air sepration
DESCRIPTION
aTRANSCRIPT
CHAPTER 1
PROJECT DETAILS
1.1 Problem Statement
T.H. Chemicals Pvt. Ltd. Purify various components of air in Perticular oxygen,
nitrogen and argon. A feasibility study is to be performed to investigate the possibility of
producing 2182 ton per day of 99.275% nitrogen and 682 ton per day of 99.49% oxygen and
54.5 ton per day of 99% argon from air.
1.2 Background of the problem
The components presented in air (Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon etc.) are very often
applied components in chemical technology. Large quantities of high‐purity air products are
used in several industries, including the steel, chemical, semiconductor, aeronautical,
refining, food processing, and medical industries.
Air at lower temperatures (‐196oC) becomes in liquid and so we can do the
distillation of the air to its components. Distillation of air is currently the most commonly
used technique for production of pure oxygen, nitrogen and Argon on an industrial
scale. An example of an industrial process that requires pure oxygen and nitrogen is an
IGCC (integrated gasification combined cycle), where the oxygen is fed to a gasified and the
nitrogen to a gas turbine. The History of air separation has long time, in 1895 World´s first
air liquefaction plant on a pilot plant scale, commercial scale, production scale, 1904
‐World's first air separation plant for the recovery of nitrogen, 1910 World's first air
separation plant using the double column rectification process, 1950 First Linde‐Frankl
oxygen plant without pressure recycle and stone filled reactors, 1954 World's first air
separation plant with air purification by means of absorbers, 1978 Internal compression of
oxygen is applied to tonnage air separation plants, 1984 World's largest VAROX air
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separation plant with variable oxygen demand adjustment, 1990 World's first
tale‐controlled air separation plant with unmanned operation. Pure argon production by
rectification. 1991 World's largest air separation plant with packed columns, 1992 Air
separation plants produce mega pure gases, and 1997 Lined sets a new milestone in air
separation history. Four nitrogen generation trains are being provided, each in itself
constituting the largest air separation plant ever built. Nitrogen capacity 1,200
MMSCFD (40,000 t/d). 2000 Development of the advanced multi‐stage bath type
condenser. In chemical technology we need to allot of oxygen, nitrogen and argon. Air
separation has become a process integral to many manufacturing processes. The largest
markets for oxygen are in primary metals production, chemicals and gasification, clay, glass
and concrete products, petroleum refineries, and welding. The use of medical oxygen is
an increasing market. Gaseous nitrogen is used in the chemical and petroleum industries
and it is also used extensively by the electronics and metals industries for its inert properties.
Liquid nitrogen is used in applications ranging from cryogenic grinding of plastics to food
freezing. Argon, the third major component of air, finds uses as an inert material
primarily in welding, steelmaking, heat treating, and in the manufacturing processes for
electronics. The separation of air into its components is an energy intensive process. The
companies designing air separation processes have aggressively reduced the required
energy to the point that it is possible to sell a truckload of liquid nitrogen for is less than
many common consumer products. This surprising result has been accomplished by
advances in process design, process operation, manufacturing approaches and techniques,
and improvements in supply chain management. Process designs have increasingly utilized
mass and energy integration. Substituted process operations have increased the ability to
operate efficiently at a wider range of product on requirements, significantly improved
productivity through pervasive Automation and advanced control developed the
capability to efficiently handle rapid production rate and product split changes, and
leveraged advances in remote communications. Supply chain improvements have
ranged from improved purchasing practices to optimized scheduling of product delivery
to coordinated operation of separate facilities. Much has been written concerning the design
of air separation processes and certainly the worldwide patent activity for flow sheet and
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equipment innovation continues. Advanced control has been practiced in the air separation
business for decades. The first application of computer control for an air separation plant
was completed in the early 1970s. Since that time, most advanced control technologies
have been applied in an attempt to improve the efficiency and productivity of air separation
facilities. The current work aims to describe the air separation process including heat
exchange and cryogenic distillation. An ASPEN Plus simulation of cryogenic air
separation into Nitrogen, Oxygen and Argon is created. The influence of different process
parameters on distillation efficiency is analyzed.
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CHAPTER 2
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
2.1 Air separation technologies
Air separation plants are designed to generate oxygen, and argon from air
through the process of compression, cooling, liquefaction and distillation of air. Air is
separated for production of oxygen, nitrogen, argon and ‐ in some special cases ‐
other rare gases (krypton, xenon, helium, neon) through cryogenic rectification of air.
The products can be produced in gaseous form for pipeline supply or as cryogenic
liquid for storage and distribution by truck. One of the largest producers of air
separation plants is Lined Company. It has built approx. 2,800 cryogenic air separation
plants in more than 80 countries (Source: http://tn‐sanso‐plant.com/en/air.html [4]) and
has the leading market position for air separation plants.
Figure 2.1: air separation scheme
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Air can be separated into its components by means of distillation in special
units. So‐called air fractionating plants employ a thermal process known as
cryogenic rectification to separate the individual components from one another in
order to produce high‐purity nitrogen, oxygen and argon in liquid and gaseous form
Different type of air separation technologies was developed
• Cryogenic Air separation
• Membrane Air separation
• Separation by adsorption
• Other
Different technologies are applicable for different requirement on amount and
purity of the products. Figure (4) shows the Oxygen production process selection grid.
A similar graph describing the ranges for which the different nitrogen processes are
applicable can be seen in Fig. (4)
Figure 2.2: Oxygen production process selection grid
Air can be separated into its components by means of distillation in special
units. So‐called air fractionating plants employ a thermal process known as
cryogenic rectification to separate the individual components from one another in
order to produce high‐purity nitrogen, oxygen and argon in liquid and gaseous form
Different type of air separation technologies was developed
• Cryogenic Air separation
• Membrane Air separation
• Separation by adsorption
• Other
Different technologies are applicable for different requirement on amount and
purity of the products. Figure (4) shows the Oxygen production process selection grid.
A similar graph describing the ranges for which the different nitrogen processes are
applicable can be seen in Fig. (4)
Figure 2.2: Oxygen production process selection grid
Air can be separated into its components by means of distillation in special
units. So‐called air fractionating plants employ a thermal process known as
cryogenic rectification to separate the individual components from one another in
order to produce high‐purity nitrogen, oxygen and argon in liquid and gaseous form
Different type of air separation technologies was developed
• Cryogenic Air separation
• Membrane Air separation
• Separation by adsorption
• Other
Different technologies are applicable for different requirement on amount and
purity of the products. Figure (4) shows the Oxygen production process selection grid.
A similar graph describing the ranges for which the different nitrogen processes are
applicable can be seen in Fig. (4)
Figure 2.2: Oxygen production process selection grid
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Methods such as membrane separation are also available but they are currently
used far less pervasively than the other two approaches.
Figure 2.3: Nitrogen production process selection grid.
2.2 Cryogenic Air Separation Process
Large quantities of high-purity air products are used in several
industries, including the steel, chemical, semiconductor, aeronau-tical,
refining, food processing, and medical industries. Methods of air separation
include cryogenic and non-cryogenic approaches. Although non-cryogenic
processes such as pressure swing adsorption and membrane separation
have become more competitive, cryogenic distillation technology is still the
dominant choice for producing large quantities of very high-purity and
liquified air products Cryogenic air separation is an energy intensive process
that consumes a tremendous amount of electrical energy. The U.S.
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industrial gas industry consumed approximately 31,460 million kilowatt
hours in the USA in 1998, which accounts for 3.5% of the total electricity
purchased by the manufacturing industry.
Optimal operation and control of cryogenic air separation pro- cesses
has received significant attention, with the primary goal of reducing energy
consumption and improving economic perfor- mance during operation
2.3 Process Description
In the proposed design the environmental air contains mainly
oxygen, nitrogen and argon and some amount of CO2 and water vapour and
traces of some other gases is compressed in a centrifugal compressor from
atmospheric pressure 1atm to 7atm which raise the temperature of air
mixture from 250C to 43.50C.We raise the temperature of air mixture to
600C through steam to make the air mixture according to the operating
condition of membrane separation unit
After air compression, the air mixture is fed to the membrane
separation unit to remove W2 and water vapour . Most of the water vapour
and carbon di oxide and hydro carbons are removed by memberane
separation unit. When the ai stream eaves the memberane seperaton unit , it
is assumed to no contain of water vapour , carbon di oxide or
hydrocarbons.
