that provided water to Anbar, and the Abi Musa Canal to provide water to Basra.[17]

During a famine, Umar ibn al-Khattab ordered the construction of a canal in Egypt connecting the Nile with the sea. The purpose of the canal was to facilitate the transport of grain to Arabia through a sea-route, hitherto transported only by land. The canal was constructed within a year by 'Amr ibn al-'As, and Abdus Salam Nadiv writes that "Arabia was rid of famine for all the times to come."[18]

After four floods hit Mecca after Muhammad's death, Umar ordered the construction of two dams to protect the Kaaba. He also constructed a dam near Medina to protect its fountains from flooding. [15]

Settlements[edit]The area of Basra was very sparsely populated when it was conquered by the Muslims. During the reign of Umar, the Muslim army found it a suitable place to construct a base. Later the area was settled and a mosque was erected.[19][20][21]

Upon the conquest of Madyan, it was settled by Muslims. However, soon the environment was considered harsh, and Umar ordered the resettlement of the 40,000 settlers to Kufa. The new buildings were constructed from mud bricks instead of reeds, a material that was popular in the region, but caught fire easily.

During the conquest of Egypt the area of Fustat was used by the Muslim army as a base. Upon the conquest of Alexandria, the Muslims returned and settled in the same area. Initially the land was primarily used for pasture, but later buildings were constructed. [22]

Other already populated areas were greatly expanded. At Mosul, Arfaja al-Bariqi, at the command of Umar, constructed a fort, a few churches, a mosque and a locality for the Jewish population. [23]

Muslim views[edit]

The first four caliphs are particularly significant to modern intra-Islamic debates: for Sunni Muslims, they are models of righteous rule; for Shia Muslims, the first three of the four were usurpers. It is prudent to note here that accepted traditions of both Sunni and Shia Muslims detail disagreements and tensions between the four rightly guided caliphs.

Sunni perspectives[edit]They are called so because they have been seen as model Muslim leaders by Sunni Muslims. This terminology came into a general use around the world, since Sunni Islam has been the dominant Islamic tradition, and for a long time it has been considered the most authoritative source of information about Islam in theWestern world.

They were all close companions of Muhammad, and his relatives: the daughters of Abu Bakr and Umar were married to Muhammad, and three of Muhammad's daughters [citation needed] were married to Uthman and Ali. Likewise, their succession was not hereditary, something that would become the

custom after them, beginning with the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate. Council decision or caliph's choice determined the successor originally.

Shia tradition[edit]According to Shia Islam, the first caliph should have been Ali followed by the Shia Imams. Shia Muslims support this claim with the Hadith of the pond of Khumm. Another reason for this support for Ali as the first caliph is because he had the same relationship to Muhammad as Aaron (Hārūn) had to Moses (Mūsa). This is because of the Hadith or saying of Muhammed, "You(ali) are to me as Harun was to Musa, except that there will be no prophet after me" (Agreed upn). Starting with Muhammad to Ali to the grandsons of Muhammad, Hasan ibn Ali and Hussein ibn Ali (Muhammad had no surviving sons of his own) and so on.

The Shia also argue that if one follows Sunni thought that a Rashidun Caliph's laws and opinions are always correct, then when Abu Bakr goes against the sunnah of Muhammad he is still right (like usurping the caliphate and taking fadak). And when Umar does something that contradicts Abu Bakr and Muhammad's sunnah (i.e. institute tarawih, edit the adhan, ban hadiths of Muhammad, ban mut'ah which is in the Quran etc.) then Umar is to be followed. And when Uthman contradicts Muhammad's sunnah and his two predecessors (such as bringing Al-Hakam ibn Abi al-'As and Marwan ibn Hakam back and putting them in power, even though Muhammad exiled them) then Uthman is to be followed. Shias argue that since the last of the Sunni Rashidun Caliphs is Ali, they should follow him because he went against the ways of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, and strictly followed the sunnah of Muhammad.

Timeline[edit]

Note that a caliph's succession does not necessarily occur on the first day of the new year.

See also[edit]

Hadith of the ten promised paradise The Four Companions

Notes[edit]

1. Jump up^ admin@inter-islam.org. "Taraweeh: 8 or 20?". Inter-islam.org. Retrieved2014-04-16.2. Jump up^ "The Four Caliphs – SHAYKH AL ISLAM". Islam786.org. Retrieved 2014-04-16.3. Jump up^ Abu Bakr, from Encyclopædia Britannica4. ^ Jump up to:a b Juan Eduardo Campo, "Encyclopedia of Islam", Infobase Publishing, 20095. Jump up^ Ibn Kathir, "al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah", part 7.6. Jump up^ Ahmed, Nazeer, Islam in Global History: From the Death of Prophet Muhammad to the First World War, American

Institute of Islamic History and Cul, 2001, p. 34.ISBN 0-7388-5963-X.7. Jump up^ Hourani, p. 23.8. Jump up^ "The Caliphate". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 2014-04-16.9. Jump up^ Ochsenweld, William; Fisher, Sydney Nettleton (2004). The Middle East: a history (sixth ed.). New York: McGraw

Hill. ISBN 0-07-244233-6.10. Jump up^ http://www.australianislamiclibrary.org/copy-of-quran-attributed-to-hazrat-usman-ibn-afffan.html11. Jump up^ https://archive.org/download/MaarifulQuran/Introduction.pdf12. Jump up^ Shi'a: 'Ali13. Jump up^ Ref:

Lapidus (2002), p. 47 Holt (1977a), pp. 70–72

Tabatabaei (1979), pp.50–5714. Jump up^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 41115. ^ Jump up to:a b Nadvi (2000), pg. 40816. Jump up^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 403-417. Jump up^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 405-618. Jump up^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 407-819. Jump up^ https://books.google.co.in/books?

id=bYtmAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA91&vq=Basra&dq=umar+basra+base+mosque&output=html_text&source=gbs_search_r&cad=120. Jump up^ https://books.google.co.in/books?

id=iiUH035ZZOcC&pg=PA178&dq=umar+basra+base+mosque&hl=en&sa=X&ei=vZy3VP_NO8vjuQTomoIQ&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBw

21. Jump up^ https://books.google.co.in/books?id=148AAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA61&lpg=PA61&focus=viewport&dq=umar+basra+base+mosque&output=html_text

22. Jump up^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 416-723. Jump up^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 418

Election of UthmanFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  (Redirected from The election of Uthman)

This article contains too many or too-lengthy quotations for an encyclopedic entry. Please help improve the article by editing it to take facts from excessively quoted material and rewrite them as sourced original prose. Consider transferring direct quotations to Wikiquote. (March 2008)

The election of Uthman, from Balami's Tarikhnama

UthmanThe Generous – (Al Ghani)

Related articles[hide]

Rashidun  Caliph

The election

Siege of Uthman

Uthman Quran

Khadijah's Daughters

Category

 Islam portal

V

T

E

Uthman ibn Affan, the third caliph, was chosen by a council meeting in Medina, in northwestern Arabia, in AH 23 (643/644).[1]

The second caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab, was stabbed by an angry Persian slave named Feroz. Mindful of the tumults that had occurred after the death of Muhammad (see Succession to Muhammad), on his deathbed Umar appointed a committee of six men, to choose a new leader.

Contents  [hide] 

1 Preparation 2 Accounts

o 2.1 Wilferd Madelung

o 2.2 Al-Tabari

o 2.3 Suyuti 3 Shia view 4 See also 5 References 6 Works cited 7 External links

Preparation[edit]

He wished this consultation, or shura, to survive the strictest criticism. The six men were:

Ali ibn Abi Talib Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf Sad ibn Abi Waqqas Uthman ibn Affan Zubayr ibn al-Awwam Talhah

Umar's expectation seems to have been that the group should choose one among themselves who would be acceptable to all.

Talha was absent and did not reach Medina until after the decision had been made. The choice of a new ruler for the new Islamic empire fell to five men. [2]

Accounts[edit]

At his death bed, Umar ibn al-Khattab (d.644) nominated a board of six members who were required to elect one of themselves as the next caliph. The group consisted of Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas, Abdur Rahman bin Awf, Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, Talha ibn Ubayd Allah, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Uthman ibn Affan. To regulate the group and ensure that no single person would stop the process, Umar said that they should all agree unanimously on the next caliph and he ordered his son, Abdullah bin Umar to kill any one person whose opinion would differ from the rest of the group. Out of the six members, Zubair withdrew his candidature in favor of Ali. Sa'd ibn Abi Waqas withdrew in favor of Uthman.[2] Out of the three remaining candidates Abdur Rahman decided to withdraw, leaving Uthman and Ali. Abdur Rahman was appointed as the arbitrator to choose between the remaining two candidates. Contacting the two candidates separately, he put to them the question whether they would follow in the footsteps of the previous caliphs. Ali said that he would follow the Quran and the Sunnah of Muhammed. Uthman replied to the question in the affirmative without any reservation. Thereupon, Abdur Rahman gave his verdict in favor of the election to Uthman. [3]

Accounts of this consultation vary widely, and none of the candidates were actually killed in the process.

An accepted sunni version of this account shows a tie in votes between all three Uthman, Abdur Rahman and Ali where Uthman and Ali voted in favor of their respective partner in the elections. Then Abdur Rahman suggested to allow him to withdraw his candidature at the cost of the choice for leadership between the two remaining candidates. He was allowed to do so and he chose Uthman as the new caliph[citation needed].

Wilferd Madelung[edit]

According to the Institute of Ismaili Studies in London, researcher Wilferd Madelung,[4] only Uthman and Ali were willing to take the burden of the caliphate. Each of them said that he was willing to swear allegiance to the other if not chosen. It was up to the three remaining members to make the choice. Sa'd is said to have slightly favored Ali. Al-Zubayr supported Uthman. 'Abd al-Rahman thus had the deciding vote. According to Madelung's account of the shura, 'Abd al-Rahman delayed announcing his choice until he faced a public meeting at the mosque, where he announced his choice of Uthman. Ali, who was present, was thus under pressure to immediately give his allegiance, his bay'ah, to Uthman, which he did accordingly.

Al-Tabari[edit]The early Muslim historian Al-Tabari gives a more detailed version of Umar's supposed words setting up the consultation.[5]

A narration reports:

“ O group of Muhajireen! Verily, the Apostle of God died, and he was pleased with all six of you. I have, therefore, decided to make it (the selection of khalifa) a matter of consultation among you, so that you may select one of yourselves as khalifa. If five of you agree upon one man, and there is one who is opposed to the five, kill him. If four are one side and two on the other, kill the two. And if three are on one side and three on the other, then Abdur Rahman ibn Auf will have the casting vote, and the khalifa will be selected from his party. In that case, kill the three men on the opposing side. You may, if you wish, invite some of the chief men of the Ansar as observers but the khalifa must be one of you Muhajireen, and not any of them. They have no share in the khilafat. And your selection of the new khalifa must be made within three days.[6] ”

Suyuti[edit]Suyuti quotes the following:A narration attributed to Amr ibn Maimun reports:

“ (continuing from Hadith of the killing of Umar) ...When they finished burying him and had returned, that group gathered and 'Abd ar-Rahman ibn 'Auf said, 'Delegate your authority to three among you.' Az-Zubayr said, 'I delegate my authority to 'Ali.' Sa'd said, 'I delegate my authority to 'Abd ar-Rahman.' Talhah said, 'I delegate my authority to 'Uthman.' He continued: so there remained these three. 'Abd ar-Rahman said, 'I don't want it. Which of you two will be quit of this matter and we will entrust it to him (the remaining one)? And Allah is his witness and Islam, let him consider in himself who is the best of them and let him be eager for the benefit of the ummah.' The two Shaykhs, 'Ali and 'Uthman were silent. 'Abd ar-Rahman said, 'Delegate me and, Allah is my witness, I will not fail you in choosing the best of you.' They said, 'Yes.' Then he went apart with 'Ali and said, 'You have that precedence in Islam and kinship with the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, which you know. Allah is your witness; if I give you authority, will you be just, and if I give authority (to 'Uthman) over you, will you hear and obey?' He said, 'Yes.' Then he went apart with the other and said to him the same thing. When he had their agreement, he pledged allegiance to 'Uthman and 'Ali pledged allegiance to him.[7] ”

Shia view[edit]

Shi'a Muslims argue that the election should not have happened at all. They say that Muhammad had clearly indicated that he wished Ali to succeed him (seeSuccession to Muhammad) and that every successive choice of a different caliph was defiance of Muhammad's wishes. Ali did not desire power; he wanted to carry out the duties he had been given by his cousin Muhammad. Shi'a also deny that Ali gave his allegiance to Uthman. Ali is quoted saying:

But good Heavens! what had I to do with this "consultation"? Where was any doubt about me with regard to the first of them (caliphs) that I was now considered akin to these ones (in this consultation)? Sermon of ash-Shiqshiqiyyah

and:

"You (Uthman) know very well that I deserve the caliphate more than anyone else" (Nahj al Balagha sermon 77)

Sa'id Akhtar Rizvi, a 21st century Shi'a twelver Islamic scholar writes:

“ On the third day, 'Abdu 'r-Rahman ibn 'Awf withdrew his name and told 'Ali that he would make him caliph if; Ali pledged to follow the Book of Allah, the traditions of the Holy Prophet and the system of Abu Bakr and 'Umar. 'Abdu 'r-Rahman knew very well what his reply would be. 'Ali (as) said, "I follow the Book of Allah, the traditions of the Holy Prophet and my own beliefs."

Then 'Abdu'r-Rahman put the same conditions to 'Uthman, who readily accepted. Thus, 'Abdu 'r-Rahman declared 'Uthman to be the caliph.

'Ali (as) told 'Abdu r-Rahman: "By Allah, you did not do it but with the same hope which he ('Umar) had from his friend." (He meant that 'Abdu 'r-Rahman had made 'Uthman caliph hoping that 'Uthman would nominate him as his successor.)

Then 'Ali said, "May Allah create enmity between you two." After a few years 'Abdu 'r Rahman and 'Uthman grew to hate each others; they did not talk to each other till 'Abdu'r Rahman died.

'Uthman, the third Caliph, was killed by the Muslims who were not happy with his nepotism. The circumstances did not provide him the opportunity to choose his own successor. Muslims were, for the first time, really free to select or elect a caliph of their choice; they flocked to the door of 'Ali (as).[8] ”

Aalimnetwork on Al-islam.org quotes:A narration reports:

“ Abbas, Imam's uncle, came to him and said

"Ali, do not take part in this council. I know the biases of the Arab, they rule according to their kinship, everyone in the council except Zubair is a relative of Uthman, they will vote for him."

Imam (AS) said

"I know them better but if I do not go, they will have an excuse and will say 'Ali himself was not interested in the Khillafa and did not care about it'."[9] ”

See also[edit]

Caliph Succession to Muhammad Islamic democracy

References[edit]

1. Jump up^ The Earliest Dated Kufic Inscription From Qa` al-Mu`tadil, Near Al-Hijr (Saudi Arabia), 24 AH / 644 CE2. ^ Jump up to:a b Medlung, Wilferd (1997). The succession to Muhammad. Cambridge University Press.

p. 71. ISBN 0521561817. Retrieved June 30, 2014.3. Jump up^ Masudul Hasan, Hadrat Ali, Islamic Publications Ltd. Lahore4. Jump up^ Senior Research Fellow at the Institute of Ismaili Studies in London5. Jump up^ These may not be his exact words; the trustworthiness of the early oral traditions are much disputed,

see Historiography of early Islam6. Jump up^ History of the Prophets and Kings by Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, Vol 3, pp. 294-2957. Jump up^ History of the Caliphs by Suyuti [1]8. Jump up^ Imamate: The Vicegerency of the Prophet Al-islam.org [2]9. Jump up^ Aalimnetwork on Al-islam.org

Military career of AliFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaMain article: Ali

Part of a series on

Ali

Views[show]

Life[show]

Legacy[show]

Perspectives[show]

Related articles[show]

Category

 Islam portal

V

T

E

[show]

V

T

E

Campaigns of Ali

Imam Ali bin Abi Talib took part in all the battles of Muhammad's time, save the Battle of Tabuk, as standard bearer. He also led parties of warriors on raids into enemy lands, and was an ambassador. Ali's fame grew with every battle that he was in, due to his courage, valour and chivalry, as well as the fact that he single-handedly, destroyed many of Arabia's most famous and feared warriors. Muhammad acknowledged him as the greatest warrior of all time. [1]

Contents  [hide] 

1 The Battle of Badro 1.1 Scouting

o 1.2 The Battle 2 The Battle of Uhud

o 2.1 Killing the Pagans Standard Bearers

o 2.2 The General Offensive

o 2.3 The Flight of the Muslims 3 The Battle of the Trench 4 The Battle of Khaybar 5 The other expeditions 6 Caliphate era

o 6.1 Battle of the Camel

o 6.2 Battle of Siffin

o 6.3 Battle of Nahrawan 7 See also 8 Footnotes 9 References

The Battle of Badr[edit]Further information: Battle of Badr

Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Ali lead the Muslim armies during the Battle of Badr.

Scouting[edit]

Muhammad did not know that an army had left Mecca, was marching toward Medina to protect the caravan of the Quraysh, and to challenge the Muslims. When Muhammad arrived in the environs of Badr, he sent Ali to reconnoiter the surrounding country. At the wells of Badr, Ali surprised some water-carriers. In reply to his questions, they told him that they were carrying water for an army which came from Makkah, and which was encamped on the other side of the nearby hills.

Ali brought the water-carriers before Muhammad. From them he learned that the caravan of the Quraysh had already escaped, and that the Muslims, at that very moment, were confronted by the army of Mecca.

On reaching the neighborhood of Badr, Muhammad sent forward Ali, with a few others, to reconnoiter the rising ground above the springs. There they surprised three water-carriers of the enemy, as they were about to fill their sheepskins. One escaped to the Coreish; the other two were captured and taken to the Moslem army. From them Muhammad discovered the proximity of his enemy. There were 950 men; more than threefold the number of the Moslem army. They were mounted on 700 camels and 100 horses, the horsemen all clad in mail. (Sir William Muir, The Life of Mohammed, London, 1877)

The Battle[edit]Ali, along with his uncle Hamza and cousin Ubaydah ibn al-Harith, proceeded to single duels. Ali's duel was against Walid ibn Utba, one of Mecca's fiercest warriors.

