albany state university

7/27/2019 Albany State University

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The New Science of Learning

Developed by Professor Terry Doyle

Ferris State University

www.learnercenteredteaching.wordpress.com

[email protected]
http://www.learnercenteredteaching.wordpress.com/http://www.learnercenteredteaching.wordpress.com/


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Slides are available for download at:

www.learnercenteredteaching.wordpress.

Albany State University
http://www.learnercenteredteaching.wordpress.com/http://www.learnercenteredteaching.wordpress.com/


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Here is Our Challenge?

We as teachers cant make informed decisionsabout which teaching approaches or tools to use if

we dont first understand how our students learn.

To understand how our students learn we mustunderstand how their brains take in, process, and

retrieve information as well as the numerous factorsthat affect these processes.


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Key Questions

1. What newresponsibilities dostudents need to

accept to optimizetheir brains forlearning?


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Key Questions

2. What dostudents need

to learn andwhat can theylook up as

needed?


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Key Questions

3. What is the bestuse of our time inhelping studentsmaster thelearning outcomesof our courses?


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Key Question

4. What wouldmake us happythat our students

still knew andcould apply fromthe content and

skills of our coursea year later?


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An Different View of Learning

Guido Sarducci Five MinuteUniversity


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Educating for Life Long Learning

Cramming and forgetting will not cutit in todays world and in the futureour students are facing.


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Facing a New World

In 1973 28% of jobs inthe United Statesrequired a 4 year collegedegree.

In 2018 57-67 % ofjobs will require a 4 year

college degree.

(Georgetown University study 2013)


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Facing a New World

It is estimated thatbetween the dawn ofcivilization and 2003 therewere five exabytes (an

exabyte = 1 quintillionbytes) of data collected.

(Don Tapscott, Design Your Mind)

Today 5 exabytesof data gets

collected every twodays.

Soon it will be fiveexabytes every fewminutes.


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Facing a New World

Currently there are320 million Chinesehonor students and

280 million Indianhonor studentsmany of who willbe competing for

the same jobs ourcollege studentswant.


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Life Expectancy and Changes in Retirement Systems

Current life expectancyin USA is 78 years.

Medical breakthroughsmay allow many of ourstudents to live to be a100!

Retirement may come at

75-80 years of age.


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A Caution about Brain Research!

Brain systems relation to complex cognitionand behavior can only be explainedsatisfactorily by a comprehensive blend of

theories and facts related to all the levels oforganizationof the nervous system, frommolecules and cells to physical and socialenvironments.

(Antonio Damasio, Head of the

Department of Neurology at the

University of Iowa Medical Center)

Beware of


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The Human BrainForget that Right-Left Brain Myth

The human brainworks as a complex

design of integratedsystems not throughspecialized andcompeting right andleft brain functions.

(Tokuhama-Espinosa, Mind Brain

and Education Science, 2011


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20 years of fMRI Studies onCognition

"The best approach toanswering questions aboutcognition, "is a synergisticcombination of behavioral andneuroimaging methods, richly

complemented by the wide arrayof other methods in cognitiveneuroscience.

Mather, Cacioppo, andKanwisher,2013)


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The Future of Teaching and Learning ResearchMind, Brain and Education Degrees

Education Neuroscience PsychologyPedagogy Cognitive Neuroscience Development Psychology

Special Ed NeuroethicsNeuropsychology

Gifted Ed Neuropsychology

Developmental Neuroscience

Biology Chemistry Social ScienceBiopsychology Neurochemistry Sociology

Neurobiology Psychopharmacology Anthropology

Genetics Toxicology Philosophy

Math


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The Human Brain

The human brain weighsabout three (3) pounds

Contains 86 billion neurons

These neurons can make40 quadrillion connections

(Ratey, 2001, Goldberg, 2009)


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Neuroscience and Learning

We have accumulatedenough knowledge aboutthe mechanisms andmolecular underpinnings

of cognition at the synapticand circuit levels to saysomething about whichprocesses contribute (JamesBibb of the University of Texas SouthwesternMedical Center, 2011)


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We are Born to Learn

The brain was meant to explore andlearn


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The Definition of Learning

Learning is a

change in theneuron-patternsof the brain.