The purified compressd air feed is cooled cascade of I stage heat
exchanger where it is reached oraganic temperature or liqifaction
temperature or liqification entered in the high pressure distillation column
to begain the sepration process. The top product of high pressure
distillation column is compared in throlled valve to of atm and then feed to
the to of the low pressre distillation clumn . The bottom stream from high
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pressure distillation column in also compressed to 1 atm and fed to low
pressure distillation colluumn .
Oxygen has the maximum boiling pont of the thre main component
and that’s why Oxygen of 99.49% purity is taken from the bottom of low
pressure column ( distillation column 2) nitrogen of 99.275% is taken from
the top of the low pressure distillation column 2 at -1850C and 1 atm , and
stored . An Argon rich stream can be with drawn from the 10th tary of low
Argon purification system.
The condenser of distillation Collumn 1 and the reboiler of
distillation column 2 are inter connected so that the condenser provides the
heat needed by the boiler and reboiler provides the cooling needed by the
condenser.
Now the Argon rich stream from low pressure distillation column at
-1870C and 1 atm is send to distillation column 3 where nitrogen is
saperated from oxygen and Argon . The nitrogen rich distillate stream in
Condensor in condensed in condenser and one part is sent to the column 3
a reflux and another part at -1850C and 1 atm recycle to combine with feed
stream of column 2 The bottom stream is then fed to Argon seperion
Column 4 where argon and oxygen is separated . The Oxygen rich bottom
stream at -1860C from colum 4 is recycled back to the bottom of low
pressure distillation column 2. The overhead product of Column 4 i.e argon
rich stream at -1860C is condensed and fed to the argon purification column
5 to separate out the remaining nitrogen and oxygen , and exit as distillate
and vented to the atmosphere 99% pure argon exit as the bottom stream.
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CHAPTER 3
RAW MATERIAL AND PRODUCT SPECIFICATION
3.1 Air properties
Air is a mixture of gases, consisting primarily of nitrogen (78 %), oxygen (21 %)
and the inert gas argon (0.9 %). The remaining 0.1 % is made up mostly of carbon dioxide
and the inert gases neon, helium, krypton and xenon. Air can be separated into its
components by means of distillation in special units. Air is usually modeled as a uniform
(no variation or fluctuation) gas with properties averaged from the individual components.
Figure 3.1: Air composition
Dry Air: Dry Air is relatively uniform in composition, with primary constituents as
shown below. Ambient air, may have up to about 5% (by c volume) water content and
may contain a number of other gases (usually in trace amounts) that are removed at one
or more points in the air separation and product purification system.
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The two most dominant components in dry air are Oxygen and Nitrogen. Oxygen has a 16
atomic unit mass and Nitrogen has 14 atomic units mass. Since both of these elements
are diatomic in air ‐ O2 and N2, the molecular mass of Oxygen is 32 and the molecular
mass of Nitrogen is 28. Table 3.2 shows some properties of air components.
Table 3.1: Some properties of air components
Gas
Ratio compared to Dry
Air (%)
Molecular
Mass
‐ M ‐
(kg/kmol)
Chemica
l
Symbol
Boiling Point
By volume By weight (K) (oC)
Oxygen 20.95 23.20 32.00 O2 90.2 ‐182.95
Nitrogen 78.09 75.47 28.02 N2 77.4 ‐195.79
Carbon Dioxide 0.03 0.046 44.01 CO2 194.7 ‐78.5
Hydrogen 0.00005 ~ 0 2.02 H2 20.3 ‐252.87
Argon 0.933 1.28 39.94 Ar 84.2 ‐186
Neon 0.0018 0.0012 20.18 Ne 27.2 ‐246
Helium 0.0005 0.00007 4.00 He 4.2 ‐269
Krypton 0.0001 0.0003 83.8 Kr 119.8 ‐153.4
Xenon 9 10‐6 0.00004 131.29 Xe 165.1 ‐108.1
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Other components in air:
Sulfur dioxide ‐ SO2 ‐ 1.0 parts/million (ppm)
• Methane ‐ CH4 ‐ 2.0 parts/million (ppm)
• Nitrous oxide ‐ N2O ‐ 0.5 parts/million (ppm)
• Ozone ‐ O3 ‐ 0 to 0.07 parts/million (ppm)
• Nitrogen dioxide ‐ NO2 ‐ 0.02 parts/million (ppm)
• Iodine ‐ I2 ‐ 0.01 parts/million (ppm)
• Carbon monoxide ‐ CO ‐ 0 to trace (ppm)
• Ammonia ‐ NH3 ‐ 0 to trace (ppm)
Dry air properties at temperatures ranging 175 ‐ 500 K are indicated in the table 2.
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Temperature
(K)
Specific Heat Capacity Ratio of
Specific
Heats
‐ k ‐
(cp/cv)
Dynamic
Viscosity
‐ μ ‐
10‐5
(kg/m s)
Thermal
Conductivity
10‐5
(kW/m K)
Prandtl
Number
Kinematic
Viscosity1)
‐ ν ‐
10‐5
(m2/s)
Density1)
‐ ρ ‐
(kg/m3)‐ c ‐
(kJ/kgK)
‐ c ‐
(kJ/kgK)
175 1.0023 0.7152 1.401 1.182 1.593 0.744 0.586 2.017
200 1.0025 0.7154 1.401 1.329 1.809 0.736 0.753 1.765
225 1.0027 0.7156 1.401 1.467 2.020 0.728 0.935 1.569
250 1.0031 0.7160 1.401 1.599 2.227 0.720 1.132 1.412
275 1.0038 0.7167 1.401 1.725 2.428 0.713 1.343 1.284
300 1.0049 0.7178 1.400 1.846 2.624 0.707 1.568 1.177
325 1.0063 0.7192 1.400 1.962 2.816 0.701 1.807 1.086
350 1.0082 0.7211 1.398 2.075 3.003 0.697 2.056 1.009
375 1.0106 0.7235 1.397 2.181 3.186 0.692 2.317 0.9413
Table 3.2: Some properties of air at temperatures ranging 175 ‐ 500 K
400 1.0135 0.7264 1.395 2.286 3.365 0.688 2.591 0.8824
450 1.0206 0.7335 1.391 2.485 3.710 0.684 3.168 0.7844
500 1.0295 0.7424 1.387 2.670 4.041 0.680 3.782 0.7060
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Common Pressure Units frequently used as alternative to "one Atmosphere"
76 Centimeters (760 mm) of Mercury
• 29.921 Inches of Mercury
• 10.332 Meters of Water
• 406.78 Inches of Water
• 33.899 Feet of Water
• 14.696 Pound‐Force per Square Inch
• 2116.2 Pounds‐Force per Square Foot
• 1.033 Kilograms‐Force per Square Centimeter
• 101.33 Kilopascal
Table 3.3: Some other physical properties of air components:
Nitrogen Oxygen
Normal boiling point °K 126.1 154.4
critical pressure at 34.6 51.3
Critical temperature °K 77.35 90.19
Oxygen has the highest boiling point of the three main components and is taken from
the bottom of the LP column. Nitrogen is taken from the top of the LP or HP columns. An argon
rich stream can be product in other distillation columns withdrawn from the middle of the LP
column. Figure 2 (Source: reference [9] www.engineeringtoolbox.com/dry‐air‐properties‐
d_973.html) shows the air density versus temperature and pressure.
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Figure 3.2: Air density versus temperature and pressure
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3.2 Products of air separation and their applications
These are the Air products:
3.2.1 Oxygen:
Oxygen makes up 21 percent of the air we breathe. Our bodies need oxygen to
support life, so oxygen has many medical and healthcare uses.
Oxygen is also used in many industries, in clouding metal and glass manufacturing,
chemicals and petroleum processing, pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper, aerospace,
wastewater treatment and even fish farming.