The youngest pair engaged first, Ali stepping forward to meet Walid. After a few moments of fencing, Waleed fell by the sword of his Muslim opponent. Then Hamza engaged Otba and cut him down. Ubayda ibn Harith, the third Muslim champion, received a fatal wound from Shaiba. Ali and Hamza hastily dispatched Shaiba, carrying Ubaida to die in the Muslim lines. [2]

By noon the battle was over. The Quraysh fled. Forty-nine of the enemy had fallen and Ali had killed twenty-two, either alone or with the help of others. An equal number was captured. The believers had lost fourteen men on the field of battle.[3]

Ali first distinguished himself as a warrior in 624, at the Battle of Badr. He defeated the Umayyad champion Walid ibn Utba as well as many other Meccan soldiers. According to Muslim traditions he killed at least twenty people and at most thirty five, but most of them agree with twenty seven.[4]

The Battle of Uhud[edit]Further information: Battle of Uhud

One year after the battle of Badr, the new army of the idolaters of Mecca was ready to take the field against the Muslims. In March 625 AD, Abu Sufyan left Mecca at the head of three thousand seasoned warriors. Most of them were foot soldiers but they were supported by a strong contingent of cavalry. Also accompanying the army, was a band of warlike women. Their duty was to wage "psychological warfare" against the Muslims by reading poetry and by singing amatory songs to spur the courage and the will-to-fight of the soldiers. They knew that nothing held such terror for the Arabs as the jibes of women for cowardice, and they also knew that nothing was so efficacious to turn them into utterly reckless fighters as the promise of physical love. These amazons included the wives of Abu Sufyan and Amr bin Aas, and the sister of Khalid bin Walid.[citation needed]

Killing the Pagans Standard Bearers[edit]The Meccans, generously assisted by the women who had brought their timbrels, flung insults at the Moslems. These were alternated by Hind, the wife of Abu Sufyan, who led triumphant choruses as she danced round the idol which perched on the camel.

Talha, the hereditary standard-bearer of the Koreishites, was the first Meccan challenger. As he stepped out of Abu Sufyan's ranks, Ali stepped out of Muhammad's. The two men met in the middle of 'no man's land.' Without words or preliminary flourishes the duel began. Talha never stood a chance. Ali's scimitar flashed in the morning sun and the head of the standard-bearer leaped from his shoulder and rolled away on the sand.

'Allahu Akbar!'(Allah is the greatest) echoed from the eagerly watching Muslims. (R. V. C. Bodley, The Messenger, the Life of Mohammed, New York, 1946)

When Ali ibn Abu Talib killed the carrier of the Meccan flag, Talhah ibn Abu Talha, it was immediately raised again by Uthman ibn Abu Talha. And when Uthman fell at the hands of Hamzah, it was raised again by Abu Sa'd ibn Abu Talhah. At the moment he raised the Meccan flag he shouted at the Muslims. "Do you pretend that your martyrs are in paradise and ours in hell? By God, you lie! If anyone of you truly believes such a story, let him come forward and fight with me." His challenge attracted Ali who killed him on the spot. The Banu Abd al Dar kept on carrying the Meccan flag until they lost nine men. (Muhammad Husayn Haykal, The Life of Muhammad)

Ali alone had killed eight standard-bearers of the idolaters of Mecca.

Ibn Athir, the Arab historian, writes in his 'Tarikh Kamil' "The man who killed the standard-bearers (of the pagans) was Ali.[5]

The General Offensive[edit]Ali ibn Abu Talib pressed on undismayed into the enemy ranks – it was Badr again; the Muslims were invincible. (Sir John Glubb, The Great Arab Conquests, 1963)

Ali and Hamza had broken the ranks of the Quraysh, and he was already deep inside their lines. Unable to resist his attack, they began to yield ground. Between them, they were grinding back the army of Quraysh.

The Flight of the Muslims[edit]The death of the bearers of the banner heightened the morale of the Muslims, who pursued the enemy headlong. This however resulted in complacency, with some of the Muslim soldiers beginning to claim war spoils for themselves whilst the battle had not yet been fully won. This allowed the pagans to launch a counter-attack, which dismayed the Muslim army and sent it into headlong retreat. Muhammad remained stranded, with only a few soldiers left to defend him against the attacks of Khalid ibn Waleed. It is recorded that 'Ali alone remained, fending off the assaults of Khaleed's cavalrymen. According to Ibn Atheer, "The Prophet became the object of the attack of various units of the army of Quraish from all sides. Ali attacked, in compliance with Muhammad's orders, every unit that made an attack upon him and dispersed them or killed some of them, and this thing took place a number of times in Uhud."[6]

...when somebody raised the cry that Muhammad was killed, chaos reigned supreme, Muslim morale plunged to the bottom and Muslimzsoldiers fought sporadically and purposelessly. This chaos was responsible for their killing of Husayl ibn Jabir Abu Hudhayfah by mistake, as everyone sought to save his own skin by taking flight except such men as Ali ibn Abu Talib whom God had guided and protected. (Muhammad Husayn Haykal, The Life of Muhammad, 1935, Cairo)

The first of the Quraish to reach the Prophet's position was Ikrimah. As Ikrimah led a group of his men forward the Prophet turned to Ali and, pointing at the group, said, "Attack those men." Ali attacked and drove them back, killing one of them. Now another group of horsemen approached the position. Again the Prophet said to Ali, "Attack those men." 1 Ali drove them back and killed another infidel. A regiment arrived from Kinanah in which four of the children of Sufyan Ibn Oweif were present. Khalid, Abu AI-Sha-atha, Abu Al-Hamra, and Ghurab. The Messenger of God said to Ali: "Take care of this regiment." Ali charged the regiment, and it was about fifty horsemen. He fought them while he was on foot until he scattered them. They gathered again and he charged them again.

This was repeated several times until he killed the four children of Sufyan and added to them six more ... (Ibn Abu Al Hadeed, in his Commentary, vol 1 p 372)

It was said that during 'Ali's defence of the Prophet, a call was heard, as follows: "There is no soldier but Ali, and there is no sword save Zhulfiqar." [7]

The Battle of the Trench[edit]Further information: Battle of the Trench

A depicted painting of combat between Ali ibn Abi Talib (left) and Amr Ben Wad during Battle of the Trench.

After the battle of Uhud, Abu Sufyan and the other pagan leaders realized that they had fought an indecisive action, and that their victory had not borne any fruits for them. Islam had, in fact, resiled from its reverse at Uhud, and within an astonishingly short time, had reestablished its authority in Medina and the surrounding areas. Again Ali proved to be an invincible warrior by killing Amr ibn wod al ameree who was one of the most feared warriors at the time. After Ali dropped Amr ibn wod al ameree off his horse, Amr spat at Ali. Ali got angry, and so he walked away for a moment and then got back after he calmed down, he told Amr ibn wod al ameree "If i killed you then i would have satisfied myself and not God's will" and then he killed Amr. The Muslim ranks roared and were happy. The Prophet said "Ali's strike on the day of the trench, is worth the combined worship of all of mankind and Jinns"[citation needed]

The Battle of Khaybar[edit]Further information: Battle of Khaybar

Ali beheading Nadr ibn al-Harith in the presence of Muhammad and hiscompanions.

The campaign of Khaybar was one of the greatest. The masses of Jews living in Khaybar were the strongest, the richest, and the best equipped for war of all the peoples of Arabia. Even though they were rich and lived in castles Muhammed and Ali still had respect for them in Khaybar Imam Ali suffered from an eye illness and was not in battle-ready condition. Although he was ill, Prophet Muhammed called him and he came to his service. According to Islamic historians, Muhammed cured Ali's illness by rubbing his saliva on Ali's eyes. According to this tradition, Ali killed a Jewish chieftain with a sword-stroke, which split in two the helmet, the head and the body of the victim. Having lost his shield, Ali is said to have lifted both of the doors of the fortress from its hinges, climbed into the moat and held them up to make a bridge whereby the attackers gained access to the redoubt. The door was so heavy that forty men were required to put it back in place. This story is one basis for the Muslim view, especially in Shi'a Islam, of Ali as the prototype of heroes.

The other expeditions[edit]

Ali also participated in the Expedition of Fidak. Muhammad sent Ali to attack the Bani Sa‘d bin Bakr tribe, because Muhammad received intelligence they were planning to help the Jews of Khaybar [8]

He also led the Expedition of Ali ibn Abi Talib as a commander in July 630.[9] Muhammad sent him to aestroy al-Qullus, an idol worshipped by pagans[10]

Caliphate era[edit]

[show]

V

T

E

First

Islamic

Civil War

Battle of the Camel[edit]Main article: Battle of the Camel

Aisha battling the fourth Rashidun Caliph Ali in the Battle of the Camel.

The Battle of the Camel, sometimes called the Battle of Jamal or the Battle of Bassorah, [11] took place at Basra,Iraq on 7 November 656. A'isha heard about the killing of Uthman (644-656), the third Caliph. At the time she was on a pilgrimage to Mecca. It was on this journey that she became so angered by his unavenged death, and the naming of Ali as the fourth caliph, that she took up arms against those supporting Ali. She gained support of the big city of Basra and, for the first time, Muslims took up arms against each other. This battle is now known as the First Fitna, or Muslim civil war.[12]

Battle of Siffin[edit]Main article: Battle of Siffin

The Battle of Siffin (Arabic: صفين; May–July 657 CE) occurred during the First Fitna, or first Muslim civil war, with the main engagement taking place from July 26 to July 28. It was fought between Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muawiyah I, on the banks of the Euphrates river, in what is now Ar-Raqqah, Syria.

The two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Neither side wanted to fight. Then on 11th Safar 37 AH, the Iraqis under Ashtar's command, the Qurra, in Ali's army, who had their own camp started the fighting in earnest which lasted three days.[13] Historian Yaqubi wrote that Ali had 80,000 men, including 70 Companions

who participated in the Battle of Badr, 70 Companions who took oath at Hudaibia, and 400 prominent Ansars and Muhajirun; while Muawiya had 120,000 Syrians.[14]

William Muir wrote that, "Both armies drawn out in entire array, fought till the shades of evening fell, neither having got the better. The following morning, the combat was renewed with great vigour. Ali posed himself in the centre with the flower of his troops from Medina, and the wings were formed, one of the warriors from Basra, the other of those from Kufa. Muawiya had a pavilion pitched on the field; and there, surrounded by five lines of his sworn body-guards, watched the day. Amr with a great weight of horse, bore down upon the Kufa wing which gave away; and Ali was exposed to imminent peril, both from thick showers of arrows and from close encounter ... Ali's general Ashtar, at the head of 300 Hafiz-e-Qur'an(those who had memorized the Koran) led forward the other wing, which fell with fury on Muawiya's body-guards. Four of its five ranks were cut to pieces, and Muawiya, bethinking himself of flight, had already called for his horse, when a martial couplet flashed in his mind, and he held his ground."[15]

Battle of Nahrawan[edit]Main article: Battle of Nahrawan

The Battle of Nahrawan (Arabic:  النهروان translit.: M'arkah an-Nahrawān) was a battle ,معركةbetween Ali ibn Abi Talib (the first Shi'ah Imam and the fourth SunniCaliph) and the Kharijites, near Nahrawan, twelve miles from Baghdad.

See also[edit]

Ali Muhammad as a General Abu Dujana

Footnotes[edit]

1. Jump up^ http://www.alm3refh.com/vb/t26624.html2. Jump up^ Sir John Glubb, The Great Arab Conquests, 19633. Jump up^ Tor Andre, Mohammed, the Man and his Faith, 19604. Jump up^ See:

Ashraf (2005), p.36 Merrick (2005), p.247 Al Seerah of Ibn Hisham narrates he killed 20 people; Abdul Malik Ibn Husham, Al Seerah Al Nabaweyah (Biography of the

Prophet), Published by Mustafa Al Babi Al Halabi, Egypt, 1955 A.D, Part 2 page. 708-713 Al Maghazi put the number at 22; aghedi, Al Maghazi (The Invasions) published by Oxford Printing. Part 1 page. 152

5. Jump up^ Ali ibn al-Athir, The Complete History (Al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh), vol 3 p 1076. Jump up^ Akramulla Syed. "History of Islam and Muslims, The second battle of Islam at Uhud, Battle of Ohod". ezsoftech.com.7. Jump up^ Ibn Al Atheer, In his Biography, vol 2 p 1078. Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 211. (online)9. Jump up^ Abu Khalil, Shawqi (1 March 2004). Atlas of the Prophet's biography: places, nations, landmarks. Dar-us-Salam.

p. 233. ISBN 978-9960897714.10. Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, pp. 269-270. (online)11. Jump up^ http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Battle_of_the_Camel. Missing or empty |title= (help)12. Jump up^ Mernissi, Fatima. "A Feminist Interpretation of Women's Rights in Islam". Retrieved 2014-04-30.13. Jump up^ Bewley, p. 22 from Ibn Hisham from Ibn Muzahim died 212 AH from Abu Mikhnaf died 170 AH14. Jump up^ Yaqubi, vol 2, p. 188. Tarikh Al-Yaqubi (Tarikh Ibn Wadih).15. Jump up^ William Muir, The Caliphate, its Rise and Fall (London, 1924) page 261

References[edit]

Encyclopaedia of Islam . Ed. P. Bearman et al., Leiden: Brill, 1960-2005.

Jafri, S.H.M. The Origins and Early Development of Shi'a Islam. Longman;1979 ISBN 0-582-78080-2

Al-Waqidi . Al-maghazi (The Invasions) Part 1. Oxford Printing. Ibn Hisham , Abdul Malik (1955). Al Seerah Al Nabaweyah (Biography of the Prophet). Mustafa

Al Babi Al Halabi (Egypt).(In Arabic) Ali ibn al-Athir . The Complete History (Al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh), vol 3.

Battle of the TrenchFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is about the event in early Islamic history. For the type of modern warfare, see Trench warfare.

For the battle of the Greek War of Independence, see Battle of the Trench (1821).

Battle of the Trench (Muslims VS Quraish)

Part of the Muslim–Quraysh Wars

Combat between Ali ibn Abi Talib (left) and Amr ibn ‘Abd

Wudd (right) during battle of the Trench

Date March 31 – April 627 AD [1]  (Dhu al-Qi'dah, 5 AH)[2]

Location Surrounding perimeter of MedinaResult Failure of siege; Decisive Muslim victory

Belligerents

Muslims Including

the Ansar of Khazraj

and Aws

The Muhajirun of

various origins

including significant

portions of Quraysh

Immigrants and

BanuQais

Confederates including

the Pagan Quraysh of

Mecca

the Jewish/Arab tribes

of Banu

Qaynuqa,andBanu

Nadir

Other Pagan Arab

tribes such as Banu

Murra, Khayba

r,Huyyay ibn Auf

Murri,Banu

Ghatafan, Bani

Assad, Banu Shuja,

and more

(seeConfederates)

Commanders and leaders

Muhammad

Ali Ibn Abi Talib

[3]

Abu Sufyan

Strength

3,000[4] 10,000[4]

Casualties and losses

Light[5] Extremely heavy[5]

[show]

V

T

E

List of battles of Muhammad

Site Battle of Trench, Medina

Mosque Salaman pharsi, battle of trench, Medina

The Battle of the Trench (Arabic:  الخندق translit.: Ghazwah al-Khandaq) also known as ,غزوةthe Battle of the Confederates (Arabic:  االحزاب -translit.: Ghazwah al-Ahzab), was a fortnight ,غزوةlong siege of Yathrib (nowMedina) by Arab and Jewish tribes. The strength of the confederate armies is estimated around 10,000 men with six hundred horses and some camels, while the Medinan defenders numbered 3,000. The battle began on March 31, 627.

The largely outnumbered defenders of Medina, mainly Muslims led by Islamic prophet Muhammad, dug a trench, which together with Medina's natural fortifications, rendered the confederate cavalry (consisting of horses and camels) useless, locking the two sides in a stalemate. Hoping to make several attacks at once, the confederates persuaded the Muslim-allied Medinian Jews, Banu Qurayza, to attack the city from the south. However, Muhammad's diplomacy derailed the negotiations, and broke up the confederacy against him. The well-organized defenders, the sinking of confederate morale, and poor weather conditions caused the siege to end in a fiasco.

The siege was a "battle of wits", in which the Muslims tactically overcame their opponents while suffering very few casualties. Efforts to defeat the Muslims failed, and Islam became influential in the region. As a consequence, the Muslim army besieged the area of the Banu Qurayza tribe, leading to their surrender and theexecution of all their men.

The defeat caused the Meccans to lose their trade and much of their prestige. [5]

Contents  [hide] 

1 Name 2 Background

o 2.1 Reason for battle 3 The Confederates 4 Muslim defense 5 Siege of Medina

o 5.1 Banu Qurayza

o 5.2 Crisis in Medina

o 5.3 Muslim response

o 5.4 Collapse of the Confederacy 6 Aftermath: Siege and demise of the Banu Qurayza 7 Implications 8 Islamic primary sources

o 8.1 Quran

o 8.2 Hadith

o 8.3 Biographical literature 9 Notes 10 See also 11 References 12 External links

Name[edit]

The battle is named after the khandaq (Arabic الخندق) that was dug by Muslims in preparation for the battle. The word khandaqis the Arabic form of the Persian word kandak (meaning "That which has been dug"). For this reason the word "trench" could be replaced with "ditch". It may also be referred to by its original Arabic name "khandaq".[6] Salmān al-Fārsi (Salman the Persian) advised Muhammad to dig Kandak, or "Trench". The battle is also referred to as the Battle of Confederates (Arabic االحزاب (االحزاب Arabic) The Qur'an uses the term confederates .(غزوةin sura Al-Ahzab[Quran 33:9–32] to denote the confederacy of pagans and Jews against Islam.