(Goldberg, 2009)

www.virtualgalen.com/.../ neurons-small.jpg


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Attention Drives the Changes

One of the strongest findings inneuroplasticity, the science of howthe brain changes its structure andfunction in response to input, is that

attention is almost magical in itsability to physically alter the brainand enlarge functional circuits.

(Merzenich and colleagues, UCSF, 2011)


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Keeping Students Attention

Neuroscientists have a saying: Emotiondrives attention and attention driveslearningthis makes Attention the

key to learning.

But the brains processing abilities in a

given moment are limited, and attentionis the way the brain allocates itsresources.


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Keeping Students Attention

It is very important to specifically direct the studenttoward the desired object of attention.

We know that some students are impaired in theirattentional abilities, but these can be improved throughactivities that require sustained attention.

The emotional engagement pathway is effective in

capturing and sustaining attention


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Mistaking an Attention Problem

Teachers often complain that students dont pay attention.

However , many of the activities we give students areactually activities involving working memory.

If students fail to comprehend lengthy directions orinstructions, it may not be they are not trying to pay attentionbut rather a working memory problem.

Shorter, clearer directions and instruction can help.


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Dendrite Growth

The picture showthe dendritic growththat has taken as

new learning isoccurring.

See the newcellular material!

(Cognitive Neuroscientist JanetZadina, 2010)


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Use it or Lose it

When newmaterial is notpracticed the new

dendrite tissue isreabsorbed by thebrain to conserveresources.

(Dr. Janet Zardina, 2010)


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Teachers Definition of Learning

Learning is the ability to use informationafter significant periods of disuse

andit is the ability to use the information tosolve problems that arise in a contextdifferent (if only slightly) from the context inwhich the information was originally taught.

(Robert Bjork, Memories and Metamemories, 1994)


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Basic Finding fromNeuroscience Research

It is the one who

does the work whodoes the learning( Doyle ,2008).


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Preparing to Learn

Findings from neuroscience overthe past decade has led to a newparadigm concerning improvingstudents learning.

The simple but important shift isour understanding is ---that if thebrain is prepared to learn greatersuccess can be expected.


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Preparation for Learning Means Students HaveAddressed these Five Areas

The brain needs tofunction effectively:

1.Oxygen

2. Hydration3.Food (glucose)

4. Exercise

5. Sleep


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Oxygen Use by the Brain

Although the brainrepresents only 2% ofthe body weight, itreceives 15% of thecardiac output and 20%of total body oxygenconsumption.

( Magistretti,Pellerin andMartin )


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Every breath you take converts toenergy. Human cells use nutrientsfrom food and oxygen to createAdenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP),the energy source that fuels cellfunction.

Too little oxygen = less energy.

( Magistretti,Pellerin andMartin )


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Oxygen is essential forbrain function, and enhancedblood flow increases theamount of oxygentransported to the brain.

Physical activity is areliable way to increase bloodflow, and hence oxygen, tothe brain.(Eric Jensen, 2005)


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Hydration and the Brain

One of the mostfascinating aspects ofneurons is that they storewater in tiny balloon-like

structures called vacuoles.

Water is essential foroptimal brain health and

function

(Norman ,2012)


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Water is needed for thebrain's production of hormonesand neurotransmitters whichkey the brains communicationsystem.

Nerve transmission requiresone-half of all the brainsenergy.

(Allen, Advanced Learning and DevelopmentInstitute)


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When you lose toomuch water your

brain cells loseefficiency.

(Gowin2010)


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Why the Brain Needs Water

Dehydration canimpair short-term

memory function andthe recall of long-termmemory.

(Gowin, 2010)


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Even mild levels ofdehydration can

impact schoolperformance.