Chemical formula: O2‐ other names: oxygen gas, gaseous Oxygen (GOX), liquid
oxygen (LOX)
3.2.1.1 Physical and Chemical Properties:
Oxygen has no color or smell. Oxygen is slightly heavier than air and slightly
water soluble. Oxygen combines readily with many elements to form compounds
called “oxides.” One example is iron oxide, or rust, that forms on iron in the presence of
oxygen and moisture. Although oxygen itself is nonflammable, combustible
materials burn more strongly in oxygen. Even though most applications use oxygen in
the gas form, it can be cooled to a pale Blue liquid at extremely low temperatures
(‐297°F/‐183°C). To put that temperature into perspective, water freezes at 32°F/0°C.
3.2.1.2 Uses and Benefits:
Our bloodstream absorbs oxygen from the air in our lungs to fuel the cells in our
bodies. Healthcare providers use medical oxygen for patients in surgery and for those who
have difficulty breathing. For home use, lightweight Portable oxygen cylinders give
patients freedom to gout in to the community.
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Oxygen promotes combustion, so it help manufacturers save upland energy and
reduce the emission of green house gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide or sulfur
oxide. Using oxygen‐enriched air increases production efficiency in steel, rocket
fuel, glass, chemical and metallurgical processing applications.
Manufacturers of aluminum, copper, gold and lead use oxygen to remove
metals from ore more efficiently. As a result, they can often use lower‐grade ores and
raw materials, which helps conserve and extend our natural resources. For metal
fabrication, oxygen is often used with acetylene, propane, and other gases to cut and weld
metals.
The chemical and petroleum industries combine oxygen with hydrocarbon
building blocks to make products such as antifreeze, plastic and nylon. The pulp and
paper industry uses oxygen to increase paper whiteness while reducing the need for
other bleaching chemicals. They also use it to reduce odors and other emissions.
Municipal and industrial wastewater plants use oxygen to make the treatment process
more efficient and increase basin capacity during plant expansions or plant upsets.
Municipal Water plants use oxygen as feed gas to their ozone systems to remove taste,
odor and color from drinking water. Oxygenated water also improves the health and size of
the fish for fish farming operations so farmers around the world can supply high‐quality
food.
3.2.1.3 Industrial Use:
We ship oxygen as a high‐pressure gas or a cold liquid. We often ship and
store larger quantities of oxygen in liquid form, because it occupies much less space
that way. Depending on how much oxygen gas our customer uses, we store and ship it in
high‐ pressure cylinders and tubes. Industry guidelines cover the storage and
handling of compressed gas cylinders. Workers should use sturdy work gloves, safety
glasses with side shields and safety shoes when handling compressed gas cylinders. We
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store and ship liquid oxygen in three different types of containers‐dowers,
cryogenic liquid cylinder sand cryogenic liquid tanks. The second trainers are similar
to heavy‐duty vacuum bottles used to keep your coffee hot or your water cold.
Because of its low temperature, liquid oxygen should not come in contact with skin.
If workers handle containers of liquid oxygen, it is important to wear a full face‐shield
over safety glasses to protect the eyes and face. Workers should also wear clean, loose
fitting, thermal‐insulated gloves; a long‐sleeved shirt and pants without cuffs; and safety
shoes.
The risk of fire increases when oxygen levels in the air are higher than normal.
Clothing and hair readily trap oxygen and are highly combustible. It is important to have
good ventilation when working with oxygen and to periodically test the atmospheres
in confined areas to ensure that oxygen levels do not increase and create an increased
fire hazard. Personnel should know the risk, keep the area clear of combustible
materials and post “No Smoking” signs. Equipment used in oxygen service must be
cleaned according to strict industry guidelines to avoid contamination.
3.2.2 Nitrogen:
Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of the air we breathe. Nitrogen has many
commercial uses. In fact, more nitrogen is sold by volume than any other inorganic
chemical. Nitrogen is used in oil and gas industries, metalworking, electronics, food
processing and many manufacturing processes.
Chemical Formula: N2 other names: nitrogen gas, gaseous Nitrogen (GAN), liquid
nitrogen (LIN)
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3.2.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties:
Nitrogen has no color or smell. It does not burn. It’s slightly lighter than air
and slightly water soluble. Nitrogen is inert, which means that it does not react with many
materials. However, it can form compounds under certain conditions. For
example, at high temperatures, nitrogen reacts with oxygen to form various oxides
of nitrogen. It can also form other compounds in the presence of catalysts. When cooled
to extremely low temperatures (‐321°F/‐196°C), nitrogen exists in liquid form. To put
that temperature into perspective, water freezes at 32°F/0°C.
3.2.2.2 Uses and Benefits:
Industries use both liquid nitrogen and nitrogen gas. Nitrogen helps make many
industrial processes safer for workers and the public.
Refineries, petrochemical plants and marine tankers use gaseous nitrogen to
clean out vapors and gases from the equipment they use. Industries also use gaseous
nitrogen to “blanket,” or maintain an inert protective atmosphere over chemicals in
process and storage equipment. Metal fabricators use liquid nitrogen to help control
process temperatures in thermal spray coating, making the process more efficient.
Machine shops use liquid nitrogen instead of cutting fluids in machining operations,
which eliminates the need for oil‐based products. Manufacturers use liquid nitrogen to
cool soft or heat‐sensitive materials so they can grind them. They use cryogenic grinding
to produce medicines, spices, plastics and pigments. Recyclers use liquid nitrogen to cool
polymers including plastic and rubber so they can grind them and recover key raw
materials used to manufacture new products. For example, they use nitrogen to turn
rubber scrap tires into Useable products, such as synthetic running tracks, instead of
discarding the rubber in a landfill. Many of the foods we eat are frozen in
nitrogen‐cooled freezers. Because the nitrogen is so cold, it often improves the quality of
the frozen food products. The liquid nitrogen replaces traditional refrigerants, such as
fluorocarbons and ammonia, which may cause environmental or health concerns when
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they leak from processing equipment. After the nitrogen cools the food, the nitrogen
goes safely back into the air.
3.2.2.3 Industrial Use:
We ship nitrogen as a high‐pressure gas or a cold liquid. We often ship and
store gases in liquid form, because they occupy much less space that way. We store and
ship nitrogen gas in two different container sizes. Depending on how much our customer
uses, we provide the gas in high‐pressure cylinders and tubes. Industry guidelines cover
the storage and handling of compressed gas cylinders. Workers should use sturdy work
gloves, safety glasses with side shields and safety shoes when handling compressed gas
cylinders. We also store and ship liquid nitrogen in three different types of
containers—Dewar’s, cryogenic liquid cylinders and cryogenic liquid tanks. These
containers are similar to heavy duty vacuum bottles used to keep your coffee hot or your
water cold. Because of its low temperature, liquid nitrogen should not come in contact
with skin. For workers who handle containers of liquid nitrogen, it is important to wear
a full face‐shield to protect the eyes and face. Workers should also wear clean,
loose‐fitting, thermal‐insulated gloves; a long‐sleeved shirt and pants without cuffs; and
safety shoes. To prevent suffocation, it is important to have good ventilation when
working with nitrogen. Confined workspaces must be tested for oxygen levels prior to
entry. If the oxygen level is lower than 19.5 percent, personnel, including rescue
workers, should not enter the area without special breathing equipment that provides
an independent source of clean breathing air.
3.2.3 Argon:
Argon is a gas that occurs naturally. It makes up slightly less than 1 percent of the air we
breathe. Argon is used in metals production, processing and fabrication and electronics
manufacturing.
Chemical formula: Ar ‐ other names: argon gas, gaseous argon (GAR), liquid argon
(LAR)
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3.2.3.1 Physical and Chemical Properties:
Argon has no color or smell. It does not burn. It’s heavier than air and will tend to settle
in low‐lying areas. Argon is slightly water soluble.
Argon is a member of a special group of gases known as the “noble” or “inert” gases.
Other
gases in this group are helium, neon and krypton. The term “inert” means that they will
not readily combine chemically with other material When cooled to extremely low
temperatures (‐303°F/‐186°C), argon exists in liquid form, known as a cryogenic liquid.