Background[edit]

After their expulsion from Mecca, the Muslims fought the Meccan Quraysh at the Battle of Badr in 624,[7] and at the Battle of Uhud in 625.[8] Although the Muslims neither won nor were defeated at the Battle of Uhud, their military strength was gradually growing. In April 626 Muhammad raised a force of 300 men and 10 horses to meet the Quraysh army of 1,000 atBadr for the second time. Although no fighting occurred, the coastal tribes were impressed with Muslim power. Muhammad also tried, with limited success, to break up many alliances against the Muslim expansion. Nevertheless, he was unable to prevent the Meccan one.[9]

As they had in the battles of Badr and Uhud, the Muslim army again used strategic methods against their opponents (at Badr, the Muslims surrounded the wells, depriving their opponents of water; at the Battle of Uhud, Muslims made strategic use of the hills). In this battle they dug a trench to render the enemy cavalry ineffective.[10]

Reason for battle[edit]The reason for this battle was to defend Medina from attack, after Banu Nadir and Banu Qaynuqa tribes formed an alliance with the Quraysh to attack him as revenge for expelling them from Medina during the Invasion of Banu Qaynuqa andInvasion of Banu Nadir.[11][12] The Muslim scholar Ibn Kathir states: "The reason why the Confederates came was that a group of the leaders of the Jews of Banu Nadir, whom the Messenger of Allah had expelled from Al-Madinah to Khaybar, including Sallam bin Abu Al-Huqayq, Sallam bin Mishkam and Kinanah bin Ar-Rabi`, went to Makkah where they met with the leaders of Quraysh and incited them to make war against the Prophet" [13]

The Confederates[edit]

Early in 627, the Jews of Banu Nadir met with the Arab Quraysh of Makkah. Huyayy ibn Akhtab, along with other leaders from Khaybar, traveled to swear allegiance with Safwan at Makkah.[14]

The bulk of the Confederate armies were gathered by the pagan Quraysh of Makkah, led by Abu Sufyan, who fielded 4,000 foot soldiers, 300 horsemen, and 1,000-1,500 men on camels. [15]

The Banu Nadir began rousing the nomads of Najd. The Nadir enlisted the Banu Ghatafan by paying them half of their harvest.[6][9] This contingent, the second largest, added a strength of about 2,000 men and 300 horsemen led by Unaina bin Hasan Fazari. The Bani Assad also agreed to join, led by Tuleha Asadi.[15] From the Banu Sulaym, the Nadir secured 700 men, though this force would likely have been much larger had not some of its leaders been sympathetic towards Islam. The Bani Amir, who had a pact with Muhammad, refused to join.[14]

Other tribes included the Banu Murra, with 400 men led by Hars ibn Auf Murri, and the Banu Shuja, with 700 men led by Sufyan ibn Abd Shams. In total, the strength of the Confederate armies, though not agreed upon by scholars, is estimated to have included around 10,000 men and six hundred horsemen. At the end of March 627 the army, which was led by Abu Sufyan, marched on Medina. [4]

In accordance with the plan the armies began marching towards Medina, Meccans from the south (along the coast) and the others from the east. At the same time horsemen from the Banu Khuza'a left to warn Medina of the invading army.[14]

Muslim defense[edit]

The men from Banu Khuza'a reached Muhammad in four days, warning him of the Confederate armies that were to arrive in a week.[14] Muhammad gathered the Medinans to discuss the best strategy of overcoming the enemy. Meeting the enemy in the open (which led to victory at Badr), and waiting for them inside the city (a lesson learnt from the defeat at Uhud) were both suggested.[10] Ultimately, the outnumbered Muslims opted to engage in a defensive battle by digging deep

trenches to act as a barrier along the northern front. The tactic of a defensive trench was introduced by Salman the Persian. Every capable Muslim in Medina including Muhammad contributed to digging the massive trench in six days.[16] The ditch was dug on the northern side only, as the rest of Medina was surrounded by rocky mountains and trees, impenetrable to large armies (especially cavalry). The digging of the ditch coincided with a near-famine in Medina. Women and children were moved to the inner city.[6][16] The Medinans harvested all their crops early, so the Confederate armies would have to rely on their own food reserves.[10][16]

Muhammad established his military headquarters at the hillock of Sala' and the army was arrayed there;[6] this position would give the Muslims an advantage if the enemy crossed the trench. [9]

The final army that would defend the city from the invasion consisted of 3,000 men, [17] and included all inhabitants of Medina over the age of 15, except the Banu Qurayza (the Qurayza did supply the Muslims with some instruments for digging the trench).[9]

Siege of Medina[edit]

Battle of Khandaq (Battle of the Trench)

The siege of Medina began on March 31, 627 and lasted for 27 days. [1] Since sieges were uncommon in Arabian warfare, the arriving confederates were unprepared to deal with the trenches dug by the Muslims. The Confederates tried to attack with horsemen in hopes of forcing a passage, but the Medinans were rigidly entrenched, preventing such a crossing. [5] Both of the armies gathered on either side of the trench and spent two or three weeks exchanging insults in prose and verse, backed up with arrows fired from a comfortable distance. According to Rodinson, there were three dead among the attackers and five among the defenders. On the other hand, the harvest had been gathered and the besiegers had some trouble finding food for their horses, which proved of no use to them in the attack.[18]

The Quraysh veterans grew impatient with the deadlock. A group of militants led by ‘Amr ibn ‘Abd Wudd (who was thought to be equal to a thousand men in fighting [19]) and Ikrimah ibn Abi Jahl attempted to thrust through the trench and managed to effect a crossing, occupying a marshy area near the hillock of Sala. 'Amr challenged the Muslims to a duel. In response, Ali ibn Abi Talib accepted the challenge, and was sent by Muhammad to fight. Both the fighters got lost in the dust as the duel became intense. Finally, the soldiers heard scream(s) which hinted decisive blows, but it was unclear which of the two was successful. The slogan, 'Allahu Akbar' (God is the greatest) from the dust confirmed Ali's victory. The confederates were forced to withdraw in a state of panic and confusion.[20] Although the Confederates lost only three men during the encounter, they failed to accomplish anything important.[5]

The Confederate army made several other attempts to cross the trench during the night but repeatedly failed. Although the confederates could have deployed their infantry over the whole length of the trench, they were unwilling to engage the Muslims at close quarter as the former regarded the latter as superior in hand-to-hand fighting.[5] As the Muslim army was well dug in behind the embankment made from the earth which had been taken from the ditch and prepared to bombard attackers with stones and arrows, any attack could cause great casualties. [18]

Banu Qurayza[edit]The Confederates then attempted several simultaneous attacks, in particular by trying to persuade the Banu Qurayza to attack the Muslims from the south.[5] From the Confederates, Huyayy ibn Akhtab, a Khaybarian, the leader of the exiled Jewish tribe Banu Nadir, returned to Medina seeking their support against the Muslims.[21]

So far the Banu Qurayza had tried their best to remain neutral,[9] and were very hesitant about joining the Confederates since they had earlier made a pact with Muhammad.[22] When Akhtab approached them, their leader refused to allow him entry.[23]

Akhtab eventually managed to enter and persuade them that the Muslims would surely be overwhelmed.[5] The sight of the vast Confederate armies, surging over the land with soldiers and horses as far as the eye could see, swung the Qurayza opinion in the favour of the Confederacy. [23]

News of the Qurayzah's supposed renunciation of the pact with Muhammad leaked out, and Umar promptly informed Muhammad. Such suspicions were reinforced by the movement of enemy troops towards the strongholds of the Qurayza. [10][23] Muhammad became anxious about their conduct,[24] and realized the grave potential danger the Qurayza posed. Because of his pact with the Qurayza, he had not bothered to make defensive preparations along the Muslims' border with the tribe.[22] The Qurayza also possessed weaponry: 1,500 swords, 2,000 lances, 300 suits of armor, and 500 shields.[25]

Muhammad sent three leading Muslims to bring him details of the recent developments. He advised the men to openly declare their findings, should they find theBanu Qurayza to be loyal, so as to increase the morale of the Muslim fighters. However, he warned against spreading the news of a possible breach of the pact on the Qurayza's part, so as to avoid any panic within Muslim ranks. [22][23]

The leaders found that the pact indeed had been renounced and tried in vain to convince the Qurayza to revert by reminding them of the fate of the Banu Nadir andBanu Qaynuqa at the hands of Muhammad.[23] The findings of the leaders were signaled to Muhammad in a metaphor: "Adal and Qarah". Because the people ofAdal and Qarah had betrayed the Muslims and killed them at the opportune moment, Maududi believes the metaphor means the Qurayza were thought to be about to do the same.[22]

Crisis in Medina[edit]Muhammad attempted to hide his knowledge of the activities of Banu Qurayza; however, rumors soon spread of a massive assault on the city of Medina from Qurayza's side which severely demoralized the Medinans.[26]

The Muslims found themselves in greater difficulties by day. Food was running short, and nights were colder. The lack of sleep made matters worse.[27] So tense was the situation that, for the first time, the canonical daily prayers were neglected by the Muslim community. Only at night, when the attacks stopped due to darkness, could they resume their regular worship. [26] According to Ibn Ishaq, the situation became serious and fear was everywhere. [28]

Quran describes the situation in surah Al-Ahzab:

“ Behold! they came on you from above you and from below you, and behold, the eyes became dim and the hearts gaped up to the throats, and ye imagined various (vain) thoughts about Allah! In that situation were the Believers tried: they were shaken as by a tremendous shaking. And behold! The Hypocrites and those in whose hearts is a disease (even) say: "Allah and His Messenger ”

promised us nothing but delusion!" Behold! A party among them said: "Ye men of Yathrib! ye cannot stand (the attack)! therefore go back!" And a band of them ask for leave of Muhammad, saying, "Truly our houses are bare and exposed," though they were not exposed they intended nothing but to run away. And if an entry had been effected to them from the sides of the (city), and they had been incited to sedition, they would certainly have brought it to pass, with none but a brief delay! ... They think that the Confederates have not withdrawn; and if the Confederates should come (again), they would wish they were in the deserts (wandering) among the Bedouins, and seeking news about you (from a safe distance); and if they were in your midst, they would fight but little... When the Believers saw the Confederate forces, they said: "This is what Allah and his Messenger had promised us, and Allah and His Messenger told us what was true." And it only added to their faith and their zeal in obedience. [Quran 33:10–22 (Translated by Yusuf

Ali)]

Muslim response[edit]Immediately after hearing the rumors about the Qurayza, Muhammad had sent 100 men to the inner city for its protection. Later he sent 300 horsemen (cavalry was not needed at the trench) as well to protect the city.[10] The loud voices, in which the troops prayed every night, created the illusion of a large force.[23]

The crisis showed Muhammad that many of his men had reached the limits of their endurance. He sent word to Ghatafan, trying to pay for their defection and offering them a third of Medina's date harvest if they withdrew. Although the Ghatafan demanded half, they eventually agreed to negotiating with Muhammad on those terms. Before Muhammad began the order of drafting the agreement, he consulted the Medinan leaders. They sharply rejected the terms of the agreement,[27] protesting Medina had never sunk to such levels of ignominy. The negotiations were broken off. While the Ghatafan did not retreat they had compromised themselves by entering into negotiations with Medina, and the Confederacy's internal dissension had thereby been increased. [5]

At about that point, Muhammad received a visit from Nuaym ibn Masud, an Arab leader who was well respected by the entire confederacy, but who had, unbeknownst to them, secretly converted to Islam. Muhammad asked him to end the siege by creating discord amongst Confederates.

“ The whole was a battle of wits in which Muslims had the best of it; without cost to themselves they weakened the enemy and increased the dissension. ”

—William Montgomery Watt [5]

Nuaym then came up with an efficient stratagem. He first went to the Banu Qurayza and warned them about the intentions of the rest of the Confederacy. If the siege fails, he said, the Confederacy will not be afraid to abandon the Jews, leaving them at the mercy of Muhammad. The Qurayza should thus demand Confederate leaders as hostages in return for cooperation. This advice touched upon the fears the Qurayza had already harbored. [10][27]

Next Nuaym went to Abu Sufyan, the Confederate leader, warning him that the Qurayza had defected to Muhammad. He stated that the Jewish tribe intended to ask the Confederacy of hostages, ostensibly in return for cooperation, but really to hand over to Muhammad. Thus the Confederacy should not give a single man as hostage. Nuaym repeated the same message to other tribes in the Confederacy.[10][27]

Collapse of the Confederacy[edit]Nuaym's stratagem worked. After consulting, the Confederate leaders sent Ikrimah to the Qurayza, signaling a united invasion of Medina. The Qurayza, however, demanded hostages as a guarantee that the Confederacy would not desert them. The Confederacy, considering that the Qurayza might give the hostage to Muhammad, refused. Messages were repeatedly sent back and forth between the parties, but each held to its position stubbornly. [10][27]

Abu Sufyan summoned Huyayy ibn Akhtab, informing him of Qurayza's response. Huyayy was taken aback, and Abu Sufyan branded him as a "traitor". Fearing for his life, Huyayy fled to the Qurayza's strongholds.[10][27]

The Bedouins, the Ghatafan and other Confederates from Najd had already been compromised by Muhammad's negotiations. They had taken part in the expedition in hopes of plunder, rather than any particular prejudice against Islam. They lost hope as chances of success dwindled, uninterested in continuing the siege. The two confederate armies were marked by recriminations and mutual distrust.[27]

The provisions of the Confederate armies were running out. Horses and camels were dying out of hunger and wounds. For days the weather had been exceptionally cold and wet. Violent winds blew out the camp fires, taking away from the Confederate army their source of heat. The Muslim camp, however, was sheltered from such winds. The enemy’s tents were torn up, their fires were extinguished, the sand and rain beat in their faces, and they were terrified by the portents against them. They had already well nigh fallen out among themselves. During the night the Confederate armies withdrew, and by morning the ground was cleared of all enemy forces. [29]

Aftermath: Siege and demise of the Banu Qurayza[edit]Main article: Invasion of Banu Qurayza

Following the retreat of the Confederate army, the Banu Qurayza neighbourhoods were besieged by the Muslims, in revenge for their treachery. After a 25 day siege of their neighbourhood the Banu Qurayza unconditionally surrendered. When the Banu Qurayza tribe surrendered, the Muslim army seized their stronghold and their possessions.[30] On the request of the Banu Aus, who were allied to the Qurayza, Muhammad chose one of them, Sa'ad ibn Mu'adh, as an arbitrator to pronounce judgment upon them. Sa'ad, who would later die of his wounds from the battle, decreed the sentence according to the Torah, in which the men shall be killed and women and children enslaved. Deuteronomy 20:10-14 says:

When you march up to attack a city, make its people an offer of peace. If they accept and open their gates, all the people in it shall be subject to forced labor and shall work for you. If they refuse to make peace and they engage you in battle, lay siege to that city. When the Lord your God delivers it into your hand, put to the sword all the men in it. As for the women, the children, the livestock and everything else in the city, you may take these as plunder for yourselves. And you may use the plunder the Lord your God gives you from your enemies. [31]

Muhammad approved of this decision, and the next day the sentence was carried out. [30]

The men - numbering between 400 and 900[32] - were bound and placed under the custody of Muhammad ibn Maslamah, while the women and children were placed under Abdullah ibn Salam, a former rabbi who had converted to Islam.[10][33]

Ibn Ishaq describes the killing of the Banu Qurayza men as follows:

“ Then they surrendered, and the Apostle confined them in Medina in the quarter of d. al-Harith, a woman of B. al-Najjar. Then the Apostle went out to the market of Medina (which is still its market today) and dug trenches in it. Then he sent for them and struck off their heads in those trenches as they were brought out to him in batches. Among them was the enemy of Allah Huyayy b. Akhtab and Ka`b b. Asad their chief. There were 600 or 700 in all, though some put the figure as high as 800 or 900. As they were being taken out in batches to the Apostle they asked Ka`b what he thought would be done with them. He replied, 'Will you never understand? Don't you see that the summoner never stops and those who are taken away do not return? By Allah it is death!' This went on until the Apostle made an end of them. Huyayy was brought out wearing a flowered robe in which he had made holes about the size of the finger-tips in every part so that it should not be taken from him as spoil, with his hands bound to his neck by a rope. When he saw the Apostle he said, 'By God, I do not blame myself for opposing you, but he who forsakes God will be forsaken.' Then he went to the men and said, 'God's command is right. A book and a decree, and massacre have been written against the Sons of Israel.' Then he sat down and his head was struck off.[32][34][35] ”

Several accounts note Muhammad's companions as executioners, Umar and Al-Zubayr in particular, and that each clan of the Aws was also charged with killing a group of Qurayza men. [36][37]

According to Ibn Ishaq's biography of Muhammad, one woman who had thrown a millstone from the battlements during the siege and killed one of the Muslim besiegers, was also beheaded along with the men.[38] Ibn Asakir writes in his History of Damascus that the Banu Kilab, a clan of Arab clients of the Banu Qurayza, were killed alongside the Jewish tribe. [39]

The spoils of battle, including the enslaved women and children of the tribe, were divided up among the Muslims that had participated in the siege and among theemigrees from Mecca (who had hitherto depended on the help of the Muslims native to Medina.[40][41]

As part of his share of the spoils, Muhammad selected one of the women, Rayhana, for himself and took her as part of his booty.[41] Muhammad offered to free and marry her and according to some sources she accepted his proposal, while according to others she rejected it and remained Muhammad's slave.[42] She is said to have later become a Muslim.[24]

Scholars argue that Muhammad had already decided upon this judgment before the Qurayza's surrender, and that Sa'ad was putting his allegiance to the Muslim community above that to his tribe.[5] One reason cited by some for such punishment is that Muhammad's previous clemency towards defeated foes was in contradiction to Arab and Jewish laws of the time, and was seen as a sign of weakness. Others see the punishment as a response to what was perceived as an act of treason by the Qurayza since they betrayed their joint defense pact with Muhammad by giving aid and comfort to the enemies of the Muslims.[10]

Implications[edit]

The failure of the siege marked the beginning of Muhammad's undoubted political ascendancy in the city of Medina.[43] The Meccans had exerted their utmost strength to dislodge Muhammad from Medina, and this defeat caused them to lose their trade with Syria and much of their prestige with it. Watt conjectures that the Meccans at this point began to contemplate that conversion to Islam would be the most prudent option.[5]

Islamic primary sources[edit]

Quran[edit]The main contemporary source of the battle is the 33rd Surah of the Quran. The most trustworthy source for the reconstruction of the life of the historical Muhammad is the Quran. [44]

The Sunni Muslim Mufassir Ibn Kathir mentions that [Quran 33:10–22 (Translated by Yusuf Ali)] is about this incident in his book Tafsir ibn Kathir, and his commentary on this verse mentions the reason and event of the Battle, his commentary is as follows:

“ Allah tells us of the blessings and favors He bestowed upon His believing servants when He diverted their enemies and defeated them in the year when they gathered together and plotted. That was the year of Al-Khandaq, in Shawwal of the year 5 AH according to the well-known correct view. Musa bin `Uqbah and others said that it was in the year 4 AH. The reason why the Confederates came was that a group of the leaders of the Jews of Banu Nadir, whom the Messenger of Allah had expelled from Al-Madinah to Khaybar, including Sallam bin Abu Al-Huqayq, Sallam bin Mishkam and Kinanah bin Ar-Rabi`, went to Makkah where they met with the leaders of Quraysh and incited them to make war against the Prophet . They promised that they would give them help and support, and Quraysh agreed to that. Then they went to the Ghatafan tribe with the same call, and they responded too. The Quraysh came out with their company of men from various tribes and their followers, under the leadership of Abu Sufyan Sakhr bin Harb. The Ghatafan were led by `Uyaynah bin Hisn bin Badr. In all they numbered nearly ten thousand. When the Messenger of Allah heard that they had set out, he commanded the Muslims to dig a ditch (Khandaq) around Al-Madinah from the east. This was on the advice of Salman Al-Farisi, may Allah be pleased with him. So the Muslims did this, working hard, and the Messenger of Allah worked with them, carrying earth away and digging, in the process of which there occurred many miracles and clear signs. The idolators came and made camp to the north of Al-Madinah, near Uhud, and some of them camped on the high ground overlooking Al-Madinah, as Allah says:

”

(When they came upon you from above you and from below you,) The Messenger of Allah came out with the believers, who numbered nearly three thousand, or it was said that they numbered seven hundred. They had their backs towards (the mountain of) Sal` and were facing the enemy, and the ditch, in which there was no water, was between the two groups, preventing the cavalry and infantry from reaching them. The women and children were in the strongholds of Al-Madinah. Banu Qurayzah, who were a group among the Jews, had a fortress in the south-east of Al-Madinah, and they had made a treaty with the Prophet and were under his protection. They numbered nearly eight hundred fighters. Huyay bin Akhtab An-Nadari went to them and kept trying to persuade them until they broke the treaty and went over to the side of the Confederates against the Messenger of Allah . The crisis deepened and things got worse... [Tafsir ibn Kathir on Quran 33:10] [13]

Hadith[edit]The event is referenced in the Sunni, Hadith collection Sahih al-Bukhari, it mentions the death of Sa'd ibn Mu'adh, as follows:

“ On the day of Al-Khandaq (battle of the Trench) the medial arm vein of Sa'd bin Mu'ad was injured and the Prophet pitched a tent in the mosque to look after him. There was another tent for Banu Ghaffar in the mosque and the blood started flowing from Sa'd's tent to the tent of Bani Ghaffar. They shouted, "O occupants of the tent! What is coming from you to us?" They found that Sa'd' wound was bleeding profusely and Sa'd died in his tent. Sahih al-Bukhari, 1:8:452 ”

The Sahih al-Bukhari collection also mentions that after the battle, Muslims were to carry out offensive attacks against their enemies:[45]

“ On the day of Al-Ahzab (i.e. clans) the Prophet said, (After this battle) we will go to attack them (i.e. the infidels) and they will not come to attack us."Sahih Bukhari, 5,59,435 ”

The event is also mentioned in the Sahih Muslim Hadith collection as follows:

“ 'Abdullah b. Zubair reported on the Day of the Battle of the Trench: I and Umar b. Abu Salama were with women folk in the fort of Hassan (b. Thabit). He at one time leaned for me and I cast a glance and at anothertime I leaned for him and he would see and I recognised my father as he rode on his horse with his arms towards the tribe of Quraizah. 'Abdullah b. 'Urwa reported from Abdullah b. Zubair: I made a mention of that to my father, whereupon he said: My son, did you see me (on that occasion)? He said: Yes. Thereupon he said: By Allah, Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) addressed me saying: I would sacrifice for thee my father and my mother.

