Medical Emergencies

Al-anoud Al-jifriMedical consultant/ID

27/2/2010

Medical Emergencies

1) Anaphylaxis.2) Drug Reactions.3) Acute Upper Airway Obstruction.

Anaphylaxis

DEFINITION◦ Is an IgE-mediated ,rapidly developing ,systemic allergic

reaction.◦ Anaphylactoid reactions result from the direct release of mast

cell mediators.Anaphylaxis may be mild and resolve spontaneously due

to endogenous production of compensatory mediators (eg, epinephrine, angiotensin II, endothelin, and others) or it may be severe and progress within minutes to respiratory or cardiovascular compromise and death.

Death from anaphylaxis usually results from asphyxiation due to upper airway edema or respiratory failure due to bronchial obstruction, and less commonly, from cardiovascular collapse.

Diagnostic criteria for anaphylaxis

Anaphylaxis is highly likely when any ONE of the following 3 criteria is fulfilled:

1. Acute onset of an illness (minutes to several hours) with involvement of the skin, mucosal tissue, or both (eg, generalized hives, pruritus or flushing, swollen lips-tongue-uvula)

AND AT LEAST ONE OF THE FOLLOWING A. Respiratory compromise (eg, dyspnea, wheeze-

bronchospasm, stridor, reduced PEF in older children and adults, hypoxemia).

B. Reduced BP or associated symptoms of end-organ dysfunction (eg, hypotonia, collapse, syncope, incontinence).  

Diagnostic criteria for anaphylaxis

2. TWO OR MORE OF THE FOLLOWING that occur rapidly after exposure to a likely allergen for that patient (minutes to several hours):◦ A. Involvement of the skin-mucosal tissue (eg, generalized hives,

itch-flush, swollen lips-tongue-uvula) ◦ B. Respiratory compromise (eg, dyspnea, wheeze-bronchospasm,

stridor, reduced PEF in older children and adults, hypoxemia) ◦ C. Reduced BP or associated symptoms (eg , hypotonia , collapse,

syncope, incontinence) ◦ D. Persistent gastrointestinal symptoms (eg , crampy abdominal pain,

vomiting)   3. Reduced BP after exposure to a known allergen for that patient

(minutes to several hours): ◦ A. Infants and children: low systolic BP (age specific) or greater than

30 % decrease in systolic BP. ◦ B. Adults: systolic BP of less than 90 mm Hg or greater than 30 %

decrease from that person's baseline.

Triggers of anaphylaxis

1. Allergen triggers (IgE-dependent immunologic mechanism) oFoods, especially peanut, tree nut, seafood, finned fish, milk,

egg. o Insect stings (eg, Hymenoptera venom) and insect bites .oNatural rubber latex. oMedications (eg, beta-lactam antibiotics). oBiological materials, including allergens, vaccines to prevent

infectious disease, and hormones (eg, progesterone). oFood additives, including spices, insect-derived colorants (eg,

carmine), and vegetable gums Inhalants (eg, horse dander). oOccupational allergens.o Inhalants (eg, horse dander).

Triggers of anaphylaxis

2.Immunologic triggers (IgE-independent immunologic mechanism) oComplement system activation. oCoagulation system activation.

3.Idiopathic anaphylaxis oAuto-immune mechanism in some patients. oMastocytosis or clonal mast cell disorders in some patients.

4.Non-immunologic triggers (direct action of mast cells and basophils) o Physical factors (eg, exercise, cold, heat,

sunlight/ultraviolet radiation). oMedications (eg, opiates). oAlcohol (ethanol).

LABORATORY TESTS 

Plasma histamine levels typically peak within 5 - 15 minutes of the onset of anaphylaxis symptoms, and then decline to baseline by 60 minutes .

Elevated plasma histamine levels correlate with anaphylaxis symptoms and are more likely to be increased than are total serum tryptase levels.

LABORATORY TESTS

Serum or plasma total tryptase needs to be obtained within 3 hours of symptom onset.

Drug Reactions

Adverse reactions to drugs are a very common problem.