( Norman, 2012)


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Food and Learning

This blood sugar isobtained fromcarbohydrates: thestarches and sugars you

eat in the form of grainsand legumes, fruits andvegetables.

(The only animal foodscontaining a significantamount of carbohydratesare dairy products


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Food and Learning

Too much sugar or refinedcarbohydrates at one time,however, can actually depriveyour brain of glucose depletingits energy supply andcompromising your brain'spower to concentrate,remember, and learn.

(The Franklin Institute)


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Food and Learning

In the May 2001 issue ofNeurobiology of Learning andMemory, Gold, and McNayreported

"Glucose enhanceslearning andmemory not only inrats but also in

many populationsof humans.

For learners, thisresearch implies thatthe contents andtiming of meals mayneed to becoordinated to havethe most beneficialcognitive effects

that enhancelearning.


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Web MD Food Recommendations forHealth Brain Function

Blueberries

Avocadoes

Dark Chocolate

Nuts and seeds

Beans

Fresh brewed Tea Whole Grains

Wild Salmon


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Movement and Learning

Natural selectiondeveloped a humanbrain to solve

problems of survivalin outdoor, unstableenvironments whilein almost constant

motion.(Medina, 2008)


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Our brains wereshaped and sharpenedby movement

We continue to requireregular physical activityin order for our brains tofunction optimally.

(Raichlen and Polk, 2013)


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Most neuroscientists agree thatmovement and cognition are powerfullyconnected.

The research demonstrates thatmovement can be an effective cognitivestrategy to:

1. Strengthen learning

2. Improve memory and retrieval

3. Enhance motivation and morale

(Raichlen and Polk,2013)


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Recent studies haveshown-

regular exercise,even walking, leads tomore robust mentalabilities, beginning inchildhood and continuing

into old age.(Raichlen and Polk, 2013)


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Movement is Best for Learning

We need to rethinkour learning

environments toallow for a great dealmore movement.


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Exercise and Learning

Exercise is thesingle mostimportant thing a

person can do toimprove theirlearning.

(John Ratey, 2008, Spark,

The Revolutionary New Scienceof Exercise and the Brain)


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Exercise Stimulates Synaptic Growth

Exercise stimulates theproduction ofnew synapses,whose capacity and efficiencyunderlie superior intelligence.

(Art Kramer of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)

It thus provides more

generalizable benefits


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Exercise and Learning

Exercise increasesproduction ofneurotransmitters that help:

1.Focus and Concentration

2. Attention

3.Motivation

4. Patience

5. Mood (more optimistic)

(Ratey, 2008)

EnergyCalm


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Exercise Increases Production of BDNF

BDNF(Brain-derived neurotrophic factor )

Enhances the wiring ofneurons.

(Ratey, 2008)Miracle Grow forthe Brain


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Exercise Produces BDNF

Improves brain health

Is a stress inoculator

Makes the brain cells

more resilient

(Ratey, 2008)


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BDNF and Exercise

In particular BDNF seems to beimportant for long term memories(Ratey, 2008)


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Exercise, Stress and Learning

Students rarely knowthat toxic levels ofstress erode theconnections between

the billions of nervecells in the brain or thatchronic depressionshrinks certain areas ofthe brain.


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Exercise, Stress and Learning

Conversely exerciseunleashes a cascade ofneurochemicals and growthfactors that can reverse thisprocess, physically bolstering

the brain's infrastructure.

(Jesper Mogensen , Department of Psychology,University of Copenhagen.


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Exercise and Stress

"In fact, the brainresponds like muscles do,growing with use andwithering with inactivity.

Exercise causesneurons (dendrites) togrow and bloom, thus

enhancing brain functionat a fundamental level." Jesper Mogensen ,Department of

Psychology, University of Copenhagen


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Short Term Stress

Acute stressactivates selectiveCRH molecules(corticotropin)

releasing hormones,which disrupt theprocess by which the

brain collects andstores memories.(Baram,2010)


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How Sleep Affects Our Students Learning and Memory


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Memories are made during Sleep

Most sleepresearchers nowagree that sleep

plays an importantrole in the formationof long termmemories .