Sahih Muslim, 31:4940 ”Biographical literature[edit]The incident also is mentioned in the historical works by writers of the third and fourth century of the Muslim era.[46] These include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad,(S.A.S) and quotes attributed to him (the sira and hadith literature), which provide further information on Muhammad's life.[47] The earliest surviving written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Ibn Ishaq's Life of God's Messenger written some 120 to 130 years after Muhammad's death. Although the original work is lost, portions of it survive in the recensions of Ibn Hisham and Al-Tabari.[48] Another early source is the history of Muhammad's campaigns by al-Waqidi (d. 823).[46]

Notes[edit]

1. ^ Jump up to:a b Watt, Muhammad at Medina, p. 36f.2. Jump up^ Dhu al-Qi'dah3. Jump up^ http://www.ezsoftech.com/islamic/khandaq.asp4. ^ Jump up to:a b c Rodinson, Muhammad: Prophet of Islam, p. 208.5. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, pp. 167–174.6. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Nomani, Sirat al-Nabi, p. 368-370.7. Jump up^ Peters, Muhammad and the Origins of Islam, p. 211—214.8. Jump up^ Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, p. 135.9. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Watt, Muhammad at Medina, p. 34-37.

10. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k Ramadan, In the Footsteps of the Prophet, pp. 137–145.11. Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir 2. Pakistan Historical Society. pp. 82–84. ASIN B0007JAWMK.12. Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, pp. 196-198. (online)13. ^ Jump up to:a b Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman, Tafsir Ibn Kathir Juz' 21 (Part 21): Al-Ankaboot 46 to Al-Azhab 30 2nd Edition,

p. 122, MSA Publication Limited, 2009,ISBN 1861797338. (online)14. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Lings, Muhammad: his life based on the earliest sources, pp. 215f.15. ^ Jump up to:a b al-Halabi, al-Sirat al-Halbiyyah, p. 19.16. ^ Jump up to:a b c Rodinson, p. 20917. Jump up^ Glasse & Smith , New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 81.18. ^ Jump up to:a b Rodinson , pp. 209f.19. Jump up^ Tabqaar ibn-e-Sadd 1:412, Anwaar Mohammadiya minal mawahib Page 8420. Jump up^ Zafrulla Khan, Muhammad, Seal of the Prophets, pp. 177–179.21. Jump up^ Nomani, p. 382.22. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Maududi, The Meaning of the Quran, p. 64f.23. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Lings, pp. 221–223.24. ^ Jump up to:a b Watt, "Kurayza, Banu" Encyclopaedia of Islam.25. Jump up^ Heck, "Arabia Without Spices: An Alternate Hypothesis", pp. 547–567.26. ^ Jump up to:a b Peterson, Muhammad. Prophet of God, p. 123f.27. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Lings, pp. 224–226.28. Jump up^ Peters Muhammad and the Origins of Islam, p. 221f.29. Jump up^ Lings, pp. 227f.30. ^ Jump up to:a b Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, pp. 170−176.31. Jump up^ Deuteronomy 20:10-14, New International Version.32. ^ Jump up to:a b Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah, p. 461-464.33. Jump up^ Muir, A Life of Mahomet and History of Islam to the Era of the Hegira, pp. 272–274.34. Jump up^ Peters, Muhammad and the Origins of Islam, pp. 222–224.35. Jump up^ Stillman, p. 141f.36. Jump up^ Kister, "The Massacre of the Banu Quraiza", p. 93f.37. Jump up^ Inamdar, Muhammad and the Rise of Islam, pp. 166f.38. Jump up^ Muir (p. 277) follows Hishami and also refers to Aisha, who had related: "But I shall never cease to marvel at her good

humour and laughter, although she knew that she was to die." (Ibn Ishaq, Biography of Muhammad).39. Jump up^ Lecker, "On Arabs of the Banū Kilāb executed together with the Jewish Banū Qurayza", p. 69.40. Jump up^ Kister, "The Massacre of the Banu Quraiza", pp. 95f.41. ^ Jump up to:a b Rodinson, Muhammad: Prophet of Islam, p. 213.42. Jump up^ Ramadan, p. 146.43. Jump up^ Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, p. 96.44. Jump up^ Alford Welch, Muhammad, Encyclopedia of Islam45. Jump up^ [Dr. M. Sa’id Ramadan Al-Buti - "Jurisprudence of Muhammad’s Biography", p. 73, English edition, published by

Azhar University of Egypt (1988)]46. ^ Jump up to:a b Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, p. xi.47. Jump up^ Reeves, Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making, p. 6–7.48. Jump up^ Donner, Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing, p. 132.

See also[edit]

Islamic military jurisprudence

References[edit]Primary source

Guillaume, Alfred, The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah. Oxford University Press, 1955. ISBN 0-19-636033-1

Secondary source

Buchanan, Allen E.; Margaret Moore (2003). 'States, Nations, and Borders: The Ethics of Making Boundaries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52575-6.

Donner, Fred  (1998). Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing. Darwin Press. ISBN 0-87850-127-4.

Glasse, Cyril; Huston Smith (2003). New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 0759101906.

Heck, Gene W. "Arabia Without Spices: An Alternate Hypothesis", in: Journal Of The American Oriental Society 123 (2003), p. 547-567.

Lings, Martin  (1983). Muhammad: his life based on the earliest sources. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 0-04-297042-3.

Maududi , Sayyid Abul Ala (1967). The Meaning of the Quran. Lahore: Islamic Publications Limited. ISBN 1-56744-134-3.

Muir, William , A Life of Mahomet and History of Islam to the Era of the Hegira, vol. 3. London: Smith, Elder & Co, 1861.

Nomani, Shibli  (1970). Sirat al-Nabi. Karachi: Pakistan Historical Society. Peters, Francis E. (1994). Muhammad and the Origins of Islam. Albany: SUNY Press. ISBN 0-

7914-1875-8. Peterson, Daniel C. (2007). Muhammad. Prophet of God. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B.

Eerdmans Publishing co. ISBN 0-8028-0754-2. Ramadan, Tariq  (2007). In the Footsteps of the Prophet. New York: Oxford University

Press. ISBN 0-19-530880-8. Reeves, Minou  (2003). Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making.

NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-7564-6. Rodinson, Maxime  (2002). Muhammad: Prophet of Islam. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ISBN 1-

86064-827-4. Watt, William M.  (1953). Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford University Press. ASIN: B000IUA52A. Watt, William M.  (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-577307-1. Watt, William M.  (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-

19-881078-4. Zafrulla Khan, Muhammad (1980). Muhammad, Seal of the Prophets. Routledge. ISBN 0-7100-

0610-1. Movie Muhammad: The Last Prophet

Battle of SiffinFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[hide]This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.

The neutrality of this article is disputed. (October 2013)This article contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiableinformation. (October 2013)This article reads more like a story than an encyclopedia entry. (October 2013)This article contains too many or too-lengthy quotations for an encyclopedic entry. (October 2013)This article needs additional citations for verification. (July 2011)

Battle of Siffin

Part of First Fitna

Date July 26 to July 28, 657 ADLocation Siffin, SyriaResult Inconclusive

2nd Major Muslim Civil War

Belligerents

 Rashidun Caliphate Bani Umayya

Commanders and leaders

 Ali ibn Abi-Taleb

 Hassan ibn Ali

 Malik al-Ashtar

Muawiyah I

Marwan I

Amr ibn al-As

 Abd-Allah ibn Abbas

 Ammar ibn Yasir †

 Khuzaima ibn Thabit †

 Hashim ibn Utbah †

Walid ibn Uqba

[show]

V

T

E

Civil wars of

the early Caliphates

[show]

V

T

E

First

Islamic

Civil War

The Battle of Siffin (Arabic: صفين; May–July 657 CE) occurred during the First Fitna, or first Muslim civil war, with the main engagement taking place from July 26 to July 28. It was fought between Ali ibn Abi Talib andMuawiyah I, on the banks of the Euphrates river, in what is now Ar-Raqqah, Syria.

Contents  [hide] 

1 Background 2 Start of hostilities 3 The main engagement 4 Arbitration 5 References

Background[edit]Main article: Siege of Uthman

The Islamic State expanded very quickly under Muhammad and the first three caliphs. Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, marginalized as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests. [1][2] As new areas joined the Islamic State, they also benefited from free trade while trading with other areas in the Islamic State; so as to encourage commerce, Muslims taxed wealth instead of trade. [3] The Muslims paid Zakat on their wealth to the poor. Since the Constitution of Medina was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic

State and had their own judges.[4][5][6] Therefore they only paid for policing for the protection of their property. To assist in the quick expansion of the state, the Byzantine and the Persian tax collection systems were maintained and the people paid a poll tax lower than the one imposed under the Byzantines and the Persians. Before Prophet Muhammad united the Arabs, the Arabs had been divided and the Byzantines and the Sassanid had their own client tribes that they used to pay to fight on their behalf.

In 639, Muawiyah I was appointed the Governor of Syria by Umar after his elder brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan(Governor of Syria) died in a plague, along with Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (the Governor before him) and 25,000 other people. To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy, manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.[7][8][9][10]

[11] 500 Byzantine ships were destroyed in the battle, and Emperor Constans II was almost killed. Under the instructions of the caliph Uthman ibn al-Affan, Muawiyah then prepared for the siege of Constantinople.

The Rashidun Caliphate during the Battle of Siffin.

The rapid Muslim conquest of Syria and Egypt and the consequent Byzantine losses in manpower and territory meant that the Eastern Roman Empire found itself struggling for survival. The Sassanid Dynasty in Persia had already collapsed.

Following the Roman–Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, deep-rooted differences between Iraq, formerly under the Persian Sassanid Empire, and Syria, formerly under the Byzantine Empire, also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic state to be in their area.[12] Previously, the second caliph Umar was very firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on them. If he felt that a governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the required administrative standards, he had him removed from his position. [13]

Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they might become attracted to wealth and luxury.[13][14][15][16] Some cities also had agreements with the Muslims, such as during the Siege of Jerusalem in 637 CE.

As Uthman ibn al-Affan grew older, Marwan I, a relative of Muawiyah I, slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary, slowly assuming more control and relaxing some of these restrictions. Marwan I had previously been excluded from positions of responsibility. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the son of Abu Bakr and the adopted son of Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa, the adopted son of Uthman, had no senior positions.

Start of hostilities[edit]

After the Battle of the Camel, Ali returned from Basra to Kufa in Rajab of 36 A.H. (January 657). The Iraqis wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in Kufa so as to bring revenues into their area and oppose Syria.[17] They convinced Ali to come to Kufa and establish the capital in Kufa. Ali listened to them and moved the capital to Kufa. Ali ibn Abi Talib tried to settle matters peacefully by sending an envoy to Syria. He chose Jarir, who was the chief of Banu Bajila and governor of Hamdan. In Syria, incitement to commotion continued unabated. Uthman's shirt, besmeared with his blood and the chopped-off fingers of his wife, Naila, were exhibited from the

pulpit. In this manner, Muawiya raised the entire country of Syria against Ali. Ultimately, both parties converged on Siffin where the armies pitched their camps in 37/657. Even at this stage, Ali sent three men, viz. Bashir bin Amr bin Mahz Ansari, Saeed bin Qais Hamdani, and Shis bin Rabiee Tamini to Muawiya to induce him to settle for union, accord and coming together. According to Tabari, Muawiya replied that, "Go away from here, only the sword will decide between us." [18] Ali's inability to punish the murderers of Uthman and Muawiyahs refusal to pledge allegiance eventually led to Ali moved his army north to confront Muawiyah. Ali gathered his forces, and, after at first planning to invade Syria from the North, he attacked directly, marching through the Mesopotamian desert. Arriving at Riqqa, on the banks of the Euphrates, the Syrian vanguard was sighted, but it withdrew without engagement. The people of Riqqa were hostile to Ali, and his army had great difficulty crossing the river. Eventually, Malik al-Ashtar threatened the townspeople with death, which forced their co-operation. So, finally, the army managed to cross the river, by means of a bridge of boats. Ali's army then marched along the right bank of the Euphrates, until they came across the Syrian outpost of Sur al-Rum, where there was a brief skirmish, but Ali's advance was not slowed. So in Dhu al-Hijjah 36 (May 657), the army of Ali ibn Abi Talib came into sight of Muawiyah's main forces, which were encamped on the river plain at Siffin. [citation needed]

The main engagement[edit]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2013)

The two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Neither side wanted to fight. Then on 11th Safar 37 AH, the Iraqis under Ashtar's command, the Qurra, in Ali's army, who had their own camp started the fighting in earnest which lasted three days.[19]

Historian Yaqubi wrote that Ali had 80,000 men, including 70 Companions who participated in the Battle of Badr, 70 Companions who took oath at Hudaibia, and 400 prominent Ansars and Muhajirun; while Muawiya had 120,000 Syrians.[20]

William Muir wrote that, "Both armies drawn out in entire array, fought till the shades of evening fell, neither having got the better. The following morning, the combat was renewed with great vigour. Ali posed himself in the centre with the flower of his troops from Medina, and the wings were formed, one of the warriors from Basra, the other of those from Kufa. Muawiya had a pavilion pitched on the field; and there, surrounded by five lines of his sworn body-guards, watched the day. Amr with a great weight of horse, bore down upon the Kufa wing which gave away; and Ali was exposed to imminent peril, both from thick showers of arrows and from close encounter ... Ali's general Ashtar, at the head of 300 Hafiz-e-Qur'an(those who had memorized the Koran) led forward the other wing, which fell with fury on Muawiya's body-guards. Four of its five ranks were cut to pieces, and Muawiya, bethinking himself of flight, had already called for his horse, when a martial couplet flashed in his mind, and he held his ground."[21]

English historian Edward Gibbon wrote: "The Caliph Ali displayed a superior character of valor and humanity. His troops were strictly enjoined to wait the first onset of the enemy, to spare their flying brethren, and to respect the bodies of the dead, and the chastity of the female captives. The ranks of the Syrians were broken by the charge of the hero, who was mounted on a piebald horse, and wielded with irresistible force his ponderous and two edged sword." Of the estimated casualties, Ali's forces lost 25,000, while Muawiyah's forces lost 45,000. Appalled by the carnage, Ali sent a message to Muawiya and challenged him to single combat, saying that whoever won should be the Caliph. In Gibbon's words, "Ali generously proposed to save the blood of the Muslims by a single combat; but his trembling rival declined the challenge as a sentence of inevitable death." [22][23]

Gibbon wrote of the estimated casualties that Ali's forces lost 25,000, while Muawiyah's forces lost 45,000.[24]

The earliest account of the battle is found in Ibn Hisham's book (833) where he quotes Ibn Muzahim died 212 AH and Abu Mikhnaf died 170 AH.[25] It says that after three days of fighting the loss of life was terrible. Suddenly one of the Syrians, Ibn Lahiya, reportedly out of dread of the fitna and unable to bear the spectacle rode forward with a copy of the Quran on the ears of his horse to call for judgement by the book of Allah, and the other Syrians followed suit. Allegedly, those on both sides took up the cry, eager to avoid killing their follow Muslims except for the conspirators. The majority of Ali's followers supported arbitration. Nasr b Muzahim, in one of the earliest source states that al-Ash ath ibn Qays, one of Ali's key supporters and a Kufan, then stood up and said:"O company of Muslims! You have seen what happened in the day which has passed. In it some of the Arabs have been annihilated. By Allah, I have reached the age which Allah willed that I reach. but I have never ever seen a day like this. Let the present convey to the absent! If we fight tomorrow, it will be the annihilation of the Arabs and the loss of what is sacred. I do not make this statement out of fear of death, but I am an aged man who fears for the women and children tomorrow if we are annihilated. O Allah, I have looked to my people and the people of my deen and not empowered anyone. There is no success except by Allah. On Him I rely and to Him I return. Opinion can be both right and wrong. When Allah decides a matter, He carries it out whether His servants like it or not. I say this and I ask Allah's forgiveness for me and you." Then, Nasr b Muzahim says people looked at Muawiya who said "He is right, by the Lord. If we meet tomorrow the Byzantines will attack our women and children and the people of Persia will attack the women and children of Iraq. Those with forebearance and intelligence see this. Tie the copies of the Quran to the ends of the spears." So the fighting stopped.[25]

Arbitration[edit]

It was decided that the Syrians and the residents of Kufa, in Iraq, should nominate an arbitrator, each to decide between Ali and Muawiya. The Syrians choice fell on Amr bin al-A'as who was the rational soul and spokesman of Muawiya. 'Amr ibn al-'As was one of the generals involved in expelling the Romans from Syria and also expelled the Romans from Egypt. [26] A few years earlier according to Islamic tradition, 'Amr ibn al-'As with 9,000 men in Palestine had found himself confronting Heraclius' 100,000 army until Khalid crossed the Syrian desert from Iraq to assist him.[26] He was a highly skilled negotiator and had previously been used in negotiations with the Heraclius the Roman Emperor.[27] Ali wanted Malik Ashtar or Abdullah bin Abbas to be appointed as an arbitrator for the people of Kufa, Iraq, but the Qurra strongly demurred, alleging that men like these two were, indeed, responsible for the war and, therefore, ineligible for that office of trust. They nominated Abu Musa al-Ashari as their arbitrator. (During the time of Uthman, they had appointed Abu Musa al-Ashari as the Governor of Kufa and removed Uthams governor before they started fighting Uthman) Ali found it expedient to agree to this choice in order to ward off bloody dissensions in his army. According to "Asadul Ghaba", Ali had, therefore, taken care to personally explain to the arbitrators, "You are arbiters on condition that you decide according to the Book of God, and if you are not so inclined you should not deem yourselves to be arbiters." [28]

The Iraqis under Ali and the Syrians under Muawiyah were not split over their faith [29] but over when to bring the people who killed Uthman to justice. Ali also wanted to bring them to justice but the dispute was over the timing.