To put that temperature into perspective, water freezes at32°F/0°C.
3.2.3.2 Uses and Benefits:
The metals and semiconductor manufacturing industries use argon to purge or clean
out vapors and gases from the equipment they use.
Metal producers and semiconductor manufacturers also use argon to “blanket,” or
maintain an inert protective atmosphere over metals and silicon crystals to prevent
unwanted chemical reactions from occurring. In metal fabrication processes like welding,
argon shields the weld against the metal oxide impurities that would form if the molten
weld bead came in contact with oxygen. Argon gas is also used in heat treating furnaces
to cool parts when other cooling gases might negatively affect the parts.
The lighting industry uses argon for filling incandescent bulbs, because it will not react
with the filament. In combination with other rare gases, argon creates special color
effects, which are often called “neon lights.” Argon is also used to fill the space in
insulated glass windows to improve the thermal efficiency of our homes.
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3.2.3.3 Industrial Use
We ship argon as a gas or a cryogenic liquid. We often ship and store gases in liquid
form, because they occupy much less space that way.
Depending on how much argon gas our customer uses, we store and ship it in
high‐pressure cylinders and tubes. Industry guidelines cover the storage and handling of
compressed gas cylinders. Workers should use sturdy work gloves, safety glasses with side
shields and safety shoes when handling compressed gas cylinders. We also store and ship liquid
argon in three different types of containers—Dewar’s, cryogenic liquid cylinders and cryogenic
liquid tanks. These containers are similar to heavy‐duty vacuum bottles used to keep your
coffee hot or your water cold. Because of its low temperature liquid argon should not come
in contact with skin. If workers handle containers of liquid argon, it is important to wear a
full face‐shield over safety glasses to protect the eyes and face. Workers should also wear
clean, closefitting, thermal‐insulated gloves; a long‐sleeved shirt and pants without cuffs;
and safety shoes. To prevent suffocation, it is important to have good ventilation when
working with argon. Confined workspaces must be tested for oxygen levels prior to entry.
If the oxygen level is lower than 19.5 percent, personnel, including rescue workers, should
not enter the area without special breathing equipment.
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CHAPTER 4
MATERIAL BALANCE
Material balances are the basis of process design. A material balance taken over
complete process will determine the quantities of raw materials required and products
produced. Balances over Individual process until set the process stream flows and
compositions. The general conservation equation for any process can be written as
Material out = material in + accumulation
For a steady state process the accumulation term is zero. If a chemical reaction is taking
place a particular chemical species may be formed or consumed. But if there is no chemical
reaction, the steady state balance reduces to:
Material out = Material in
A balance equation can be written for each separately identifiable species present,
elements, compounds and for total material. [10]
4.1 BASIS:
Basis = 67167 TPA
The process is planned and developed as a continuous process. A plant is operated for
24 Hours per day and 335 per year.
4.2 Capacity in Kmol/hr:
Capacity of Nitrogen = 1527Ton/day
=1527*1000/24 kg/hr
= 63625 kg/hr
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=63641.67*kg/hr*1/28
Capacity of Nitrogen= 2272.91 kmol/ hr
Assume loss of production = 1 %
Now total cap of Nitrogen = 2272.91 + 227291.02*0.01
Final capacity of Nitrogen = 2295.64 kmol/ hr
Capacity Of Oxygen = 477 Ton/ day
=477*1000/24 Kg/ hr
= 18316.67 kg/hr * 1/32kg/mol
Capacity of Oxygen = 572.395 kmol /hr
Assume loss of production = 1 %
Now total of capacity of O2 =572.395+572.395*0.01
Final capacity of Oxygen = 578.119 kmol/ hr
Capacity Of Argon =38.15 Ton/ day
= 38.15*1000/24 kg/hr
= 1590.58 kg/hr *1/40 kg/kmol
Capacity of Argon = 4.03 kmol/hr
Assume loss of production = 1%
Now total Capacity of Ar = (39.73*0.01)+39.73
Final Capacity Of Argon = 40.359 kmol/hr
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4.3 Material Balance For Coloumn :- 5
(Light ends) Distillate
XD = 0.01
Feed Xf =0.989
W Bottom product Xw=0.99
Xd =0.01
Xw = 0.09
Xf = 0.989
W5 = 40.1359 kmol /hr
F5 = D5 + W5
F5 = D5 + 40.1359………………………….(1)
X5 F5 = XD . D5 + XwW5
0.989F5 = 0.01 D5 +0.99*57.337………………(2)
F5 = 40.1772 kmol / hr
D5 = 0.04099 kmol /hr
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Table 4.1 Material balance for column:-5
Component In,
Kmol/hr
Out, Kmol/hr
Feed Bottom Distillate
Nitrogen 0.00842 0.09226 0.028
Oxygen 0.3052 0.29302 0.01257
Argon 39.7355 39.7355 0.0004099
4.4 Material Balance For Coloumn :- 4
(Light ends) Distillate
XD = 0.989
Feed Xf =0.1066
W Bottom product Xw=0.002
D4 = F5
D4 = 40.175 kmol / hr
XD = 0.098
Xw = 0.002
Xf = 0.1006
25
F4 = D4 + W4
F4 = 40.1751 + W4………………..(1)
XfX4 = XDD4 + XwW4
0.1066 F4 = 0.989*40.1751 + XwW4
F4 = 379.106 kmol/hr
W4= 338.932 Kmol/hr
Table 4.2 Material balance for column:-4
Component In,
Kmol/hr
Out, Kmol/hr
Feed Bottom Distillate
Nitrogen 0.123592 0.0 0.11984
Oxygen 338.98 337.90 0.3052
Argon 7.46 0.6769 39.032
4.5 Material Balance For Coloumn :- 3
(Light ends) Distillate
XD = 0.0069
Feed Xf =0.08375
W Bottom product Xw=0.1066
26
W3 = F4
W3=379.1102 kmol / hr
Xw= 0.1066
XD= 0.0069
Xf = 0.0069
F3= D3+ W3
F4 = D3+ 379.51102 kmol/hr………………..(1)
XfX3= XDD3 + XwW3
0.08375 F3 = 0.989*57.396 + XwW4
F3= 491.183 kmol/ hr
D3= 112.721 Kmol/hr
Table 4.3 Material balance for column:-3
Component In,
Kmol/hr
Out, Kmol/hr
Feed Bottom Distillate
Nitrogen 113.4 0.12356 111.58
Oxygen 336.7 331.33 0.12061
Argon 41.190 40.4131 0.777
27
4.6 Material Balance For Coloumn :- 2
(Light ends) Distillate
D2=3279.49