(Stickgold, 2005).


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Memories and Sleep

Final 2 hours of sleep from 6-8 hours arereally crucial for memories to be laiddown as stable residents in your brain.

During this time period in REM sleep yourbrain replays the memories from the dayover and over again so they becomestable in your memory

(Maas, 2011 Sleep for Success).


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Learning Readiness and Sleep

During sleep sleepspindles," which are burstsof brain waves, may be

networking between keyregions of the brain toclear a path to learning.

(Walker, 2010).


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These electrical impulseshelp to shift memories fromthe brain's hippocampus --which has limited storagespace -- to the nearly limitless

prefrontal cortex's , thusfreeing up the hippocampus totake in fresh data (newlearning).

(Walker, 2010)Sleep is the key tohaving a brain that isready to learn
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/03/110308124748.htmhttp://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/03/110308124748.htm


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"A lot of that spindle-rich sleep is occurring thesecond half of the night,

so if you sleep six hoursor less, you areshortchanging yourselfand impeding your

learning"(Mander, 2011).


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Rehearsal of Learning before Sleep

A 2012 study out of theUniversity of Notre Dameconfirms that sleeping

directly after learningsomething new isbeneficial for memory.

(Payne, Tucker, Ellenbogen, Wamsley, 2012 )


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Rehearsal of Learning before Sleep

it would be a goodthing to rehearse anyinformation you need toremember just prior togoing to bed.

(Payne, Tucker, Ellenbogen, Wamsley, 2012 )


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Sleep and Creativity

Sleep also seems toreorganize memories,extracting theemotional details andreconfiguring thememory to help usproduce new andcreative ideas.

(Wagner, U., Gais, S., Haider, H., Verleger,R., & Born, J. (2004).


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Awake but Off Line

New findings suggest thatwhen the brain is sleep

deprived even though theperson is fully awake theneurons used for importantmental task switch off.

(Chiara Corelli,2011 Nature)


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Awake but Off Line

This is likely tohave consequenceson mental

performance and welikely function lesswell the longer wevebeen awake.

(Chiara Corelli,2011, Nature)


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Less Sleep Equals Lower GPA

2012 study from theUniversity of ArkansasSleep and Learning Labconcluded that students

that consistently got lessthan the recommended7-8 hours of sleep eachnight had lower GPAs

than students with 7-8hours of sleep.


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No Eight Oclock Classes

The University ofArkansas study went

so far as torecommend thatcollege anduniversities consider

not offering 8 amclasses.


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Naps Help Learning

Humans are supposed to nap.Twenty to thirty minutes isideal.

(Dement, 2009)

A NASA study found pilots whonapped for 27 minutes in theafternoon improved their flyingperformance by 34% .

(Dinges, 2005).Dinges, D. (


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Rest after Learning Improves Recall

Neuroscientist Lila Davachi of NYU foundthat during rest periods following newlearning the areas of the brain used duringnew learning were just as active as theywere when they were learning the task

Dr Lila Davachi, NYU's Department of Psychology and Center for Neural Science.


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Significance of this Finding

The greater thecorrelation between restand learning the greaterthe chance of rememberingthe task in later tests.

Taking a (coffee) breakafter class can actually helpyou retain the information

you just learned." Dr Lila Davachi

What Teaching Actions does Brain Research Affirm as


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What Teaching Actions does Brain Research Affirm asPromoting Learning



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1. When theinformation or

skill is made tohave personalrelevance.



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2. Thatcontent shouldbe made torespond to thesurvival needsof the learner.



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3. The teaching thatengages the brain in

multimodal, multi-sensory, experientialand diverse activitiespromotes learning.



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4. Time on task.

Learningsomething new takesmuch longer thanmost students think.

It requires a greatdeal of practice.

What Teaching Actions


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What Teaching ActionsPromote Learning

5. When teachersembed facts in ameaningful contextthey make thelearning processmuch easier andenhance the

likelihood of recall inthe future.