According to early Shia sources Ali later wrote:[29]

"The thing began in this way: We and the Syrians were facing each other while we had common faith in one Allah, in the same Prophet (s) and on the same principles and canons of religion. So far as faith in Allah and the Holy Prophet (s) was concerned we never wanted them (the Syrians) to believe in anything over and above or other than what they were believing in and they did not want us to change our faith. Both of us were united on these principles. The point of contention between us was the question of the murder of Uthman. It had created the split. They wanted to lay the murder at my door while I am actually innocent of it.

I advised them that this problem cannot be solved by excitement. Let the excitement subside, let us cool down; let us do away with sedition and revolt; let the country settle down into a peaceful atmosphere and when once a stable regime is formed and the right authority is accepted, then let this question be dealt with on the principles of equity and justice because only then the authority will have power enough to find the criminals and to bring them to justice. They refused to accept my advice and said that they wanted to decide the issue on the point of the sword.

When they thus rejected my proposal of peace and kept on sabre rattling threats, then naturally the battle, which was furious and bloody, started. When they saw defeat facing them across the battlefield, when many of them were killed, and many more wounded, then they went down on their knees and proposed the same thing, which I had proposed before the bloodshed had begun.

I accepted their proposal so that their desire might be fulfilled, my intentions of accepting the principles of truth and justice and acting according to these principles might become clear and they might have no cause to complain against me.

Now whoever adheres firmly to the promises made will be the one whose salvation will be saved by Allah and one who will try to go back upon the promises made, will fall deeper and deeper into heresy, error and loss. His eyes will be closed to realities and truth in this world and he will be punished in the next world."[30]

Ibn Taymiyyah (1263 to 1328) said: "Muawiyah did not call himself to be a khaleefah and was not given the oath of allegiance to it when he fought Ali. He fought not because he considered himself to be the khaleef or deserving of the khilaafah. This they all agreed upon and he himself would affirm this to whomever asked him. He and his companions did not consider it permissible that they initiate the fight against Ali and his companions. But Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) and his companions believed that Muawiyah and his companions must pledge allegiance and show obedience to Ali, due to his authority such that there be only one khaleefah for the Muslims. Considering them defecting from this obligation he decided that Muawiyah and his companions should be fought until they fulfilled it. All this so that obedience and unity occur. Muawiyah and his companions did not see that it was obligatory upon them and if they were fought against they would consider themselves oppressed because Uthman was killed oppressively as was agreed by all the Muslims at the time and his killers were in Ali's camp, he having authority over them." [31]

Encyclopedia of Islam says "According to the non Muslim view the Syrians were winning" [32] Either way, neither the Syrians nor the Iraqis wanted to fight and the battle was stopped.

When the arbitrators assembled at Daumet-ul-Jandal, which lay midway between Kufa and Syria and had for that reason been selected as the place for the announcement of the decision, a series of daily meetings were arranged for them to discuss the matters in hand. When the time arrived for taking a decision about the caliphate, Amr bin al-A'as convinced Abu Musa al-Ashari into entertaining the opinion that they should deprive both Ali and Muawiya of the caliphate, and give to the Muslims the right to elect the caliph. Abu Musa al-Ashari also decided to act accordingly. As the time for announcing the verdict approached, the people belonging to both parties assembled. Amr bin al-A'as requested Abu Musa to take the lead in announcing the decision he favoured. Abu Musa al-Ashari agreed to open the proceedings, and said, "We have devised a solution after a good deal of thought and it may put an end to all contention and separatist tendencies. It is this. Both of us remove Ali as well as Muawiya from the caliphate. The Muslims are given the right to elect a caliph as they think best."[33]

Ali refused to accept the verdict of him stepping down and for an election to be held and found himself technically in breach of his pledge to abide by the arbitration. [34][35][36] This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters.[34] The most vociferous opponents of Ali in his camp were the very same people who had forced Ali to appoint their arbitrator, the Qurra who then became known as the Kharijites.[33] Feeling that Ali could no longer look after their interests[37] Also fearing that if there was peace, they could be arrested for the murder of Uthman they broke away from Ali's

force, rallying under the slogan, "arbitration belongs to God alone."[33] The Qurra then became known as the Kharijites ("those who leave"). The Kharijites then started killing other people.

After the battle of Saffin the Qurra realised that Ali could not safeguard their interests and therefore split off and formed their own Party called the Kharijites and later developed into an anarchist movement [38] and plagued successive governments even Harun the Abbasid ruler died fighting the Kharijites.[39]

They also started killing Ali's supporters. They considered anyone who was not part of their group as an unbeliever.[40]

In the best selling book, Shadow of the sword, The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World, Tom Holland writes [41] "The Kharijites argued a true believer would have trusted his fate not to diplomacy but to ongoing warfare and God will decide." Even though they them selves had put forward their representative and become a party of them selves, so that the negotiations could go in their favor and satisfy their own political and economic interests. Tom Holland says that "they then condemned Ali as an unbeliever, as the man who had strayed from the Strait Path. The fact that he was Muhammad's nephew only confirmed them in their militancy of their egalitarianism; that the true aristocracy was one of piety and not blood. Even a Companion of the Prophet, if he did not pray until he developed marks on his forehead. If he did not look pale and haggard from regular fasting, if he did not live like a lion by day and a monk by night, ranked in the opinion of the Kharijites as no better than an apostate." They then developed even more twisted views. Tom Holland writes "Other Kharijites, so it was reported, might go out and with their swords into the markets while people would stand around not realizing what was happening; they would shout "no judgment except God!" and plunge their blades into whom ever they could reach and go on killing until they them selves were killed.[42]

In 659 Ali's forces finally moved against the Kharijites and they finally met in the Battle of Nahrawan. Although Ali won the battle, the constant conflict had begun to affect his standing. [43] Tom Holland writes "Ali won a victory over them as crushing as it was to prove pyrrhic: for all he had done, in effect was to fertilise the soil of Iraq with the blood of their martyrs. Three years later, and there came the inevitable blowback: a Kharijite assassin.". [42]

The Kharijites caused so much trouble that in both the early Sunni and the early Shia books Ali said:"With regard to me, two categories of people will be ruined, namely he who loves me too much and the love takes him away from rightfulness, and he who hates me too much and the hatred takes him away from rightfulness. The best man with regard to me is he who is on the middle course. So be with him and be with the great majority of Muslims because Allah’s hand of protection is on keeping unity. You should beware of division because the one isolated from the group is a prey to Satan just as the one isolated from the flock of sheep is a prey to the wolf. Beware! Whoever calls to this course [of sectarianism], kill him, even though he may be under this headband of mine."(Nahjul Balagha, Sermon 126)

Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. On the 19th of Ramadan, while Praying in the Great Mosque of Kufa, Ali was attacked by the Khawarij Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam. He was wounded by ibn Muljam's poison-coated sword while prostrating in the Fajr prayer. [44]

Muawiyah's army also moved into other areas, which Ali's governors couldn't prevent and people didn't support him to fight with them. Muawiyah overpowered Egypt, Yemen and other areas. [45] Ali was later killed by a Kharijite Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam while he was praying in the mosque of Kufa.[46]

References[edit]

1. Jump up^ Esposito (2010, p. 38)2. Jump up^ Hofmann (2007), p.863. Jump up^ Islam: An Illustrated History By Greville Stewart Parker Freeman-Grenville, Stuart Christopher Munro-Hay Page 40

4. Jump up^ R. B. Serjeant, "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (1978), 41: 1–42, Cambridge University Press.

5. Jump up^ Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964) p. 4.6. Jump up^ "Madinah Peace Treaty". Retrieved17 December 2014.7. Jump up^ Lewis, Archibald Ross (1985). European Naval and Maritime History, 300–1500. Indiana University Press.

p. 24. ISBN 9780253320827. Retrieved 22 May 2014.8. Jump up^ Kroll, Leonard Michael (2005-03-16). History of the Jihad: Islam Versus Civilization. AuthorHouse.

p. 123. ISBN 9781463457303. Retrieved 22 May2014.9. Jump up^ Gregory, Timothy E. (2011-08-26). A History of Byzantium. John Wiley & Sons. p. 183.ISBN 9781444359978.

Retrieved 22 May 2014.10. Jump up^ Weston, Mark (2008-07-28). Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present. John Wiley & Sons.

p. 61. ISBN 9780470182574. Retrieved 22 May 2014.11. Jump up^ Bradbury, Jim (1992). The Medieval Siege. Boydell & Brewer. p. 11. ISBN 9780851153575. Retrieved 22 May 2014.12. Jump up^ Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi, Iraq, a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom War, p. 3213. ^ Jump up to:a b Hanna, Sami Ayad; Gardner, George H. (1969). Arab Socialism. [al-Ishtirakīyah Al-ʻArabīyah]: A Documentary

Survey. Brill Archive. p. 271. Retrieved 22 May 2014.14. Jump up^ Khālid, Khālid Muḥammad; Khalid, Muhammad Khalid (2005-02). Men Around the Messenger. The Other Press.

p. 117. ISBN 9789839154733. Retrieved 22 May 2014. Check date values in:|date= (help)15. Jump up^ Holt, P. M.; Holt, Peter Malcolm; Lambton, Ann K. S.; Bernard Lewis (1977-04-21). The Cambridge History of Islam.

Cambridge University Press. p. 605. ISBN 9780521291385. Retrieved 22 May2014.16. Jump up^ Ali, Maulana Muhammad (2011-08-09). The Early Caliphate. eBookIt.com. p. 101.ISBN 9781934271254.

Retrieved 22 May 2014.17. Jump up^ Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi, p. 3218. Jump up^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, Tabari volume 5, p. 24319. Jump up^ Bewley, p. 22 from Ibn Hisham from Ibn Muzahim died 212 AH from Abu Mikhnaf died 170 AH20. Jump up^ Yaqubi, vol 2, p. 188. Tarikh Al-Yaqubi (Tarikh Ibn Wadih).21. Jump up^ William Muir, The Caliphate, its Rise and Fall(London, 1924) page 26122. Jump up^ Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Ch. L, Pgs. 98-99. New York: Fred de Fau

and Co. Publishers (1906).http://files.libertyfund.org/files/1436/0214-09_Bk.pdf Pgs. 116-117.23. Jump up^ Edward Gibbon, The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire (London, 1848) volume 3, p.52224. Jump up^ Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Ch. L, Page 98. New York: Fred de Fau

and Co. Publishers (1906).http://files.libertyfund.org/files/1436/0214-09_Bk.pdf Pg. 116.25. ^ Jump up to:a b Bewley, p. 22 from Ibn Hisham from Ibn Muzahim died 212 AH from Abu Mikhnaf died 170 AH26. ^ Jump up to:a b Islamic Conquest of Syria A translation of Fatuhusham by al-Imam al-Waqidi Translated by Page 31 [1]27. Jump up^ Islamic Conquest of Syria A translation of Fatuhusham by al-Imam al-Waqidi Translated by Mawlana Sulayman al-

Kindi [2]28. Jump up^ "Asadul Ghaba" vol 3, p. 246. Name of book needed29. ^ Jump up to:a b "Nahjul Balagha Part 1, The Sermons". Al-Islam.org. Retrieved 17 December 2014.30. Jump up^ Nahjul Balaagha - Letter 5831. Jump up^ Book: Mu'aawiyah Ibn Abee Sufyaan By Abdul-Muhsin Ibn Hamad Al-Abbaad Publisher Dar as-Sahaba Publications

Page 4832. Jump up^ Encyclopedia of Islam Volume VII, page 265 By Bosworth33. ^ Jump up to:a b c Rahman, p. 5934. ^ Jump up to:a b Rahman, p. 6035. Jump up^ Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011-07-22). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia [2

volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 836.ISBN 9781598843378. Retrieved 22 May 2014.36. Jump up^ Sandler, Stanley (2002-01-01). Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.

p. 602.ISBN 9781576073445. Retrieved 22 May 2014.37. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 61–65 about the writings of M. A. Shahban,

In his Islamic History A.D. 600–750 (A.H. 132): A new Interpretation (1971) [3]38. Jump up^ Timani, p. 5839. Jump up^ Sowell, Kirk H. (2004). The Arab World: An Illustrated History. Hippocrene Books. p. 41.ISBN 9780781809900.

Retrieved 22 May 2014.40. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 46 [4]41. Jump up^ In the shadow of the sword, The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World By Tom Holland, ISBN

9780349122359 Abacus Page 38942. ^ Jump up to:a b In the shadow of the sword, The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World By Tom

Holland, ISBN 9780349122359 Abacus Page 39943. Jump up^ A Chronology of Islamic History 570-1000 CE By H U Rahman Page 5944. Jump up^ name="Tabatabaei 1979 192"45. Jump up^ See: Nahj Al-Balagha Nahj Al-Balagha Sermons 25, 27, 29, 39

Al-gharat (Plunders) which has written by Abi Mikhnaf is a detailed report about these raids.46. Jump up^ Tabatabae (1979), page 192

Event of MubahalaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  (Redirected from Mubahala)

Part of a series on

Muhammad

Life [show]

Career[show]

Miracles[show]

Views[show]

Succession [show]

Praise[show]

Perspectives[show]

Related[show]

 Islam portal

V

T

E

[hide] 

Part of a series on

Shia Islam

Beliefs and practices[show]

Holy days [show]

History [show]

Branches of Shia Islam[show]

Ahl al-Kisa [show]

Authentic figures[show]

 Islam portal

V

T

E

Event of Mubahala refers to a debate in which Islamic prophet Muhammad was on one side and the Christians ofNajran were on other side, and the call was extended to the sons and women.[1] Mubahala is a Qur'anic evocation of the occasion of a Muslim / Christian encounter during Muhammad's lifetime. In this occasion Muhammad is instructed by Quran to issue a challenge to the visiting Christians of Najran.[2]

Najranis came to Medina claiming that Isa is divine and son of Allah.[3] In fact, they meant to determine whetherMuhammad's claim are in accordance with the prophecies of their holy books.The event is recorded in several hadithcollections and is referred to in the Qur'anic Sura Al Imran.

In such debates, each side would bring the most informed men, and hence Najranis were surprised when they saw "Ali,Fatima, Hassan and Hossein" accompanying Muhammad.[4] It is seen as one of the merits of Ahl al-Bayt and is widely used by the Shia to prove that Muhammad, Ali ibn Abu Talib, Fatimah, Hasan, and Husain are Panjetan-e-Pak and most prominent among his Ahl al-Bayt.

Contents  [hide] 

1 Concept 2 Background 3 Verse of Mubahalah 4 Participants 5 The incident 6 As an argument 7 Hadith 8 Eid al-Mubahalah 9 Notes 10 See also 11 References 12 External links

Concept[edit]

Al-Mubahalah' (Arabic: المباهلة) is derived from the Arabic word 'Bahlah' (curse), so the term 'Mubahala' means cursing each other.[1][5] In Islamic tradition it refers to the ancient ceremony of mutually and formally calling God's curse down upon whichever of the two parties was not speaking truthfully on the occasion in Medina when the question as to the true identity of Messiah was put. [a][3]

[6] It is an instance of Qur'an's critique of a central Christian doctrine, the doctrine of the Incarnation. This event of Mubahala might serve as a Qur'anic icon for the character of the Christian / Muslim dialogue which took place within the world of Islam after the Islamic conquest and after Christians in the occupied territories adopted the Arabic language. In this milieu Muslims challenged and critiqued

major point of Christian faith, and Christians responded in defense of their defining doctrine and practice.[2][3]

Background[edit]

In the ninth year of Hijra the Prophet of Islam wrote a letter[b] to Abdul Haris Ibn Alqama, the Grand Bishop of Najranwho was the official representative of the Roman Church in the Hijaz, and invited the people of that area to embrace Islam. In response to that letter the Christians sent a representative deputation to Muhammad[7]

On that occasion the discussion between them had turned to the subject of Jesus, the Messiah, and the question of what is the truth concerning him. The Prophet preached to them and requested them to accept Islam. The Christians, however, remained obstinate and refused to be convinced. Their argument was that Jesus was born without a father, so he was the son of God. Thereafter, according to the traditional account on this occasion the following verses came down to Muhammad. [7]

Surely the likeness of Jesus is with Allah as the likeness of Adam; He created him from dust, then said to him 'Be', and he was. (This is) the truth from your Lord, so be not of the disputers. [c]

The Prophet recited the verses to them, and after lengthy discussions which have been presented in details in Ibn Hisham's Sirah,[d] no agreement was reached on the position and standing of Jesus. At the end of the discussions, the Prophet was instructed to suggest that the two sides engage in Mubahala.[11][12]

Verse of Mubahalah[edit]

The Quran envisions a continuous dialogue between Muslims and Christians, in the same time, however, it assumes that the dialogue between Jews, Christians, and Muslims will sometimes take the form of arguments about religion, for one passage says, "Do not dispute with the people of the book save in the fairest way;[e]Except for those who are evil doers." And say: "We believe in what has been sent down to us and what has been sent to you. Our God and your God are one and to Him we are submissive."[f][2]

There is one Qur'anic narrative in particular in which the occasion of revelation of a passage, according to Islamic tradition, was the visit of Najran to Muhammad inMedina.[g] which is recorded in Sura Al Imran, is regarded as verse of Mubahalah:

Then whoever argues with you about it after [this] knowledge has come to you - say, "Come, let us call our sons and your sons, our women and your women, ourselves and yourselves, then supplicate earnestly [together] and invoke the curse of Allah upon the liars [among us]. [h]

It is interesting to note in this connection that while the Quran invokes malediction and curse, it nevertheless also on the face of it, once the adversaries would have stacked their lives and those of their loved ones of their own steadfastness in faith, leaves the judgment between the two parties in this matter in the hand of God.[2]The commentators agree that the verse of mubahala was occasioned by the visit of the Christians of Najran who did not accept the Islamic doctrine about "Jesus".[13] According to Al-Mizan by Allamah Tabatabaei, a Shia scholar, the first "us" in this verse has a different import from the plural pronouns used in "our sons", "our women" and "our near people". The former refers to the both Islam and Christianity sides, while the other three "our"s refer to the side of Islam only. This way, a meaningful short sentence, implies a longer sentence equal in meaning.[1] Based on Madelung interpreting the term "our sons" as the two grandsons of the prophet is reasonable and consequently the parents, Ali and Fatimah, may be included in this verse. [13]

Participants[edit]

The members of the Muhammad family who were expected to participate this event is not modified in some of the Sunni sources while some others mention Fatima,Hasan and Hossein as the participants. Meanwhile, some of the Sunni sources are in agreement with Shia belief saying that Ahl al-Kisa, including Ali, participated the occasion.[13][14]

Tabatabaei has mentioned in his Tafsir al-Mizan that al-Ma'mun had asked Ali al-Ridha several questions, one of which was as follows:[1]

- "What is the proof for the Caliphate of your grandfather, Ali ibn Abi Talib?