F2=4807.992kmol/hr
F3=702.617 kmol/hr
W2=825.885Kmol/hr
Entering Stream In column:- 2
F2= D1+ W1 + D3+ W4
= D1 + W1+ 161.0311 + 484.189
F2 = 645.22 + D1 + W1……………………(1)
Material Balance Eqn
F2 = D2+ W2+ F3……………….(2)
F2 = 3279.49 + 825.885 + 702.617
F2 = 3365.5994 kmol/hr
From Eqn 1
D1 + W1= 4807.992 -992 -645.22
D1 + W1= 4162.772 …………(3)
28
Table 4.4 Material balance for column:-2
Component In,
Kmol/hr
Out, Kmol/hr
Feed Bottom Distllate
Nitrogen 2395.75 0.0 2278.5952
Oxygen 941.44211 575.1711 12.725
Argon 27.965 2.898 3.696
4.7 Material Balance For Coloumn :- 1
(Light ends) Distillate
XD = 0.00298
Feed Xf =0.0091
Xw=0.0173
XD = 0.00298
Xw = 0.0173
Xf = 0.0091
F4 = 4162.772………………..(1)
XfX1= XDD1 + XwW1
0.0091*4162 = 0.00298 D1 * 0.0173 W1………..(2)
D1= 1668.8kmol/ hr
29
W1= 1244.999 Kmol/hr
Table 4.5 Material balance for column:-1
Component In,
Kmol/hr
Out, Kmol/hr
Feed Bottom Distillate
Nitrogen 2257.756 646.1 1635.676
Oxygen 611.5396 574.8155 28.602
Argon 26.516 21.5383 4.9735
4.8 Material balance On Memberane Unit
Composition of inlet Air
N2 = 0.78
O2 = 0.2096
Ar = 0.0091
Co2 = 0.0003
Water vapour = 0.00097
Let the flow of inlet Air = x moles / hr
Feed after passing memberane Unit F1 = 2913.9404 k mol /hr
Moles of inlet – moles of Co2 – Moles Of water Vapour = moles of air after passing
membrane unit
X – 0.0003X – 0.00097 X = 2913.9404
X = 2917.6 kmol/hr
So the flow rate of Unit air = 2917.6 kmol/hr
30
CHAPTER 5
ENERGY BALANCE
5.1 Compressor:-
QN2 = 25∫43.5 ncpdT
= n 25∫43.5(a+b+cT
2+dT
3)dt
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
43.5
= 2275.756[29(43.5-25)] +0.2199 *10 [(43.5)2-(25)2] [(43.5)3(25)3] – 2.871*10-
9/4[(43.5)4-(25)4]
= 1224400.576 KJ/hr
QO2 = 25∫43.5nCpdT
= n 25∫43.5 (a+bT+CT2+dT3)dT
= n [a+bT2/2 CT3/3 +dT4/4 ]43.5
= 333627.4822 KJ/hr
QAr = 25∫43.5 nCpdT
= 2.794*37.9293*18
= 10213.68914 KJ/hr
QC02 = 25∫43.5nCpdT
= n 25∫43.5(a+b+cT
2+dT
3)dt
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
43.5]
= 0.8752926[36.11(18.5)+4.233*10-2/2(1.26725)
-2.887*10-5/3[66687.875]+7.464*10-9/4 (3189985)
= 607.6461007KJ/hr
31
Qwv = 25∫43.5 ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
43.5
= 2.83011274[18.2964(18.5)+47.212*10-2/2(1267.25)
133.887*10- 5/3[66687.875]+7.464*10-91314.2*10-5/[3189985.063]
= 1723.306388 KJ/hr
5.2 Heat Exchanger :-1:
QN2 = 43.5∫60ncpdT
= n 43.5∫60(a+bT+cT
2+dT
3)dT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
60
= 2250.556[29(16.5)+0.2199*10-2/2][(60)2-(43.5)2]+0.5723*10-5/3[(60)3]
- 2.871*10-9/4[(60)4-(43.5)4]]
= 1081675.658 KJ/hr
QO2 = 43.5∫60ncpdT
= n 43.5∫60(a+bT+cT
2+dT
3)dT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
60
= 611.524 [29.10(16.5)+1.158*10-2/2][1707.75]
+0.6076*10-5/3[133687.125]+1.311 *10-9/4[9379389.937]
= 299511.1207 KJ/hr
QAr = 43.5∫60ncpdT
= 20.794*37.9293*16.5
= 9109.506 KJ/hr
QCO2 = 43.5∫60ncpdT
= n 43.5∫60(a+bT+cT
2+dT
3)dT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
60
= 0.8752592 [36.11(16.5)+1.158*10-2/2][1707.75]
32
-2.887*10-5/3[133687.125]+7.464*10-9/4[9379389.937
= 552.0382 KJ/hr
QWV = 43.5∫60ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
60
= 2.830112 [18.2964 (16.5)47.212*10-2/2][1707.75]
-133.88*10-5/3[133687.125]+1314.2 *10-9/4[9379389.937]
= 1835.18369 KJ/hr
Qtotal = 3121803.840 KJ/hr
MEDIA: Steam
T1= 1100C T2=81.50C
QN2 = 110∫81.5mcpdT
= m[a+bT2/2 +cT3/3+dT/4]81
m = [33.46(81.5-110)+0.6880*10-2/2[(81.522- (110)2]+0.7604*10-5/3[(81.5)3-
(110)3]-3.593*10-9/4[(81.5)4-(110)4]]
1989547.847 = m [-974.2942939]
m = 1431.52794 kmol/hr
5.3 Cascade :-
5.3.1 Heat Exchanger :-1
QN2 = 54.4∫26.4ncpdT= m[a+bT2/2 +cT3/3+dT/4]26.4
= 3251.08[29 (-28)+0.2199*10-2/2[(26.4)2- (54.4)2]
+0.572*10-5/3[(26.4)3-(54.4)3]-2.871 *10-9/4[(81.5)4-(26.4)4-(54.4)]]
= -1849602.3560 KJ/hr
33
QO2 = 54.4∫26.4ncpdT
= m[a+bT2/2 +cT3/3+dT/4]26.4
= 611.4696[29.10 (-28)+1.158*10-2/2[-2262.4]-0.6076*10-5/3[-142589.44]
+1.311*10-9/4[-8272053.36]
= -506118.255 KJ/hr
QAR = 54.4∫26.4ncpdT
= 20.794*37.88*(-28)
= -237537 .078KJ/hr
Qtotal = -2375737.078 KJ/hr
MEDIA: Oxygen
Q02 = -218∫-180mcpdT
T1= -2180c T2= -1800C
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-180
= m[29.10 (38)+1.158*10-2/2][-15124]-0.6076*10-5/3[4528232]
+1.311 *10-9/4](-1208770576)]
= m[1008.64686]
-3393910.111 = m[1008.664686]
m = 2355.328893 KJ/hr
5.3.2 Heat Exchanger:- 2
QN2 = 26.4∫-1.6ncpdT= n[a +bt2
/2 + C T3/3 +dT4
/4]-1.6
= 3257.08[29(-28)+0.2199 *10-2/2][(-16)2-(26.4)2]-0.5723*10-5/3
+1.311 *1][(-16)3-(26.4)3]2.87*10-9/4](-1208770576)][(-16)4-(26.4)4]-
=-184973.05 KJ/hr
34
QO2 = 26.4∫-1.6ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-1.6
=611.5396[29.10(-28)+1.158*10-2/2][-694.4]-0.6076 *10-5/3(-18403.84 )
+ 1.311*10-9/4](-485746)]
=-500718.5103 KJ/hr
QAr = 26.4∫-1.6ncpdT
= 20.794*37.88*(-28)
= -22054.94813 KJ/hr
Qtotal = -2365887.474 KJ/hr
MEDIA: Oxyge:
Q02 = -218∫-180mcpdT
T1= -2180c T2= -1800C
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-180
= m[29.10 (38)+1.158*10-2/2][-15124]-0.6076*10-5/3[4528232]
+1.311 *10-9/4](-1208770576)]
= m[1008.64686]
33798392.249 = m[1008.664686]
m = 2345.5639 kmol/hr
5.3.3 Heat Exchanger:- 3
QN2 = -1.6∫-29.6ncpdT= n[a +bt2
/2 + C T3/3 +dT4
/4]29.6
= 2257.756[29(-28)+0.2199 *10-2/2][(29.6)2-(1.6)2]
-0.5723 *10-5/3(29.6)3-(1.6)3 -2.87*10-9/4][(-16)4-(26.4)4]-
= -1845841.732 KJ/hr
35
QO2 = 26.4∫-1.6ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-1.6
=611.539 [29.10(-28)+1.158*10-2/2](873.6)-0.6076 *10-5/3(-25930.24 )
+ 1.311*10-9/4](767649.792)
= -495156.9405 KJ/hr
QAr = 26.4∫--1.6ncpdT
= 20.794*37.88*(-28)
=-15438.46371 KJ/hr
Qtotal = -2356437.187 KJ/hr
MEDIA: - Oxygen
QO2 = -218∫-180mcpdT
T1= -2180c T2= -1800C
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-180
=m[29.10 (38)+1.158*10-2/2][-15124]-0.6076*10-5/3[4528232]
+1.311 *10-9/4](-1208770576)]]
3366338.838=m(1008.664686)
m = 2336.194792 kmol/hr
5.3.4 Heat Exchanger :- 4
QN2 = -29.6∫-57.6ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
57.6
= 3251.08[29(-28)+0.2199 *10-2/2][(57.6)2-(29.6)2]
-0.5723 *10-5/3(57.6)3-(29.6)32.87*10-9/4][(-57.6)4-(29.6)4]-