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6. The brain doesntlearn in a linearstructured andpredictable fashion.

The use of varioussensory channels at

the same time arebest especially forhard to learn concepts

What Teaching Actions does Brain


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What Teaching Actions does BrainResearch Affirm Promote Learning

7. The human brainseeks and quicklydetects novelty.

Teacher who knowthis can design novelactivities that will

enhance classroomlearning and longterm recall.

M lti L i


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Multisensory Learning

Our Senses Work Together


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Our Senses Work Togetherto Enhance Learning

The traditional belief amongneuroscientists has been that oursenses operate largely asindependent systems.

However, mounting datasuggest interactions between thesenses are the rule, rather thanthe exception.

Aaron Seitz Journal Current Biology, 2006

S C t M lti l P th


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Senses Create Multiple Pathways

The moresenses used inlearning and in

practicing whathas been learnedthe more

pathways areavailable forrecall.

S ll E h R ll


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Smell Enhances Recall

Proust Effect is theunusual ability ofsmell to enhancerecall.

Best results whensmells are congruent

with the situation.Medina, 2008, Brain Rules, p.212

Smells during sleep can enhance


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Smells during sleep can enhancerecall

Smells that youassociate with aparticular new learningreleased during sleep,

make the memories forthat learning stronger.

(Sobel , 2012)

Vi i T All


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Vision Trumps All

Vision trumps all other senses

Vision Trumps All


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Vision Trumps All

Text and oralpresentations are not

just less efficientthan pictures forretaining informationthey are way lessefficient.

(Brain Rules p.234)

Vision Trumps All


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Vision Trumps All

Oral information has arecall of about 10% after72 hours.

Add a picture and therecall increases to 65%.

(Brain Rules, P.234)

Reading as a Multisensory Activity


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Reading is the slowestway we enter informationinto our brains.

The reasons is it

carries a very heavyvisual load.

(Dehaene, 2009)

It is often done as aunisensory action.



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Solutions --Makereading multisensory.

1. Get students toannotate-the use oftouch( the pencil) andmovement( the hand)improves attention and

helps comprehension.



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2. Suggeststudents read certainchallenging partsaloud whilecontinuing toannotatenow thereare 3 senses

involved.



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3. Keep a smell

near that can beassociated with thereading to aid recall.

Questions


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Questions

How can you use amore multisensoryapproach in yourteaching?

What are youcurrently doing thatothers could do to usea more multisensoryapproach?

Patterns and Learning


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The brain is apattern seeking device

that relates wholeconcepts to oneanother and looks forsimilarities, differences,

or relationshipsbetween them.(Ratey, 2002,pg.5)



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Learning ispleasurable to the

brain; the activity ofdetecting patterns isalso pleasurable.

(Zadina, 2010)


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Which of the

following slides iseasier to remember

and WHY?


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SLIDE ONE

4915802979

Slide Two


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Slide Two

(491) 580-2979

Slide One


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Slide One

NRAFBINBCUSA

MTV

Slide Two


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Slide Two

NRA NBC FBI USA

MTV

Familiar Patterns


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Familiar Patterns

Clustering is used toorganize related informationinto groups. Informationthat is categorized becomes

easier to remember andrecall.

In Teaching Reading

TopicMain Ideas-concepts,issues

Significant DetailsImportant ExamplesListsNames, Dates, Places

Terms, Definitions

Using Patterns to Make
http://psychology.about.com/od/cindex/g/clustering.htmhttp://psychology.about.com/od/cindex/g/clustering.htm


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Learning Easier.

Olives tomatoes bread carrotschicken lettuce cookies hamgrapes beef strawberries spinachpork plums mangos potatoesonions fish duck broccoli cheesecherries brownies turkey

Using Patterns to Make


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Learning Easier

AlphabeticalThis is a familiarpattern but it doesnt help verymuch.

Beef, bread, brownies carrots,cheese, cherries, etc.