- "The verse of our selves," The Imam replied.

- "If there were not our women," al-Ma'mun said

- "If there were not our sons," the Imam said.

Tabatabaei says: "The Imam argued on the strength of the word, ourselves. He meant that God had made Ali like the person of the Prophet. (And who could have more right to succeed the Prophet than his own person?). al-Ma'mun said, 'If there were not our women.' He wanted to say that the reference to 'women' indicates that the word 'ourselves' means 'our men', and as such it would not show any excellence. The Imam replied, 'If there were not our sons.' That is, if 'ourselves' referred to the men, then why should the sons be mentioned separately? They would have been included in 'our men'."[1]

The incident[edit]

The Christians returned to the place they were staying. Their leader al-Sayyid, al-'Aqib advised them saying: "If he challenges us with his people, we accept the challenge for he is not a Prophet; but if he challenges us with his family in particular we don't challenge him, for he is not going to put forward his family unless he is truthful."[1][7] It was on the morning of 24th Zilhajj that Muhammad emerged at the appointed time. He brought only select members of his family, carrying Husayn in his arm with Hasan holding his hand, followed by Fatima and Ali and said this is my family and covered himself and his family with a cloak.[i][15]

He offered to do the Arabic tradition Mubahala, where each conflicting party should cover themselves, and together all parties ask God sincerely to destroy and inflict with curses on the lying party and their families.[j] The Christians consulted each other and Abdul Haris lbne Alqama, the greatest scholar among them, talked them out of doing Mubahala. [k] The Christians refused, so Muhammad gave them two alternatives: either to convert to Islam or to pay Jizya, a levy on free non-Muslims under Muslim rule. The Christians continued, asking Muhammad to send with them a trustworthy man to aid them in judging monetary disputes amongst themselves. Muhammad agrees and appoints 'Abu 'Ubaydah bin Al-Jarah out of a large group of willing and hopeful contenders. [7]

As an argument[edit]

This section requires expansion.

(October 2014)

Mubahala provided an opportunity for Mohammad to introduce the Ahl al-Bayt (People of the House) who were also given the title Ahl al-Kisa (People of the Mantle) afterward.[16] Shi'a believe this authentic hadith proves whom the Quran is referring to when it mentions the Ahl al-Bayt which includes only Ali, Fatimah, and their descendants.[17] This event causes some scholars to conclude the power and superiority of Ali - especially when it comes to his right of Imamah and immediate successorship following Muhammad.[1]

Hadith[edit]A narration attributed to Shu'ba reports:

“ This hadith has been narrated on the authority of Shu'ba with the same chain of transmitters. Amir b. Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas reported on the authority of his father that Muawiya b. Abi Sufyin appointed Sa'd as the Governor and said: "What prevents you from abusing Abu Turab (Hadrat 'Ali)?" Whereupon be said: "It is because of three things which I remember Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) having said about him that I would not abuse him, and even if I find one of those three things for me, it would be more dear to me than the red camel. I heard Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) say about 'Ali as he left behind him in one of his campaigns (that was Tabuk). Ali said to him: 'Allah's Messenger, you leave me behind along with women and children.' Thereupon Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said to him: 'Aren't you satisfied with being unto me what Aaron was unto Moses, but with this exception that there is no prophet after me?' And I (also) heard him say on the Day of Khaibar: 'I would certainly give this standard to a person who loves Allah and his Messenger, and Allah and his Messenger love him, too.' He (the narrator) said: 'We had been anxiously waiting for it, when he (the Holy Prophet) said: Call 'Ali. He was called and his eyes were inflamed. He applied saliva to his eyes and handed over the standard to him, and Allah gave him victory.' (The third occasion is this) when the (following) verse was revealed: 'Let us summon our children and your children.' Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) called 'Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husain and said: 'O Allah, they are my family.'" ”

Sunnis tend to view this as Sahih and have included it in Sahih Muslim [18]

Eid al-Mubahalah[edit]

This section requires expansion.

(October 2014)

Eid al-Mubahalah is an annual Muslim commemoration of Mubahila.[19]

Notes[edit]

1. Jump up^ See Louis Massignon, La Mubahala de Medine et I'hyperdulie de Fatima, in Louis Massignon, parole donnee (paris: Editions du Seuil, 1983), 147-67

2. Jump up^ The text of the said letter runs as follow: "In the name the Lord of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob … I invite you all to worship God instead of worshiping His creatures, so that you may come out of the guardianship of the creatures of Allah and take place under the guardianship of Allah Himself…"[7]

3. Jump up^ Quran, 3:59,604. Jump up^ As-Sirah an-Nabawiyyah, an edited (though not copied) version of Ibn Ishaq's original work. [8][9] It is now considered

one of the classic works on the biography of the Muslim prophet Muhammad. [10]

5. Jump up^ For useful discussion of this Quran passage, see Jane Dammen McAuliffe, "Debate with them in the better way": The Construction of a Qur'anic Commonplace." In Aspects of Literary Hermeneutics in Arabic Culture: Myths, Historical Archetypes and Symbolic Figures in Arabic Literature. Beiruter Texte und Studien, edited by A. Neuwirth, S. Gunther, M. Jarrar, 163-188. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1999.

6. Jump up^ Quran, 29:467. Jump up^ On the Christians of Najran, see Rene Tardy, Najran: Chretiens d'Arabic avant l'Islam, Dar el-Machreq,1999

8. Jump up^ Saheeh international translation of: ندع تعالوا فقل العلم من جاءك ما بعد من فيه حاجك فمنالكاذبين على ه ـ الل عنت ل فنجعل نبتهل ثم وأنفسكم وأنفسنا ونساءكم ونساءنا وأبناءكم أبناءنا

9. Jump up^ It was uncommon for Mubahala to include families of the parties involved but when included, the family causes the process to become more effective.[1][7]

10. Jump up^ Ibn al-Qayyim says: "It is part of Sunnah when arguing with people of falsehood—when they insist on falsehood regardless of arguments and proofs—to call them to Mubahala." See Ibn al-Qayyim, Zad al-Ma'ad Vol.3 p.643

11. Jump up^ He addressed his people saying: "By Allah! You are well-aware, O Christians, that Muhammad is a prophet sent by Allah, and that he has brought to you the decisive word about your Companion (Isa). By Allah! Whenever a nation has entered into imprecation with a prophet, their elders have perished and their youngsters have died. And if you do it, we shall surely perish; but, if you turn down, for the love of your religion and (want) to remain on what you have at present, then make peace with the man and go back to your towns."[3][7]

See also[edit]

List of hadith Mubahala Eid al-Mubahila

Hadith of Virtues of Persia People

References[edit]

1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h Tabatabaei, Muhammad Husayn. "Tafsir al-Mizan, SURAH AALE IMRAN, VERSES 61-63". Tawheed Institute Australia Ltd. Retrieved 2014.

2. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Griffith, Sidney H. (April 4, 2010). The Church in the Shadow of the Mosque: Christians and Muslims in the World of Islam. Princeton University Press. pp. 160–162. ISBN 9781400834020.

3. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman (29 October 2009). Tafsir Ibn Kathir Juz' 3 (Part 3): Al-Baqarah 253 to Al-I-'Imran 92 2nd Edition. MSA Publication Limited. pp. 126–. ISBN 978-1-86179-679-0.

4. Jump up^ Linda S. Walbridge Adjunct Professor of Anthropology Indiana University (6 August 2001). The Most Learned of the Shi`a   : The Institution of the Marja` Taqlid: The Institution of the Marja` Taqlid . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-534393-9.

5. Jump up^ Massignon, Louis (1378). Mubahala dar Medina (in Persian). Translated by mahmoodreza Eftekhar zadeh. Tehran: Resalate Ghalam Publication.

6. Jump up^ Eduardo Campo, Juan (February 1, 2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Checkmark Books. p. 124. ISBN 978-0816077458.7. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Zayn, Samih Atif (1379). Mohammad (s) dar Medina (in Persian). Translated by Masoud Ansari. tehran:

Jami. pp. 1091–1103.8. Jump up^ Ul-Hasan, Mahmood (2005). Ibn Al-Athir: An Arab Historian : a Critical Analysis of His Tarikh-al-kamil and Tarikh-al-

atabeca. New Delhi: Northern Book Center. p. 71.ISBN 9788172111540.9. Jump up^ Wessels, Antonie (1972). A Modern Arabic Biography of Muḥammad: A Critical Study of Muḥammad

Ḥusayn. Leiden: Brill Publishers. p. 1.10. Jump up^ Lapidus, Ira M. (2002). A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

p. 18. ISBN 9780521779333.11. Jump up^ Walbridge, Linda S. (August 6, 2001). The Most Learned of the Shi`a. Oxford University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-

19-534393-9.12. Jump up^ Tajddin, Mumtaz Ali. "AYAT AL-MUBAHILA". Ismaili.NET - Heritage F.I.E.L.D.13. ^ Jump up to:a b c Madelung, Wilferd (15 October 1998). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate.

Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64696-3.14. Jump up^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari. Tafsir al-Tabari vol. XXII. pp. 5–7.15. Jump up^ Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, Chapter of virtues of companions, section of virtues of Ali, 1980 Edition Pub. in

Saudi Arabia, Arabic version, v4, p1871, the end of tradition #32 and Sahih al-Tirmidhi, v5, p65416. Jump up^ Datoo, Bashir A. (1 November 2007). Perspectives on Islamic Faith and History: A Collection of Analytical Essays.

TTQ, INC. ISBN 978-1-879402-17-1.17. Jump up^ Tabataba'i, Sayyid Muhammad Husayn (1973). al Mizan fi tafsir al-Quran. Beirut. p. 311.18. Jump up^ Sahih Muslim, 031:591519. Jump up^ Encyclopedia of Islam - Juan Eduardo Campo - Google Books. Books.google.co.in. Retrieved 2014-01-29.

Hadith of the pond of KhummFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Hadith of the pond of Khumm

Arabic خم غدیر حدیث

Romanization Hadeeth Ghadeer Khumm

Literal meaning Narration of Khumm pond

Part of a series on

Ali

Views[show]

Life[show]

Legacy[show]

Perspectives[show]

Related articles[show]

Category

 Islam portal

V

T

E

The Investiture of Ali at Ghadir Khumm (MS Arab 161, fol. 162r, AD 1309/8 Ilkhanid manuscript illustration)

The Hadith of the pond of Khumm (Arabic:  خم is an account of a speech given by (غديرMuhammad on 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the Islamic calendar (March 16, 632 AD)[1] at Ghadir Khumm, which is located near the city of al-Juhfah, in present day Saudi Arabia.[2] It has been interpreted variously by the two main sects of Islam, where Shiagenerally maintain that in this hadith the Islamic prophet Muhammad appointed Ali (Ali ibn Abi Talib) as his heir and successor. The Sunnis, on the other hand, do not deny Muhammad's declaration about Ali at Ghadir Khumm, but they argue that he was simply urging the audience to hold his cousin and son-in-law in high esteem and affection.[1] Among Sunnis it is primarily used by Sufis to demonstrate the transmission of spiritual authority to Ali. The sermon also illustrates some of the fundamental tenets of Islamic Monotheism.

Most of the Sunni and Shia sources maintain that 70,000 people were present at this occasion, some scholars such asTha'labi in his Tafsir, Sibt Ibn Jauzi in his Tadhkirat'u-Khasa'isi'l-Umma fi Ma'rifati'l-A'imma give the figure 120,000.[3]

For the great significance of Muhammad’s words at Ghadir Khumm in their eyes, Shiites solemnly celebrate the anniversary on 18 Dhu al-Hijjah.[1]

Contents  [hide] 

1 Context 2 The hadith 3 Interpretation 4 Analysis 5 Oath of allegiance by Umar and Gabriel's advice to him 6 Muawiyah is reminded about Ghadir 7 Sufi explanation from Sunni texts

8 See also 9 Citations 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading

Context[edit]

Mosque at Johfa

A few months before his death, Muhammad went on pilgrimage from his home in Medina to Mecca in a trip referred to asThe Farewell Pilgrimage. On the way back from this journey, the following Quranic verse was revealed:

O Messenger! Make known that which hath been revealed unto thee from thy Lord, for if thou do it not, thou wilt not have conveyed His message. Allah will protect thee from mankind. Lo! Allah guideth not the disbelieving folk.

—Quran, sura 5 (Al-Ma'ida), ayah 67[4]

Following this revelation, Muhammad stopped at the pond of Khumm and delivered a sermon. Shia narrators of traditions therefore consider this verse to relate to the succession of Ali at Ghadir Khumm[5][6][7]

The hadith[edit]

On the way back to Medina from Mecca, Muhammad ordered his companions to stop at Ghadir Khum and delivered the following sermon (in brief)

O people, Allah the Most Kind the Omniscient has told me that no apostle lives to more than half the age of him who had preceded him. I think I am about to be called (to die) and thus I must respond. I am responsible and you are responsible, then what do you say?' They said, 'We witness that you have informed, advised and striven. May Allah bless you.' He said, 'Do you not bear witness that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is His servant and Apostle, and that His Heaven is true, His Hell is true, death is true, the Resurrection after death is true, that there is no doubt that the Day of Judgment will come, and that Allah will resurrect the dead from their graves?' They said, 'Yes, we bear witness.' He said, 'O Allah, bear witness.' Then he said, 'O people, Allah is my Lord and I am the lord of the believers. I am worthier of believers than themselves. Of whomsoever I had been Master (Mawla), Ali here is to be his Master.[a] O Allah, be a supporter of whoever supports him (Ali) and an enemy of whoever opposes him and divert the Truth to Ali.'

O people, I will go ahead of you and you will arrive at my Pond (in Heaven) which is wider than the distance between Basra and San'a. It has receptacles as numerous as the stars, and two cups of gold and two of silver. I will ask you about the two weighty things that I have left for you when you come to me to see how you dealt with them. The greater weighty thing is Allah's book—the Holy Qur'an. One end is in Allah's hand and the other is in your hands. Keep it and you will not deviate.

That other weighty thing is my family (Ahl al-Bayt) and my descendents. The Most Kind the Omniscient had told me that both of them, would not separate until they come to my Pond.

Another similar narration of part of the hadith goes as follows,

O people! Reflect on the Quran and comprehend its verses. Look into its clear verses and do not follow its ambiguous parts, for by Allah, none shall be able to explain to you its warnings and its mysteries, nor shall anyone clarify its interpretation, other than the one that I have grasped his hand, brought up beside myself,(and lifted his arm), the one about whom I inform you that whomever I am his master, this Ali is his master (Mawla); and he is Ali Ibn Abi Talib, my brother, the executor of my will (Wasiyyi), whose appointment as your guardian and leader has been sent down to me from Allah, the mighty and the majestic.[8]

There are other versions of this hadith that say,

I have left two matters with you. As long as you hold to them, you will not go the wrong way. They are the Book of Allah and the Sunna of His Prophet."

—Malik ibn Anas, Muwatta Imam Malik [9]

I leave for you the Quran alone you shall uphold it.

—Sahih Muslim 15/19, nu 1218; Sunan ibn Majah 25/84, Sunan Abu Dawood 11/56

Interpretation[edit]

The word mawla is significant in the first narration of this hadith, and can refer to a client, patron, friend, partner, ally or numerous other similar relationships. [10]Number of 27 different meanings are given for the word mawla and hence the exact meaning should be derived from their syntactical and situational contexts.[11]

Analysis[edit]

The current knowledge of the Prophet’s life is mainly based on sources such as Ibn Hisham , al-Ṭabarī, Ibn Saʿd, etc. that are silent over Muhammad’s stop at Ghadir Khumm. Even when the writers mentioned the event, they said nothing about his speech (evidently due to the fear of provoking the hostility of Sunni rulers by providing material for polemic of Shiites who used the Prophet’s words in support of their belief in Ali’s right to Caliphate). Similarly, western biographers of Muhammad make no mention of what happened at Ghadir Khumm as their works are based on these same sources. Yet there’s no doubt that Muhammad did deliver a speech there which included the famous sentence, for the account of the event has been recorded not only by al-Yakubi who is famous for his sympathy for Shiite cause, but also in canonical collections as in the Musnad of Ibn Hanbal. And considering the sheer number of the hadiths and their different isnads it is impossible to reject them. In fact, the Sunnis on the other hand, do not deny Muhammad’s declaration about Ali at Ghadir Khumm, but they argue that he was simply urging the audience to hold his cousin and son-in-law in high esteem and affection.[1]

The prophet ceased the caravan while the weather was very hot and there was no water on the Ghadir, it must be an important matter for the guidance of the community that the caravan is ceased in this situation.

The prophet begun his speech with Tawhid, prophecy and afterlife; these imply the importance of the matter that the prophet was to express. Before the prophet's message about Ali, he spoke about his position of being mawla of the muslims: "God is my Mawla and I am the mawla of the believers, and I am closer to them than they are to their own selves." This means that the word mawla that is used for Ali is derived from the same root that the prophet has used for himself.