= -1842538.303 KJ/hr
36
QO2 = -29.6∫-57..6ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-57.6
= 611.244 [29.10(-28)+1.158*10-2/2](2441.6)
-0.6076 *10-5/3(-165168.64 )+ 1.311*10-9/4](10239875.07)
= -489430.5883 KJ/hr
QAr = 29.6∫-57.6ncpdT
= 20.794*37.88*(-28)
= -15438.46371 KJ/hr
Qtotal = -2347407.355 KJ/hr
MEDIA: Oxygen
QO2 = -218∫-180mcpdT
T1= -2180c T2= -1800C
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-180
= m[29.10 (38)+1.158*10-2/2][-15124]
-0.6076*10-5/3[4528232]+1.311 *10-9/4](-1208770576)]]
3353439.078 = m(1008.664686)
m = 2327.24247 kmol/hr
5.3.5 Heat Exchanger:- 5
QN2 = -57.6∫-85.6ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-85.6
= 2275.756[29(-28)+0.2199 *10-2/2][(85.6)2-(57.6)2]
-0.5723 *10-5/3(85.6)3-(57.6)32.87*10-9/4][(-85.6)4-(57.6)4]-
= -1839844.155 KJ/hr
37
QO2 = -57.6∫-85.6ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-57.6
= 611.539[29.10(-28)+1.158*10-2/2](4009.6)
-0.6076 *10-5/3(-436119.04)+ 1.311*10-9/4](42682673.1)
= -483536.4957 KJ/hr
QAr = -57.6∫-85.6ncpdT
= 20.794*37.88*(-28)
= -15438.4637 KJ/hr
Qtotal = -2338819.116 KJ/hr
MEDIA: oxygen
QO2 = -218∫-180ncpdT
T1= -2180c T2= -1800C
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-180
= m[29.10 (38)+1.158*10-2/2][-15124]-0.6076*10-5/3[4528232]
+1.311 *10-9/4](-1208770576)]]
3341170.166 = m(1008.664686)
m = 2318.728055 kmol/hr
5.3.6 Heat Exchanger:- 6
QN2 = -85.6∫-113.6ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-113.6
=2279.957[29(-28)+0.2199 *10-2/2][(113.6)2-(85.6)2]
-0.5723 *10-5/3(113.6)3-(85.6)32.87*10-9/4][(-113.6)4-(-85.61)4]
= -1837782.8 KJ/hr
38
Q02 = -57.6∫-85.6ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-57.6
= 698.9024 [29.10(-28)+1.158*10-2/2](5577.6)
-0.6076 *10-5/3(-838781.44)+ 1.311*10-9/4](112847788)
= -477471.711 KJ/hr
QAR = 85.6∫-113.6ncpdT
=20.794*37.88*(-28)
= 15438.46371 KJ/hr
Qtotal = -2330693.612 KJ/hr
MEDIA: Oxygen
Q02 = -218∫-180ncpdT
T1= -2180c T2= -1800C
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-180
= m[29.10 (38)+1.158*10-2/2][-15124]-0.6076*10-5/3[4528232]
+1.311 *10-9/4](-1208770576)]]
3329562.303 = m(1008.664686)
m = 2310.67236 kmol/hr
5.3.7 Heat Exchanger :-7
QN2 = -113.6∫-141.6nCpdT
=2275.756[29(-28)+0.2199 *10-2/2][(7145.6)- (-1373155.84)]
-0.5723 *10-5/3(-1373155.84)3-2.871*10-9/4](235486963.71)]
= -1836380.243 KJ/hr
39
Q02 = -113.6∫-141.6nCpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-141.6
=611.3576 [29.10(-28)+1.158*10-2/2](7145.6)
-0.6076 *10-5/3(-1373155.84)+ 1.311*10-9/4](235486963.7)]
= -471233.2727 KJ/hr
QAr = 113.6∫-141.6nCpdT
= 20.794*37.88*(-28)
= -15438.46371 KJ/hr
Qtotal = -23203051.5 KJ/hr
MEDIA: Oxygen
Q02 = -218∫-180mCpdT
T1= -2180c T2= -1800C
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-180
= m[29.10 (38)+1.158*10-2/2][-15124]
-0.6076*10-5/3[4528232]+1.311 *10-9/4](-1208770576)]]
3318645.685 = m(1008.664686)
m = 2303.096373 kmol/hr
5.3.8 Heat Exchanger:- 8
QN2 = -141.6∫-169.6nCpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-141.6
= 2275.756[29(-28) +0.2199 *10-2/2][(8+13.6)
-(0.5723 *10-5/3(-209242.24)-2.871*10-9/4](4253519.2)]
= -1835658.67 KJ/hr
40
Q02 = -141.6∫-169.6ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-169.6
= 611.5396 [29.10(-28)+1.158*10-2/2](8713.6)
-0.6076 *10-5/3(-2039242)+ 1.311*10-9/4](425351944.2)]
= -46481.2251 KJ/hr
QAr = -141.s6∫-169.6ncpdT
= 20.794*37.88*(-28)
= -15438.46371 KJ
Qtotal = -2315915.86 KJ/hr
MEDIA: - Oxygen
Q02 = -218∫-180mcpdT
T1= -2180c T2= -1800C
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-180
=m[29.10 (38)+1.158*10-2/2][-15124]
-0.6076*10-5/3[4528232]+1.311 *10-9/4](-1208770576)]]
33084505.573 = m(1008.664686)
m = 2296.021057 kmol/hr
5.3.9 Heat Exchanger:- 9
QN2 = -169.6∫-175ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-175
=2257.756[29(-5.4)+0.2199 *10-2/2][(-175)2 (-169)2
- (0.5723 *10-5/3(-175)2 (-169)3 2.871*10-9/4]((-175)4 (-169)4]
= -353995.8136 KJ/hr
41
Q02 = -169∫-175.6ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-169.6
= 611.5396[29.10(-5.4)+1.158*10-2/2](1860.84)
-0.6076 *10-5/3(-430973.46)+ 1.311*10-9/4](110513724.5)
= -88890.57338 KJ/hr
QAr = -169.6∫-175.6ncpdT
= 20.794*37.88*(-5.4)
= -2977.418002 KJ/hr
Qtotal = -445863.805 KJ/hr
media: - oxygen
Q02 = -218∫-180mCpdT
T1= -2180c T2= -2020C
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-180
= m[29.10 (16)+1.158*10-2/2][-6720]
-0.6076*10-5/3[2117824]+1.311 *10-9/4](-593564160)]]
636948.2928 = m(1008.664686)
m = 1056.03039.685 kmol/hr
42
5.4 Distillation Column:- 1 (Reboiler)
QN2 = -174∫-198ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-175
= 646.485[29(-24)+0.2199 *10-2/2][(-198)2- (174)2]
-0.5723 *10-5/3 ](198)3- (174)3 -2.871*10-9/4]](198)4- (-174)4
= -446971.5312 KJ/hr
Q02 = -174∫-198ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-141.6
= 821.165 [29.10(-24)+1.158*10-2/2](198)2- (174)2)
-0.6076 *10-5/3(-198)4- (174)3) + 1.311*10-9/4](198)4- (174)4)
= -368716.5577 KJ/hr
QAr = -174∫-198ncpdT
= 30.769*20.794*(-24)
= -10748.81784 KJ/hr
Qtotal = -826436.6971 KJ/hr
MEDIA: Oxygen
QAr = -174∫-218ncpdT
T1= -2180c T= -1850C
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-180
= m[29.10 (33)+1.158*10-2/2][-(185)2 *(218)2]
-0.6076*10-5/3][(185)3 (218)]+1.311 *10-9/4](][-(185)4 (218)4]
= m[874.7831947]
1180623.853 = m[874.7831947]
m = 944.7331655 kmol/hr
43
5.5 Interstage Cooler:
QN2 = -188∫-178ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-175
= 1635.676[29(10)+0.2199 *10-2/2][(-178)2- (188)2]
-0.5723 *10-5/3 ](178)3- (188)3 - 2.871*10-9/4] ](178)4- (188)4
= 471187.4885 KJ/hr
Q02 = -188∫-178ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-141.6
=74.1508572 [29.10(-10)+1.158*10-2/2](-3660)
-0.6076 *10-5/3(1004920) + 1.311*10-9/4] (-245322480 )
= 7565.552211 KJ/hr
QAR = -188∫-178ncpdT
= 70105*20.794*(-24)
= -1013.1318959 KJ/hr
Qtotal = 685540.329 KJ/hr
MEDIA: Oxygen
QO2 = -190∫-180m cpdT
T1= -1900c T2= -1800C
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-180
= m[29.10 (10)+1.158*10-2/2][-(180)2 *(-190)2]
-0.6076*10-5/3][(-180)3 (*190)3]+1.311 *10- 9/4](-180)4 (-190)4]