A More Meaningful Pattern


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Lunch and Dinnercategorizing the food by familiar areas like lunchand dinner gives it more meaning and makes it much easier to recall.

Lunch a salad including lettuce, cheese, tomatoes, olives, carrots,spinach, broccoli, onions, turkey, ham with bread and cookies fordessert.

Dinner a fruit salad with plums, strawberries, mangos, grapes andcherries.

Choices of duck, chicken, beef, fish or pork with potatoes and a browniefor dessert.

Common Patterns for Learning


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Common Patterns for Learning

Similarity and Difference

Cause and Effect

Comparison and Contrast

In students own words

Memory Formation Recall and Forgetting


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Memory Formation ,Recall and Forgetting

Cramming


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Cramming

The short-term advantageof study practice shows thatcramming can improveexam scores.

Carrier & Pashler, 1992; Roediger & Karpicke,2006b; Thompson, Wenger, &Bartling, 1978;Wenger, Thompson, & Bartling, 1980; Wheeler,Ewers, & Buonanno, 2003

However, if the goal ofpractice is long-termretention of course material,cramming appears to be an

irrational behavior.


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Cognitive Load


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Cognitive Load

Cognitive load alsoincreases our distractedness

We have to remember whatit is we are to concentrate on---

lose you hold on that andyou will find distraction more

distracting

(Neuroscientist Torkel Klingberg)

Cognitive Load


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Cognitive Load

Information overload isnot just a metaphor it is aphysical state whenlearning is important weneed to turn theinformation faucet downto a trickle.

(Nicholas Carr, What the Internet is doing to

our Brains)

Cognitive Load


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Cognitive Load

The more we makeour students aware ofhow fragile workingmemory is, the better

they will be able tomonitor and managetheir cognitive load.

(Nicholas Carr, What the Internet isdoing to our Brains)

Helping Students to Remember whatTh N d t K


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They Need to Know

Two Rules

1. Repetition over time(distributive practice)

2.Elaboration ofmaterial

Listen to the Music


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Listen to the Music

Do you know the lyricsto songs that you did nottry to learn and do notwant to know the lyricsto?

YES

Practice over Time


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Practice over Time

Practice, Use ,Repetition, Review,Reflection or othermeaningful ways weengage with newlearning over time isa major key to its

recall.

Cumulative Exams


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Cumulative Exams

Cumulative examsrequire students togo back and relearnand recall importantinformation theyneed to know.

It promotespractice over time

Elaborations are the Key


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Elaborations are the Key

For better orworse, ourrecollections arelargely at the mercyof our elaborations

(Daniel Schacter author ofthe Seven Sins of Memory)

Elaboration is a Major Key to Recall


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j y

Step One. Accuracy

Step Two: Reflection

Step Three: Regular Review

Step Four: Mapping, Images, Charts

Step Five: Recoding

Keeping Memories


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Keeping Memories

The best way to minimize memory decay is to useelaborative rehearsal strategies

Visualizing

Singing

Writing

Semantic Mapping

Drawing Pictures Symbolizing

Mnemonics.

Why Students Forget


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Why Students Forget

Review helps to limit the 3 Sins of Memorythat commonly occur among students.

1. Blocking information stored but cant beaccessed (Schacter, 2001)

2. Misattribution attributing a memory to thewrong situation or source (Zola, 2002)

3. Transience memory lost over time 65% of alecture is lost in the first hour (Schacter, 2001)

Emotion and Memory


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y

Emotional arousal organizesand coordinates brain activity(Bloom, Beal & Kupfer 2003)

When the amygdala detectsemotions, it essentially boostsactivity in the areas of the brainthat form memories (S. Hamann , EmoryUniversity.)

Multitasking Slows Learning


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u as g S o s ea g

It is notpossible tomultitask when it

comes toactivities thatrequire the

brains attention.(Foerde Knowlton Poldrack, 2006)

Multi-tasking


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g

Multi-tasking violates everything weknow about how memory works .