Only a subset of reactions are mediated immunologically; other drug reactions may be toxic or idiosyncratic.

Many different mechanisms can account for immunologically mediated drug reactions.

These reactions can occur with relatively low doses of the drug, usually on re-exposure after an initial sensitization to the drug.

Drug Reactions

A. Beta-lactam sensitivity. Penicillins and other beta-lactam antibiotics

are commonly associated with immunologically mediated drug reactions.

B. Red man's syndrome from vancomycin consists of pruritus and

flushing of the neck and face. It can be prevented by slowing the rate of

infusion and premedicating with diphenhydramine (50 mg PO) 30 minutes before the infusion.

Anaphylactoid reactions to drugs

Mimic anaphylaxis but are not IgE mediated.

They are due to the degranulation ofmast cells induced directly by the offending drug.

Drugs may cause anaphylactoid reactions include opiates and fluoroquinolones.

Drug Reactions

C. Erythema multiforme, Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS), and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN)

are all serious drug reactions that primarily involve the skin.

Erythema multiforme is characterized most typically by target lesions.

SJS and TEN manifest with varying degrees of sloughing of the epidermis and mucous membranes (<10% of total body surface area in SJS, 10–30% in SJS-TEN overlap, and >30% in TEN).

Treatment of Drug Reactions Focuses on the discontinuation of suspected

drugs and treating any underlying infection. Other therapeutic maneuvers are directed to

symptoms and include: i. hydration to maintain fluid balance, ii. antihistamines to decrease pruritus, iii. analgesics to relieve pain, iv. and wet dressings to débride crusted

erosions. Care in a burn unit or ICU may be required. Systemic corticosteroids are often used, but their

efficacy is unproven. Re-administration or future skin testing with the

offending drug is absolutely contraindicated.

Acute Upper Airway Obstruction

The differential diagnosis includes: Trauma to the face and neck. Foreign body. Infection (croup, epiglottitis, Ludwig's angina,

retropharyngeal abscess, and diphtheria). Tumor. Angioedema. Laryngospasm. Anaphylaxis. Retained secretions. Blockage of the upper airway by the tongue (in the

unconscious patient).

Acute Upper Airway Obstruction

In the conscious patient: manifestations of airway obstruction may include

stridor, impaired or absent phonation, sternal or suprasternal retractions, display of the universal choking sign, and respiratory distress.

Look for urticaria, angioedema, fever, or evidence of trauma.

The unconscious patient: may have labored breathing or apnea. Suspect airway obstruction in a nonbreathing

patient who is difficult to ventilate.

Acute Upper Airway Obstruction

Therapy is directed at rapid relief of obstruction to prevent cardiopulmonary arrest and anoxic brain damage.

I. Partial obstruction in the awake patient with adequate ventilation

A. Rapidly take a history, focusing on the causes just listed.

B. Perform a directed physical examination, looking for airway swelling, trismus, pharyngeal obstruction, respiratory retractions, angioedema, stridor, wheezing, and grossly swollen lymph nodes and masses in the neck.

If the patient's condition is stable, perform indirect laryngoscopy or fiberoptic nasopharyngolaryngoscopy.

A careful examination is unlikely to cause acute airway obstruction in an adult.

C. Soft-tissue radiography of the neck (posteroanterior and lateral views) is less sensitive and specific than is direct examination but may be a valuable adjunct. Such radiography should be performed in the

emergency department as a portable study, as the patient should not be left unattended.

Rapid CT of the airway with constant attendance is an alternative approach where available.

D. Treatment is aimed at the underlying disease process; observe the patient carefully and be prepared to intervene to maintain an airway.

I. Partial obstruction in the awake patient with adequate ventilation

II. Airway obstruction in the awake patient without ventilation.

The most likely causes are a foreign body (usually food) and angioedema.

Other causes include infection or posttraumatic hematoma.

History is usually unavailable. One should perform the Heimlich

maneuver (subdiaphragmatic abdominal thrust) repeatedly until the object is expelled from the airway or the patient becomes unconscious.