m = 1794.514812 kmol/hr
44
5.6 Distillation Column:- 2(Condenser)
QN2 = -19.5∫-185ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-185
= 2278.5952[29(-10)+0.2199 *10-2/2][(-185)2- (-195)2]
-0.5723 *10-5/3 ](-185)3- (-195)3 -2.871*10-9/4] ](-185)4- (-195)4
= 656430.0966 KJ/hr
Q02 = -195∫-185ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-141.6
= 12.6259[29.10(-24)+1.158*10-2/2](-3800)
-0.6076 *10-5/3(1083250)+ 1.311*10-9/4](-274550000)
= 3367.504 KJ/hr
QAR = -195∫-185ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-185
= 5.28*20.794*10
= -7684.54624 KJ/hr
Qtotal = -660566.1468 KJ/hr
MEDIA: Steam
QAR = -174∫-218ncpdT
T1= -1100c T= -900C
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-90
= m[33.46(10)+0.6880*10-2/2][-(400)]
-0.7604*10-5/3][(-602000)] +3.593*10-9/4][-(-34390000)4]
m = 1887.7803 KJ/hr
45
5.7 distillation Column:- 3(Condenser)
QN2 = -19.5∫-185ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-195
= 111.594[29(-10)+0.2199 *10-2/2][(-195)2- (-185)2]
-0.5723 *10-5/3 ] [(-195)3- (-185)3 - 2.871*10-9/4] [(-195)4-
(-185)4]
= 35306.90128 KJ/hr
Q02 = -185∫-195ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-195.6
= 0.1723 [29.10(-10)+1.158*10-2/2](-3800)
-0.6076 *10-5/3(1083250)+ 1.311*10-9/4](-274550000)
= -32.1683838 KJ/hr
QAR = -185∫-195ncpdT
= 1.11*20.794*10
= -161.56938 KJ/hr
Qtotal = -32342.34415 KJ/hr
MEDIA: Steam
Q02 = -185∫-190ncpdT
m = 97.22109586
46
5.8 Distillation Collumn:-3(Reboiler)
QN2 = -184∫-196ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-196
= 0.1229592[29(-12)+0.2199 *10-2/2][(-196)2- (-184)2]
-0.5723 *10-5/3 ](-196)3- (-184)3 -2.871*10-9/4] ](-196)4-
(-184)4
= -42.726456 KJ/hr
Q02 = -184∫-196ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-195.6
= 338.786 [29.10(-12)+1.158*10-2/2](-4560)
-0.6076 *10-5/3(-1300032)+ 1.311*10-9/4] (-329560320)]
= -108430.5287 KJ/hr
QAR = -184∫-196ncpdT
= 57.733*20.794*10
= -10084.20042 KJ/hr
Qtotal = -11855.4556 KJ/hr
MEDIA: Oxygen
Q02 = 218∫-198ncpdT
T1= -2180c T= -1980C
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-90
= m[29.10(20)+1.15*10-2/2][-8320]
-0.6076*10-5/3][2597840]+1.311*10-9/4] (- 721576960)]
m = 224.402196 kmol/hr
47
5.9 Distillation Column:- 4(Condenser)
QN2 = -186∫-173ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-173
= 0.12047[29(13)+0.2199 *10-2/2][(-173)2- (-186)2]
-0.5723 *10-5/3 ] (-173)3- (-186)3 -2.871*10-9/4] ](-173)4-
(-186)4
= 45.11396431 KJ/hr
QAR = -186∫-173ncpdT
= 56.76*20.794*10
= -10740.4337 KJ/hr
Qtotal = -10891.95054 KJ/hr
MEDIA: Steam
Q02 = -110∫-87ncpdT
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-141.6
= [33.46(-23)+0.6880*10-2/2](-4531)
-0.76074 *10-5/3(1083250)+ [3.593*10-9/4](-89120239)
15559.92934 = m[-786.7911435]
m = 13.84350933 kmol/hr
5.10 Distillation Column:- 5(Condenser)
QN2 = -170∫-175ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-175
= 0.028[29(-5)+0.2199 *10-2/2][(-175)2- (-170)2]
48
-0.5723 *10-5/3 ](-175)3- (-170)3 -2.871*10-9/4] ](-195)4-
(-185)4
= -4.32800694 KJ/hr
Q02 = -170∫-175ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-175
= 0.01958612 [29.10(-5)+1.158*10-2/2](-1725)
-0.6076 *10-5/3(-446375) + 1.311*10-9/4](-102680625)
= -1.692718915 KJ/hr
QAR = -170∫-175ncpdT
= (0.0005857)*(20.794)*(10)
= -0.042262666 KJ/hr
Qtotal = -5.7681462 KJ/hr
MEDIA: Oxygen
QAR = -218∫-203 ncpdT
T1= -2180c T= -2030C
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-203
= m[29.10 (15)+1.158*10-2/2][-6315]
-0.6076*10-5/3[1994805] +1.311 *10-9/4]
(-560348895)]
[-8.240208956] = m[-395.7123506]
m = 0.014576613 kmol/hr
49
5.11 Distillation Collumn:-5(Reboiler):-
QN2 = -167.5∫-170 ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-170
= 0.09226[29(-2.5)+0.2199 *10-2/2][(-170)2- (-197)2]
-0.5723 *10-5/3 ](-170)3- (-167.5)3 -2.871*10-9/4] ](-170)4-
(- 167.5)4
= -6.644032448 KJ/hr
Q02 = -167.5∫-170ncpdT
= n[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-170
= 0.29302 [29(-25)+0.2199*10-2/2](-170)2-(167.5)2
-0.6076 *10-5/3+](-170)3-(167.5)3 1.311*10-9/4](-170)4-
(167.5)4]
= -1975434474 KJ/hr
QAR = -167.5∫-170ncpdT
= 56.76*20.794*(-2.5)
=-2065.46802 KJ/hr
Qtotal = -2091.866397 KJ/hr
MEDIA: Oxygen
Q02 = -218∫-205 ncpdT
T1= -2180c T= -1980C
= m[a +bt2/2 + C T3
/3 +dT4/4]
-205
= m[29.10(13)+1.15*10-2/2][-5499]
-0.6076*10-5/3][1745107] +1.311*10-9/4] (-49242995)]
m = 6.102917637 kmol/hr
50
CHAPTER 6
DESIGNING OF EQUIPMENTS
6.1 Designing of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger :-
Fig 6.1 Heat Exchanger (shell and tube)
t1 = cold fluid inlet temperature, K =298.15 K
t2 = cold fluid outlet temperature,K = 418.15 K
T1 = hot fluid inlet temperature,K = 458.15 K
T2 = hot fluid outlet temperature,K = 423.15 K
Purpose to vaporise the O-xylene by hot fluid i.e medium pressure steam (mps)
Heat gain by the O-xylene , Q = mCPΔT * mL
= (2734*1.764*120)+(2734*0.3418)
= 579836 KJ/h
t1
t2
T2
T1
51
Heat removed by steam, Q = (mCPΔT )
579836 = m*4.187*(185.15-150.15)
= 3956.7 kg/h
Flow rate of steam = 3956.7 kg/h
ΔTLM = log mean temperature difference, K
ΔTLM = (125-40)/ln(125/40)
= 74.56 K
Heat exchanger tube specification :-
O.D = 0.025m
I.D = 0.015m
L= 4.5m
R = (T1-T2)/(t2-t1)
S = (t2-t1)/(T1-t1)
R = 35/120 = 0.2916
S= 120/160 = 0.75
Ft = temperature correction factor
Shell passes = 1
tube passes = 2
By graph , Ft = 0.86
ΔtM= Ft ΔTLM
= 64.12 K
Q = UA FT ΔTLM
From Richardson – coulson -6 , table no- 12.1
Hot fluid = steam ; cold fluid = organic solvent
U= 500-1000 (W/m2̊C)
Assume , U= 500 (W/m2̊C)
So, A = 5m2
52
Fig 6.2 Graphical diagram between ft and S
Surface area of one tube = = DL= 0.391 m2
No. Of tubes requires,NT = 5/0.391 = 13 tubes
Cross sectional area of one tube = ∗= 2.27* 10-4m2
Total tube area = (13 *2.27* 10-4) = 2.95*10-3m2
Triangular pitch , PT = 1.25*DO
= 31.75 mm
Tube passes =2 ; K1= 0.249 ; n1= 2.207
Db= DO*(NT/K1)1/2.207
= 152.58 mm
Tube per pass = NT / 2
= 6.5 = 7
Tube side coefficient :-
Steam mean temp. = (458+423)/2
= 440.5K
Fig 6.2 Graphical diagram between ft and S
Surface area of one tube = = DL= 0.391 m2