After declaring the message, the prophet asked that the presents deliver the message to the absents.[12]

Oath of allegiance by Umar and Gabriel's advice to him[edit]

On the completion of Muhammad's sermon, Umar (Umar al-Khattab) said, "Congratulations to you, Ali! This morning has brought you a great blessing. Today you have become the master of all believing men and women." At a later occasion when Umar was asked about his special treatment to Ali as compared to other companions, his reply was, "He is my master." [13][14][15][16] Shi'a Believe that, With Muhammad's approbation he recited verses in honour of Ali. The verse are recorded in Ibn Shahrashoub and affirms that ʿAlī was named as the successor of the Prophet on the day of Ghadir Khum.[1]

Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani, a Shafi'i scholar, writes in his book, Mawaddat al-Qurba in Mawadda 5, that many companions quoted Umar in different places as having said that Muhammad made Ali the chief and leader of the nation and that Muhammad announced publicly that Ali was their master. Umar was also quoted saying that on the day of that announcement, a handsome youth was sitting besides him and that the youth said to him, "Surely, the Prophet has bound a covenant which none but a hypocrite would break. So Umar! Avoid breaking it." When Umar told Muhammad about the incident, Muhammad said that the youth was not of Adam's (Adem) progeny but was Gabriel (Jibril) and was stressing the point about Ali.

Muawiyah is reminded about Ghadir[edit]

When Muawiyah arrived (in Mecca) during one of his pilgrimages, accordingly, Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas came to see him, and they happened to mention Ali. Muawiyah disparaged Ali. As a result, Sa`d became angry and said: "You are speaking of this man! I have heard the Messenger of Allah—peace and salutation of Allah be upon him—declare (On the day of Ghadir): 'Of whomsoever I am the master, then Ali is his master.' I have (also) heard him say: 'You Ali are to me in position that Harun was to Musa, except that there is no prophet after me (See Hadith of position).' And I have heard him announce: 'Today I am indeed going to hand over the banner to a person who loves Allah and his Messenger.'"[17]

Sufi explanation from Sunni texts[edit]

The point of view taken up by some Sufi groups is the announcement of "Spiritual Authority" of Ali by Muhammad. Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri, a Sufi scholar, cites 51 different hadith about the incident of Ghadir from various Sunni sources. He states in his book, The Ghadir Declaration that, "This (Ghadir declaration) was the declaration of 'Alī's spiritual sovereignty and its unconditional acceptance is binding on the believers till the Day of Judgment. It clearly proves that anyone who denies 'Alī's spiritual leadership in fact denies the Prophet's leadership." [citation needed]

See also[edit]

Hadith of the two weighty things Hadith of the Twelve Successors Hadith of giving Zakat while in Ruku Hadith of Mubahala Ahl al-Kisa Nahj al-Balagha

Umar at Fatimah's house

Citations[edit]

The above hadith have been cited in various Sunni sources including:

Ahmad ibn Hanbal  in Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] Al-Nasa'i  in Al-Khasa'is[38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50]

Ibn 'Asakir  in The History of Damascus[51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89][90][91][92]

[93]

Ali ibn al-Athir  in Usud al-Ghabah fi Ma'rifah al-Sahabah[94][95][96][97][98][99][100][101][102][103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117]

[118]

Ibnul-Maghazili's Manaqib[119][120][121][122][123][124][125][126][127]

Ibn Majah  in Sunan ibn Majah [128] [129] Ali ibn Abu Bakr al-Haythami  in Majma al-Zawa'id [130] [131] [132] Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Kanji ash-Shafii in Kifayat at-Talib[133][134][135]

Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani  in Al-Isaba[136][137][138]

Izz al-Din ibn Hibatullah ibn Abi l-Hadid  in Sharh Nahjul Balagha [139] Abu Nu`aym  in Hilyat al-awliya'[140][141][142]

Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi  in The History of Baghdad[143][144][145][146][147]

Al-Kuna wa al-Asma[148][149]

Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Tahawi  in Mushkil ul-Athar[150]

Muhammad ibn `Isa at-Tirmidhi  in Jami` at-Tirmidhi [151] Muwazihul-Awham[152]

Ibn Kathir  in Al-Kafi ash-Shafi[153][154]

Ibn Kathir  in Tafsir ibn Kathir [155] [156] [157] [158] Al-Tabarani  in Al-Mu'jam al-Kabeer[159][160][161][162][163]

Ibn Kathir  in Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya [164] [165] [166] [167] [168] [168] [169] [170] [171] Abu Abdullah al-Hakim Nishapuri  in Al-Mustadrak alaa al-Sahihain [172] [173] Al-Dhahabi  in Talkhis al-Mustadrak [174] Arjah ul-Matalib[175][176]

Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī 's Manaqib[177][178][179][180][181][182][183]

Al-Tabarani  in Al-Mu'jam As-Saghir[184]

Ibn Abi Hatim in Al-Jarh wa at-Ta'dil[185]

Al-Dhahabi  in The History of Islam[186][187]

Al-Juwayni  in Fara'id al-Simtayn [188] [189] [190] [191] [192] [193] al-Hasaqani in Du'atul-Hudat[194]

Ibn Qutaybah  in Al-Imama wa al-Siyasa [195] Ahmad in Manaqib[196][197]

Hafiz al-Dhahabi in Mizanul-I'tidal[198]

Abd Al Husayn Amini , Iranian Shia scholar also has gathered narrations of more than 110 companions (Sahaba) of Muhammad, as well as 40 followers of Muhammad about this event in his book named Al Ghadir.

Notes[edit]

1. Jump up^ man kuntu mawlāhu fa-ʿAlī mawlāh[1]

References[edit]

1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Veccia Vaglieri, Laura (2012). "Ghadīr Khumm". Encyclopedia of Islam. Brill Online.2. Jump up^ Hadith of Ghadir Khumm—A Sunni Perspective3. Jump up^ Musawi ash-Shirazi, Sayyid Muhammad (1996). Peshawar Nights. Hamid Quinlan, Charles Ali Campbell. New York:

Pak Books.4. Jump up^ Quran 5:67 (Translated by Pickthall)

5. Jump up^ Al-Suyuti from Dur al-Manthur based on the authority of Ibn Asakir, Ibn Mardawayh and Ibn Abi Hatim who narrate from Abu Sa`id al-Khudri

6. Jump up^ Al-Shahrastani (1984). Kitab al–Milal wa al-Nihal. London: Kegan Paul. pp. 139–140.7. Jump up^ Tafsir ibn Abi Hatim Vol. 4 Pg. 1172 Hadith no. 66098. Jump up^ The Last Sermon of Muhammad by Shia Accounts9. Jump up^ Al-Muwatta, 46 1.310. Jump up^ Bernards, Monique; Nawas, John Abdallah (2005). Patronate And Patronage in Early And Classical Islam.

BRILL. ISBN 90-04-14480-3.11. Jump up^ Mutahari, Murtada (2001). Wilayah, the Station of the Master (PDF) (Fourth ed.). Tehran: WOFIS.12. Jump up^ Sobhani, Ja'afar; Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2001). Doctrines of Shiʻi Islam : a compendium of Imami beliefs and

practices ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). London: I.B. Tauris [u.a.] pp. 106–107. ISBN 978-1-86064-780-2.13. Jump up^ Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya, by Ibn Kathir, vol. 7, p. 349, Cairo: Matba`at al-Sa`adah (14 vols)14. Jump up^ Fayd al-Qadir Sharh al-Jami` al-Saghir by Muhammad al-Munawi, vol. 6, pp. 217–815. Jump up^ Al-Milal wa al-Nihal by Al-Shahrastani, pp. 139–140, 1984, London: Kegan Paul, Muslim Sects and Divisions16. Jump up^ Manaqib by Ibn al-Maghazili, pp. 18–19, Beirut: Dar al-Adwa, 198317. Jump up^ Ibn Majah, Sunan, Volume 1 Page 45, Cairo, 1952 CE,18. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Zathan, from thirteen persons, vol. 1 p. 8419. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Ziyad bin Abu Ziyad, from twelve persons, who had fought in the battle of Badr. vol. 1 p. 8820. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Sa'id bin Wahhab, from five or six persons, vol. 5 p. 36621. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Sa'id bin Wahhab and Zayd bin Yathigh, from twelve persons vol. 1 p. 11822. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Zayd bin Arqam, from sixteen persons, vol. 5 p. 37023. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Abut-Tufayl, from many persons, vol. 4 p. 37024. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Abut-Tufayl, from thirty persons, vol. 4 p. 37025. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Abdur-Rahman bin Abu Leyla, to twelve people, vol. 1 p. 11826. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Riyah bin al-Harith, from some of the Ansar, vol. 5 p. 41927. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Riyah bin al-Harith, from some people, vol. 5 p. 41928. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Sa'id bin Ubayda, from ibn Burayda, from his father, vol. 5 p. 35829. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Sa'id bin Ubayda from another direction vol. 5 p. 35830. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Umar bin Maymun, from Ibn Abbas, vol. 1 p. 33131. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Abu Ubayd, from Ibn Maymun, from Zayd bin Arqam, vol. 4 p. 37232. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Abdul-Malik, from Zayd bin Arqam, vol. 4 p. 37033. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by To Atiya, vol. 4 p. 37034. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Al-Bara' bin Aazib from another chain of narrators, vol. 4 p. 28135. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Al-Bara' bin Aazib from another chain of narrators, vol. 4 p. 28236. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Abu Maryam and one of Imam Ali's Companions, vol. 1, p. 15237. Jump up^ Musnad, narrated by Ibn Abbas, vol. 1 p. 33138. Jump up^ Al-Khasa'is, Sa'id bin Wahhab, from five or six persons p. 2139. Jump up^ Al-Khasa'is, narrated by Sa'id bin Wahhab, from six persons – p. 26 and 4040. Jump up^ Al-Khasa'is, narrated by Zayd bin Yathigh, from six persons—p. 2641. Jump up^ Al-Khasa'is, narrated by Amr bin Sa'd, from six persons, Al-Khasa'is, p. 2142. Jump up^ Al-Khasa'is, narrated by Amr Dhi Mur, to some persons p. 4043. Jump up^ Al-Khasa'is, narrated by Ibn Abbas bin Burayda, p. 2144. Jump up^ Al-Khasa'is, From another direction to Ibn Abbas from Burayda, p. 2145. Jump up^ Al-Khasa'is, narrated by Sa'id bin Umayr, from ibn Burayda, from his father, p. 2146. Jump up^ Al-Khasa'is, narrated by Aamir bin Wathila, p. 2447. Jump up^ Al-Khasa'is, narrated by Auf, from Ibn Maymun, from Zayd bin Arqam, p. 22.48. Jump up^ Al-Khasa'is, narrated by Abu at-Tufayl, from Zayd bin Arqam-Al Khasa'is, p. 2149. Jump up^ Al-Khasa'is, narrated by Ayman, from Sa'd bin Abu Waqqas, p. 450. Jump up^ Al-Khasa'is, narrated by 'Aa'isha bint Sa'd, from Sa'd bin Abu Waqqas, 24–2551. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Sa'id bin Wahhab, from six persons vol. 2 p. 2852. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Amr Dhi Mur, Sa'id bin Wahhab and Zayd bin Yathigh, from thirteen persons,

vol. 2 p. 1853. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Amr Dhi Mur and Sa'id bin Wahhab, from six or seven persons—vol. 2 p. 1954. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Sa'id bin Wahhab and Abd Khayr, from some persons, vol. 2 p. 2055. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Abdur-Rahman bin Abu Leyla vol. 2 p. 956. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Also Abdur-Rahman bin Abu Leyla, vol. 2 p. 957. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Salama from Hudhayfa bin Usayd vol. 2 p. 4558. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Sa'd bin Abu Waqqas, vol. 2 p. 53

59. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Umar bin al-Khattab, vol. 2 p. 8060. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Malik bin al-Huwayrith, vol. 2 p. 8061. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Ibrahim bin al-Husayn, from Abu Hurayra, vol. 2 p. 7262. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Abu 'Ishaq al-Khitabi, from Abu Hurayra, vol. 2 p. 7463. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Mansur bin abul-Aswad, from Abu Hurayra, vol. 2 p. 7464. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Abu Ya'la, from Abu Hurayra, vol. 2p. 7465. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Abdullah bin Adiy, from Abu Hurayra vol. 2 p. 7566. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Habshun, from Abu Hurayra, vol. 2 p. 7567. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Ali bin Shu'eib, from Abu Hurayra, vol. 2 p. 7668. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Ad-Daqqaq, from Abu Hurayra, vol. 2 p. 7769. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Samra bin Jundub, vol. 2 p. 7170. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Shuriet bin Anas, vol. 2 p. 7271. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Qubaysa, from Jabir bin Abdullah, vol. 2 p. 6572. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Qubaysa, from someone else, vol. 2 p. 6373. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Muhammad bin al-Munkadir, from Jabir bin Abdullah, vol. 2 p. 6574. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Aqil, from someone else, vol. 2 p. 6275. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Abdur-Rahman bin Bahman, vol. 2 p. 6376. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Abu Bastam, Usama's freed slave, vol. 2 p. 8677. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Ali bin Khadim, from Abu Sa'id, vol. 2 p. 6978. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated From another chain of narrators to Shu'ba, from Zayd bin Arqam, vol. 2 p. 4279. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Atiya al-Aufi, from Zayd bin Arqam, vol. 2 p. 3980. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Abu Surayha or Zayd bin Arqam, vol. 2 p. 3681. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Abu Abdullah ash-Shami, from Zayd bin Arqam, vol. 2 p. 3882. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Habibu l-Iskafi, from Zayd bin Arqam, vol. 2 p. 4183. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Abu 'Ishaq, from Zayd bin Arqam, vol. 2 p. 4184. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Al-Bara' bin Aazib from a tenth chain of narrators, vol. 2 p. 4885. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Al-Bara' bin Aazib from an eleventh chain of narrators, vol. 2 p. 5086. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Al-Bara' bin Aazib, from another chain of narrators, vol. 2 p. 5087. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Abu 'Ishaq, from al-Bara' bin Aazib and Zayd bin Arqam vol. 2 p. 5288. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Amr Dhi Mur, vol. 2 p. 3089. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Al-Husayn bin Ali, from Imam Ali, vol. 2, p. 2690. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Umar bin Ali, from Imam Ali, vol. 2 p. 2891. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Abu at-Tufayl, from Imam Ali, vol. 2, p. 2092. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Zayd bin Arqam, from Imam Ali, vol. 2, p. 2093. Jump up^ The History of Damascus, narrated by Ibn Umar, vol. 2 p. 8394. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Habba bin Juwayn al-Urani, vol. 1 p. 37695. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Jundu' bin Amr bin Mazin, vol. 1 p. 30896. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Ya'la bin Murra, vol. 3 p. 23397. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Abu Ayyub, vol. 5 p. 698. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Abu at-Tufeil, from Abu Qudama, vol. 5 p. 27699. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Ya'la, from Aamir bin Leyla, vol. 3 p. 93100. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Ya'la bin Murra, from Yazid or Zayd bin Shuraheel, vol. 2 p. 233101. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Hudhayfa bin Usayd and Aamir bin Leyla bin Zamra, vol. 3 p. 92102. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Aamir bin Leyla from another chain of narrators, vol. 3 p. 93103. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Abu Amra, from Amr bin Mahz, vol. 3 p. 307104. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Abu Zaynab, vol. 3 p. 307105. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Sahl bin Hunayf, vol. 3 p. 307106. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Khuzayma bin Thabit, vol. 3 p. 307107. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Abdullah bin Thabit al-Ansari, vol. 3 p. 307108. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Habashi bin Junada, vol. 3 p. 307109. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Ubayd bin Aazib, vol. 3 p. 307110. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Nu'Man bin Ajlan, vol. 3 p. 307111. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Thabit bin Wadi'a, vol. 3 p. 307112. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Abu Fuzala al-Ansari, vol. 3 p. 307113. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Najiya bin Amr al-Khuza'i, vol. 5 p. 6114. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Miqdad bin Amr, vol. 5 p. 6115. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Al-Asbagh, from Ubayd bin Aazib al-Ansari, vol. 3 p. 307 and vol. 5 p. 205116. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Habib bin Badil bin Warqa', vol. 1 p. 368117. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Qays bin Thabit bin Shamaas, vol. 1 p. 367118. Jump up^ Usud al-Ghabah, narrated by Hashim bin Utba, vol. 1 p. 368119. Jump up^ Ibnul-Maghazili's Manaqib, narrated by Abd Khayr, Amr Dhi Mur and Habbatul-Urani, from twelve people, p. 20120. Jump up^ Ibnul-Maghazili's Manaqib, narrated by Hamid at-Tawil, from Anas121. Jump up^ Ibnul-Maghazili's Manaqib, narrated by Abu Salama, from Muhammad bin al-Munkadir, p. 25122. Jump up^ Ibnul-Maghazili's Manaqib, narrated by Al-Hakam bin Abu Sulayman, from Zayd bin Arqam, p. 23123. Jump up^ Ibnul-Maghazili's Manaqib, narrated by Abuz-Zuha, from Zayd bin Arqam, p. 20