The imaging data indicated that thememory task and the distraction

stimuli engage different parts of thebrain and that these regionsprobably compete with each other.

(Foerde, K., Knowlton, Barbara J., and Poldrack,Russell A. 2006. )

Multitasking


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g

Our brain works hard to foolus into thinking it can do morethan one thing at a time. Itcant.

When trying to do two thingsat once, the brain temporarilyshuts down one task whiletrying to do the other.

(3 Dux, P. E., Ivanoff, J., Asplund, C. LO., and Marois, R. 2007. )

New Technology


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gy

Serious Games


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A serious game is a gamedesigned for a primary purposeother than pure entertainment.

The "serious" adjective refers toproducts used by industries like

defense, education, scientificexploration, health care, emergencymanagement, city planning,engineering, religion, and politics.

Virtual TextbooksThe Future is Here Almost
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game


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The Future is Here--Almost

Click on any bar in the timeline,and that bar expands to a list ofimages, which in turn are linked tovideo about that artist.

That's key, because, like a greatdocumentary, it makes learningabout what can be a fairly narrowsubject into something painless.

Art Textbook

Neuroscience and Technology


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Neuroeducational.net

A website that isdevoted to howneuroscience isdriving the use of

technologyespecially seriousgames.


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Cognitive Enhancements


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g

Both neurogenesisand synapseformation boostlearning, memory,

reasoning, andcreativity.

(Yaakov Stern of ColumbiaUniversity)

We can get smarter!

Meditation and CognitiveEnhancement


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Enhancement

One form of cognitiveenhancement is meditation.

Meditation can increase thethickness of brain regions

that control attention andprocess sensory signals fromthe outside world

(Neuroscientist Amishi Jha of the University of

Miami)

.

Meditation and CognitiveEnhancement


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Enhancement

The training hasshown success inenhancing mental agilityand attention by

changing brain structureand function so thatbrain processes aremore efficient, thequality associated with

higher intelligence(Neuroscientist Amishi Jha of theUniversity of Miami)

Caffeine + Sugar and Learning


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The combination of caffeineand sugar enhanced attention,learning and memory.

Improves cognitive performance in

terms ofsustained attention andworking memory by increasing theefficiency of the areas of the brainresponsible for these two functions.

(Grabulosa, Adan, Falcn, and Bargall, 2010 reported in the journalHuman Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental

Nicotine Promotes CognitiveEnhancement


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Enhancement

Nicotine enhances attentionthat key driver of neuroplasticityand cognitive performance inboth smokers and nonsmokers.

Nicotine has significant positive

effects on fine motor skills, theaccuracy of short-term memory, someforms of attention, and workingmemory, among other basic cognitiveskills.

(Martha Farah, University of Pennsylvania)

Scientists at the NationalInstitute on Drug Abusereported in a 2010 analysis of41 double-blind, placebo-

controlled studies.

Adderall is a CognitiveEnhancements


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Enhancements

There are cognitive benefits ofstimulants like Adderall , atleast in some people for sometasks.

Enhance the recall ofmemorized words as well asworking memory, which playsa key role in fluid intelligence. (Martha Farah of the University of Pennsylvania)

Adderall and Ritalin are CognitiveEnhancements


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Enhancements

Adderall hasstronger effects onthe prefrontal cortexand can therefore

improveconcentration andminimize fatiguemuch more so thancaffeine.

Adderall and Ritalin have SideEffects


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Effects

Adderall is notwithout health risks.

Side effects includedifficulty sleeping,seizures, high bloodpressure, loss of

appetite, depression,and many others.

Neuroplasticity


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When the correctskill-building protocolis used, educatorscan make positive

and significantchanges in studentsbrains in a shorttime. (Neuroscientists MichaelMerzenich and Paula Tallal)

Treating Developmental Disorders


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"Showing that it'spossible to rewire abrain's white matterhas important

implications fortreating readingdisabilities and otherdevelopmental

disorders, includingautism, Marcel Just, Director,Center for Cognitive Brain Imaging , Carnegie Mellon

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