124. Jump up^ Ibnul-Maghazili's Manaqib, narrated by Zayd's wife, from Zayd bin Arqam, p. 16125. Jump up^ Ibnul-Maghazili's Manaqib, narrated by Abdullah bin Mas'ud, p. 23126. Jump up^ Ibnul-Maghazili's Manaqib, narrated by Atiyah, from ibn Abu Awfa, p. 24127. Jump up^ Ibnul-Maghazili's Manaqib, narrated by Umayra bin Sa'd, p. 26128. Jump up^ Sunan ibn Majah, narrated by Al-Bara' bin Aazib, vol. 1 p. 55129. Jump up^ Sunan ibn Majah, narrated by Abdur-Rahman bin Saabit, from Sa'd bin Abu Waqqas, vol. 1, p. 58130. Jump up^ Majma al-Zawa'id, narrated by Sa'id bin Wahhab, from thirteen persons vol. 9131. Jump up^ Majma al-Zawa'id, narrated by Abu Hurayra, Anas and Abu Sa'id, from nine persons and others, vol. 9 p. 708132. Jump up^ Majma al-Zawa'id, narrated by Hamid bin Imara, vol. 9p. 107133. Jump up^ Kifayat at-Talib, narrated by Sa'id bin Wahhab and Zayd bin Yathigh, from some persons p. 18134. Jump up^ Kifayat at-Talib, narrated by Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Aqil, from Muhammad bin al-Munkadir, p. 14135. Jump up^ Kifayat at-Talib, narrated by From another direction to Abu at-Tufayl, from Zayd bin Arqam, p. 13–14136. Jump up^ Al-Isaba, narrated by Abut-Tufayl, from seventeen persons, vol. 4 p. 156137. Jump up^ Al-Isaba, narrated by Al-Asbagh bin Nabata, from some persons, vol. 4 p. 80138. Jump up^ Al-Isaba, narrated by Abdullah bin Bamil, vol. 2 p. 374139. Jump up^ Sharh Nahjul Balagha, narrated by Abu Zumayla, from some persons140. Jump up^ Hilyat al-awliya, narrated by Umayra bin Sa'd, from twelve persons, vol. 5 p. 26141. Jump up^ Hilyat al-awliya, narrated by Umar bin Abdul-Aziz, from some persons, vol. 5 p. 364142. Jump up^ Hilyat al-awliya, narrated To Tawus, from Burayda, vol. 4 p. 23143. Jump up^ Tarikh Baghdad, narrated by Umayra, from eighteen persons, vol. 2 p. 13144. Jump up^ Tarikh Baghdad, narrated by Umayra, from other eight sources, vol. 2 p. 13145. Jump up^ Tarikh Baghdad, narrated by Musa bin Ayyub, from Abu Hurayra, vol. 8 p. 290146. Jump up^ Tarikh Baghdad, narrated by Al-Mansur, from his father, from his grandfather, from Ibn Abbas, vol. 12 p. 343147. Jump up^ Tarikh Baghdad, narrated by Abdur-Rahman bin Abu Leyla, vol. 14 p. 236148. Jump up^ Al-Kuna wa al-Asma, narrated by Abu Qulaba, from more than ten people, vol. 2 p. 61149. Jump up^ Al-Kuna wa al-Asma, narrated by Abu 'Ishaq as-Subay'i, from al-Bara' bin Aazib, vol. 1 p. 160150. Jump up^ Mushkil ul-Athar, narrated by Abu 'Ishaq as-Subay'i, from more than ten people, vol. 2 p. 307151. Jump up^ Jami` at-Tirmidhi, narrated by Salama from Hudhayfa bin Usayd, vol. 13 p. 165152. Jump up^ Muwazihul-Awham, narrated by As'ad bin Zurara, from his father, vol. 1 p. 91153. Jump up^ Al-Kafi ash-Shafi, narrated by Isa bin Talha, from Talha bin Abdullah, p. 95154. Jump up^ Talha, p. 95155. Jump up^ Tafsir ibn Kathir, narrated by Abdur-Rahman bin Abu Leyla from another direction, vol 2 p. 14156. Jump up^ Tafsir ibn Kathir, narrated by Abdur-Rahman bin abu Leyla, vol. 2 p. 14157. Jump up^ Tafsir ibn Kathir, narrated by To Abu at-Tufayl, from Zayd bin Arqam, vol. 2 p. 14158. Jump up^ Tafsir ibn Kathir, narrated by Zayd bin Wahhab and Abd Khayr, from Imam Ali, vol. 2, p. 14159. Jump up^ Al-Mu'jam al-Kabeer, narrated by Habashi bin Junada, p. 127160. Jump up^ Al-Mu'jam al-Kabeer, narrated by Bishr bin Harb, from Jarir, p. 127161. Jump up^ Al-Mu'jam al-Kabeer, narrated by Abu Ayyub, p. 157162. Jump up^ Al-Mu'jam al-Kabeer, narrated to Abu at-Tufayl, from Zayd bin Arqam, p. 127 (Manuscript)163. Jump up^ Al-Mu'jam al-Kabeer, narrated by Hudhayfa bin Usayd or Zayd bin Arqam, p. 157 (Manuscript)164. Jump up^ Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya, narrated by Amr Dhi Mur, vol. 5 p. 210165. Jump up^ Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya, narrated by Bint Ka'b (Ka'b's daughter) from Abu Sa'id, vol. 5 p. 208166. Jump up^ Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya, narrated by Abu Maryam or Zayd bin Arqam, vol. 7 p. 348167. Jump up^ Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya, narrated by Yazid bin Talha, vol. 5 p. 108168. ^ Jump up to:a b Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya, narrated by Al-Bara' bin Aazib, vol. 5 p. 208169. Jump up^ Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya, narrated by Al Bara' bin Aazib, vol. 5 p. 208170. Jump up^ Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya, narrated by Umar bin Ali, from Imam Ali, vol. 5, p. 221171. Jump up^ Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya, narrated From another direction to 'Aa'isha bint Sa'd from Sa'd bin abu Waqqas, vol. 5 p. 208172. Jump up^ Al-Mustadrak alaa al-Sahihain, narrated by Sa'd bin Malik, vol. 3 p. 116173. Jump up^ Al-Mustadrak alaa al-Sahihain, narrated by Ibn Wathila, from Zayd bin Arqam, vol. 3 p. 109174. Jump up^ Talkhis al-Mustadrak, narrated by Aamir bin Wathila, vol. 3 p. 109175. Jump up^ Arjah ul-Matalib, narrated by Abul-Hamra', p. 581176. Jump up^ Arjah ul-Matalib, narrated by Fatima binte Muhammad p. 448 and 571177. Jump up^ Al-Khawarizmi's Manaqib, narrated by Al-Bazzar, from Abu Hurayra, p. 94178. Jump up^ Al-Khawarizmi's Manaqib, narrated by Al-Abdi, from Abu Sa'id179. Jump up^ Al-Khawarizmi's Manaqib, narrated by Abd bin Thabit, from al-Bara' bin Aazib, p. 93180. Jump up^ Al-Khawarizmi's Manaqib, narrated by Aamir bin Wathila, from Imam Ali, vol. 1, p. 41181. Jump up^ Al-Khawarizmi's Manaqib, narrated by Salman, from Imam Ali, vol. 1 p. 41182. Jump up^ Al-Khawarizmi's Manaqib, narrated by Amr bin al-Aas, p. 125183. Jump up^ Al-Khawarizmi's Manaqib, narrated by Amr bin al-Aas-Khawarizmi's Manaqib, p. 126184. Jump up^ Al-Mu'jam As-Saghir, narrated by Tawus, from Burayda, vol. 1 p. 71185. Jump up^ Al-Jarh wa at-Ta'dil, narrated by Abu Leyla bin Sa'id, from his father, vol. 4 p. 431186. Jump up^ The History of Islam, narrated by Shu'ba, from Ibn Maymun, from Zayd bin Arqam, vol. 2 p. 196187. Jump up^ The History of Islam, narrated by Aamir bin Sa'd, from Sa'd bin Abu Waqqas, vol. 2188. Jump up^ Fara'id al-Simtayn, narrated by Al-Bara' bin Aazib, vol. 1 p. 64

189. Jump up^ Fara'id al-Simtayn, narrated by Al-Bara' bin Aazib from another direction, vol. 1 p. 65190. Jump up^ Fara'id al-Simtayn, narrated by Ammar bin Yasir, vol. 1 p. 195191. Jump up^ Fara'id al-Simtayn, narrated by Amr Dhi Mur, from Imam Ali, vol. 1, p. 67192. Jump up^ Fara'id al-Simtayn, narrated by Sulaym bin Qays, from some persons, one of them was Abu Dharr, vol. 1 p. 315193. Jump up^ Fara'id al-Simtayn, narrated by Hasan bin Thabit, vol. 1 p. 73194. Jump up^ Du'atul-Hudat, from Hudhayfa bin al-Yaman195. Jump up^ Al-Imama wa al-Siyasa, from Amr bin al-Aas p. 93196. Jump up^ Salama, abu at-Tufeil from Hudhayfa bin Useid al-Ghifari197. Jump up^ Tawus, from his father, Ahmad bin Hanbal's Manaqib, (Manuscript)198. Jump up^ Mizanul-I'tidal, Amr Dhi Mur, from Imam Ali, vol. 2 p. 303.

Encyclopaedia of IslamFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  (Redirected from Encyclopedia of Islam)

Not to be confused with Encyclopaedia Islamica.

The Encyclopaedia of Islam (EI) is an encyclopaedia of the academic discipline of Islamic studies. It embraces articles on distinguished Muslims of every age and land, on tribes and dynasties, on the

crafts and sciences, on political and religious institutions, on the geography, ethnography, flora and fauna of the various countries and on the history, and topography and monuments of the major towns and cities. In its geographical and historical scope it encompasses the old Arabo-Islamic empire, the Islamic countries of Central Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Ottoman Empire and all other Islamic countries. The first edition was published in 1913-1938, the second in 1954-2005, the third was begun in 2007.

It is an encyclopedia about the Islamic world, not a Muslim or an Islamic encyclopedia. Topics mostly deal with the pre-modern period, but some entries are contemporary.

The primary editor of the first edition was Martijn Theodoor Houtsma (M. Th. Houtsma).

Contents  [hide] 

1 Standing 2 Editions

o 2.1 1st edition, EI1

o 2.2 SEI

o 2.3 2nd edition, EI2

o 2.4 3rd edition, EI3 3 See also 4 References 5 External links

Standing[edit]

EI is considered by academics to be the standard reference work in the field of Islamic studies.[1] Each article was written by a recognized specialist on the relevant topic, but unsurprisingly for a work spanning 40 years until completion, the underlying assumptions vary radically with the age of the article.

The most important, authoritative reference work in English on Islam and Islamic subjects. Includes long, signed articles, with bibliographies. Special emphasis is given in this (EI2) edition to economic and social topics, but it remains the standard encyclopedic reference on the Islamic religion in English.[2]

The most important and comprehensive reference tool for Islamic studies is the Encyclopaedia of Islam, an immense effort to deal with every aspect of Islamic civilization, conceived in the widest sense, from its origins down to the present day... EI is no anonymous digest of received wisdom. Most of the articles are signed, and while some are hardly more than dictionary entries, others are true research pieces – in many cases the best available treatment of their subject. [3]

This reference work is of fundamental importance on topics dealing, according to its self-description, with “the geography, ethnography and biography of the Muhammadan peoples.”. [4]

Editions[edit]

The first edition (EI1) was modeled on the Pauly-Wissowa Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. EI1 was created under the aegis of the International Union of Academies, and coordinated by Leiden University. It was published by Brill in four volumes plus supplement from 1913 to 1938 in English, German, and Frencheditions.

An abridged version was published in 1953 as the Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam (SEI) and covers mainly law and religion. Excerpts of the SEI have been translated and published in Turkish, Arabic, and Urdu.

The second edition of Encyclopaedia of Islam (EI2) was begun in 1954 and completed in 2005 (several indexes to be published until 2007); it is published by theDutch company Brill and is available in English and French. Since 1999, (EI2) has been available in electronic form, in both CD-ROM and web-accessible versions. Besides a great expansion in content, the second edition of EI differs from the first mainly in incorporating the work of scholars of Muslim and Middle Easternbackground among its many hundreds of contributors:

EI1 and SEI were produced almost entirely by European scholars, and they represent a specifically European interpretation of Islamic civilization. The point is not that this interpretation is "wrong", but that the questions addressed in these volumes often differ sharply from those which Muslims have traditionally asked about themselves. EI2 is a somewhat different matter. It began in much the same way as its predecessor, but a growing proportion of the articles now come from scholars of Muslim background. The persons do not represent the traditional learning of Qom and al-Azhar, to be sure; they have been trained in Western-style universities, and they share the methodology if not always the cultural values and attitudes of their Western colleagues. Even so, the change in tone is perceptible and significant.[3]

Publication of the Third Edition of EI (EI3) started in 2007. It is available online, printed "Parts" appearing four times per year. The editorial team consists of twenty 'Sectional Editors' and five 'Executive Editors' (i.e. editors-in-chief). The Executive Editors are Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer (Free University, Berlin), Everett Rowson (New York University), John Nawas (Catholic University of Leuven), and Denis Matringe (EHESS, CNRS). The scope of EI3 includes comprehensive coverage of Islam in the twentieth century; expansion of geographical focus to include all areas where Islam has been or is a prominent or dominant aspect of society; attention to Muslim minorities all over the world; and full attention to social science as well as humanistic perspectives. [5][6]

1st edition, EI1[edit]

M. Th. Houtsma et al. (eds.). The Encyclopædia of Islam: A Dictionary of the Geography, Ethnography and Biography of the Muhammadan Peoples. Leiden: E.J. Brill. 1913–38. 4 vols. and Suppl. Vol.1. A-D, M. Th. Houtsma, T. W. Arnold, R. Basset eds., 1913.

Reprint A-Ba, Ba-Bu Vol.2. E-K, M. Th. Houtsma, A. J. Wensinck, T. W. Arnold eds., 1927.

Reprint Itk-Kan Vol.3. L-R, M. Th. Houtsma, A. J. Wensinck, E. Levi-Provençal eds., 1934.

Reprint L-M, Morocco-Ruyan Vol.4. S-Z, M. Th. Houtsma, A. J. Wensinck, H. A. R. Gibb, eds., 1936.

Reprint S, T-Z, Supplement Suppl. No.1. Ab-Djughrafiya, 1934. Suppl. No.2. Djughrafiya-Kassala, 1936. Suppl. No.3. Kassala-Musha'sha', 1937. Suppl. No.4. Musha'sha'-Taghlib, 1937. Suppl. No.5. Taghlib-Ziryab, 1938.

M. Th. Houtsma, R. Basset et T. W. Arnold, eds., Encyclopédie de l'Islam: Dictionnaire géographique, ethnographique et biographique des peuples musulmans. Publié avec le concours des principaux orientalistes, 4 vols. avec Suppl., Leyde: Brill et Paris: Picard, 1913–1938. (French)

M. Th. Houtsma, R. Basset und T. W. Arnold, herausgegeben von, Enzyklopaedie des Islām : geographisches, ethnographisches und biographisches Wörterbuch der muhammedanischen Völker, 5 vols., Leiden: Brill und Leipzig : O. Harrassowitz, 1913–1938. (German)

M. Th. Houtsma et al., eds., E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 8 vols. with Supplement (vol. 9), 1993. ISBN 90-04-09796-1

SEI[edit]

H. A. R. Gibb and J. H. Kramers eds. on behalf of the Royal Netherlands Academy, Shorter Encyclopäedia of Islam, Leiden: Brill, 1953. ISBN 90-04-00681-8

M. Th. Houtsma et al. eds., İslâm Ansiklopedisi : İslâm âlemi coğrafya, etnografya ve biyografya lûgati, 13 in 15 vols., İstanbul: Maarif Matbaası, 1940–1988.(Turkish)

: اصدر اإلسالمية المعارف دائرة يونس، الحميد عبد خورشيد، زكي إبراهيم الشنتناوي، أحمدوالفرنسي، اإلنجليزي األصلين على العربية الترجمة في واعتمد والفرنسية واإلنجليزية باأللمانية

: -٢الطبعة الشعب، دار القاهرة ،۱۹٦۹ )Arabic( : پنجاب، دانشگاه لاهور اسلامیه، معارف دائرۀ اردو مختصر عارف، الحسن . ۲۵محمود ها، )Urdu( ۱۹۹۳-۱۹۵۹ج

2nd edition, EI2[edit]

Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)

Edited by P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs et al., Encyclopædia of Islam, 2nd Edition., 12 vols. with indexes, etc., Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960–2005 Vol. 1, A-B, Edited by an Editorial Committee Consisting of H. A. R. Gibb, J. H.

Kramers, E. Lévi-Provençal, J. Schacht, Assisted by S. M. Stern (pp. 1–320); — B. Lewis, Ch. Pellat and J. Schacht, Assisted by C. Dumont and R. M. Savory (pp. 321–1359)., 1960. ISBN 90-04-08114-3

Vol. 2, C-G, Edited by B. Lewis, Ch. Pellat and J. Schacht. Assisted by J. Burton-Page, C. Dumont and V.L. Ménage., 1965. ISBN 90-04-07026-5

Vol. 3, H-Iram Edited by B. Lewis, V.L. Ménage, Ch. Pellat and J. Schacht, Assisted by C. Dumont, E. van Donzel and G.R. Hawting eds., 1971. ISBN 90-04-08118-6

Vol. 4, Iran-Kha, Edited by E. van Donzel, B. Lewis and Ch. Pellat, Assisted by C. Dumont, G.R. Hawting and M. Paterson (pp. 1–256); — C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, B. Lewis and Ch. Pellat, Assisted by C. Dumont and M. Paterson (pp. 257–768); — Assisted by F. Th. Dijkema, M., 1978. ISBN 90-04-05745-5

Vol. 5, Khe-Mahi, Edited by C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, B. Lewis and Ch. Pellat, Assisted by F.Th. Dijkema and S. Nurit., 1986. ISBN 90-04-07819-3

Vol. 6, Mahk-Mid, Edited by C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and Ch. Pellat, Assisted by F.Th. Dijkema and S. Nurit. With B. Lewis (pp. 1–512) and W.P. Heinrichs (pp. 513–1044)., 1991. ISBN 90-04-08112-7

Vol. 7, Mif-Naz, Edited by C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs and Ch. Pellat, Assisted by F.Th. Dijkema (pp. 1–384), P. J. Bearman (pp. 385–1058) and Mme S. Nurit, 1993. ISBN 90-04-09419-9

Vol. 8, Ned-Sam, Edited by C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs and G. Lecomte, Assisted by P.J. Bearman and Mme S. Nurit., 1995. ISBN 90-04-09834-8

Vol. 9, San-Sze, Edited by C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs and the late G. Lecomte, 1997. ISBN 90-04-10422-4

Vol. 10, Tā'-U[..], Edited by P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs, 2000. ISBN 90-04-11211-1

Vol. 11, V-Z, Edited by P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs, 2002. ISBN 90-04-12756-9

Vol. 12, Supplement, Edited by P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs, 2004. ISBN 90-04-13974-5

Glossary and index of terms to v. 1–9, 1999. ISBN 90-04-11635-4 Index of proper names v. 1–10, 2002. ISBN 90-04-12107-2 Index of subjects, fasc. 1, compiled by P. J. Bearman, 2005. ISBN 90-04-14361-0 Glossary and index of terms to v. 1–12, 2006. ISBN 90-04-15610-0 An Historical Atlas of Islam, ed., William C. Brice, 1981. ISBN 90-04-06116-9

E. van Donzel, Islamic desk reference: compiled from The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994. ISBN 90-04-09738-4 (an abridged selection)

3rd edition, EI3[edit]

Edited by Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas and Everett Rowson, Encyclopædia of Islam, 3rd Edition., available online, printed "Parts" appearing four times per year, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2007-. ISSN 1873-9830

See also[edit]

Daarya Muaarif Uloom-e-Islamya  — Encyclopaedia of Islam (Urdu) Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān Catholic Encyclopedia Jewish Encyclopedia Encyclopædia Iranica Pauly-Wissowa  Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World

References[edit]

1. Jump up^ "Encyclopaedia of Islam". Brill Publishers. Retrieved 2008-04-02. For the reviews, click "Reviews" (requires JavaScript).[dead link]

2. Jump up^ "Yale University Library Research Guide: Islam". Yale University. Retrieved 2008-04-02.3. ^ Jump up to:a b Humphreys, R. Stephen (1991). Islamic History: A Framework for Inquiry. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton

University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-691-00856-6.4. Jump up^ Elton L. Daniel, "ENCYCLOPAEDIAOF ISLAM" in Encyclopaedia Iranica5. Jump up^ "Encyclopaedia of Islam Three". Brill Publishers. Retrieved 2008-04-02. Serial. ISSN 1873-9830.6. Jump up^ "IE3 Preview" (PDF). Brill Publishers. Spring 2007. Retrieved 2008-04-02.