No. Of tubes requires,NT = 5/0.391 = 13 tubes
Cross sectional area of one tube = ∗= 2.27* 10-4m2
Total tube area = (13 *2.27* 10-4) = 2.95*10-3m2
Triangular pitch , PT = 1.25*DO
= 31.75 mm
Tube passes =2 ; K1= 0.249 ; n1= 2.207
Db= DO*(NT/K1)1/2.207
= 152.58 mm
Tube per pass = NT / 2
= 6.5 = 7
Tube side coefficient :-
Steam mean temp. = (458+423)/2
= 440.5K
Fig 6.2 Graphical diagram between ft and S
Surface area of one tube = = DL= 0.391 m2
No. Of tubes requires,NT = 5/0.391 = 13 tubes
Cross sectional area of one tube = ∗= 2.27* 10-4m2
Total tube area = (13 *2.27* 10-4) = 2.95*10-3m2
Triangular pitch , PT = 1.25*DO
= 31.75 mm
Tube passes =2 ; K1= 0.249 ; n1= 2.207
Db= DO*(NT/K1)1/2.207
= 152.58 mm
Tube per pass = NT / 2
= 6.5 = 7
Tube side coefficient :-
Steam mean temp. = (458+423)/2
= 440.5K
53
Total flow area = (tube per pass)*(one tube c.s.a)
= 1.59* 10-3 m2
Density Steam = 3.915 kg/m3
Assume , bundle clearance = 500 mm
Ds= 202.458 mm
Baffle spacing = Ds* (0.3)
= 60.73 mm
Fig 6.3 Graphical diagram between bundle diameter and shell inside diameter
Total flow area = (tube per pass)*(one tube c.s.a)
= 1.59* 10-3 m2
Density Steam = 3.915 kg/m3
Assume , bundle clearance = 500 mm
Ds= 202.458 mm
Baffle spacing = Ds* (0.3)
= 60.73 mm
Fig 6.3 Graphical diagram between bundle diameter and shell inside diameter
Total flow area = (tube per pass)*(one tube c.s.a)
= 1.59* 10-3 m2
Density Steam = 3.915 kg/m3
Assume , bundle clearance = 500 mm
Ds= 202.458 mm
Baffle spacing = Ds* (0.3)
= 60.73 mm
Fig 6.3 Graphical diagram between bundle diameter and shell inside diameter
54
6.2 Designing Of Compresser (Air Passing)
m = 4168.06 kmol/hr m = 4168.06 kmol/hr
P1= 1atm P2 = 7 atm
T1= 25̊C T2 = 43.5 ̊C
Fig:- 6.4 compressor
ρair = 1 kg/m3
= (1/28.96) kmol/m3
mair = 4168.06 kmol/hr
qo = volume of gas compressed, std m3/s.
qo = Vair = mair/ ρair
= 33.529 m3/s
Pressure ratio = 7/1 = 7
Ta= inlet temperature, K
PB= power , KW
γ = ratio of specific heat ,cp/cv
Here, assume γ = 1.4
Here, Centrifugal compressor so the ή = 0.82Fluid power , PB = (0.371*Taγqo)/{(γ-1)ή}*[(Pb/Pa)
(γ-1)/γ - 1]
= 11766.20452 KW
Shaft power = fluid power/ή
= 14349.0299 KW
55
CHAPTER-7
FIRE AND SAFETY
7.1 Fire Chemistry:-
The well known “Fire triangle” requires the three ingredients of fire namely fuel,
oxygen and source of ignition. “A fire is a combination of fuel, oxygen and source of ignition”.
7.2 Fire Prevention:-
Fire prevention can be done in three ways:
7.2.1 Eliminate sources of ignition.
7.2.1 Eliminate combustible substances.
7.2.3 Eliminate air excess to combustible substances.
7.2.1 Fire Prevention through Elimination of Ignition Sources:-
To prevent fire the first is to remove the cause of fire. Studies made by fire insurance
company shows that majority of fires are caused by following general sources of ignition:
Electrically limited fire: Improper earthing, short circuiting, loose electrical contacts,
temporary direct connections without proper fittings, high current, over heating of electrical
equipment are among the common cause of electrically initiative fires.
Smoking ignited fire: Smoking or even carrying cigarettes/biddies/matches/lighter etc. in
the following areas is a serious offence. All non-smoking areas should carry “NO SMOKING”
signboards.
Friction and overheated material: In flame proof areas, frictional fires can also be started
by the friction of moving parts of machinery which are overheated due to excess friction. This
is likely in non-lubricated and not well maintained machinery.
56
7.2.2 Fire Prevention Through Elimination Of Combustible Materials:-
Waste and combustible materials: All combustible wastes and materials like waste paper,
cotton waste etc. accumulated after a job should be transported to waste bins and is the
responsibilities of the person doing the job that creates the wastes. Tins and cans of flammable
materials like paints, oils, spirit etc.: These should b handled carefully ensuring that no undue
spillages takes place during their uses and any spillages takes place during their use and any
spillage should be cleaned immediately.
Fueling of vehicle tanks: Engine should be always switched off while fueling a vehicle. If
diesel or petrol spills over during fueling, dry sand should covered over the spill immediately
till only dry sand is visible on the spilled area.
Waste disposal: All combustible waste must be regarded in such a way that can be
disposed off as such and not burnt.
7.2.3 Prevention Through Elimination Oxygen Supply:-
Smoothening: It is a process of covering the burning area with a non-combustible
substance like asbestos or fire proof blanket, wet thick cotton blanket or sand.
7.3 Classification Of Fires:-
Fires are classified according to the nature of fuel burning and fire extinguishing
methods that can be applied and the following is the fire classification under the Indian fire
code.
CLASS “A” FIRE
CLASS “B” FIRE
CLASS “C” FIRE
CLASS “D” FIRE
CLASS “E” FIRE
57
CLASS “A” FIRE: Fires where the burning fuel is a cellulosic material such as wood,
clothing, paper etc. is called class “A” fire.It can be extinguished by the water and sand. Class
“A” fires can also be extinguished by all the available means of extinguishing fires like foam,
soda acid, dry chemical powder, carbon dioxide etc.
CLASS “B” FIRE: Fires where the burning fuel is a flammable liquid Naphtha, petrol etc. are
categorized as class “B” fire. Blanketing is a useful first aid fire control for “B” class fire.
Water is forbidden as a fire fighting means on class “B” fires. Foam, carbon dioxide, dry
chemical powder extinguishers are the desired means of controlling “B” class fires.
CLASS “C” FIRE: Fire involving flammable like natural gases hydrogen are classified as
class “C” fire. The best means of extinguishing “C” type fire is by stopping the gas supply to
the leaking vessels or pipe lines if possible. This must be the intermediate and very first step.
Dry chemical powder and carbon dioxide are useful in controlling “C” class fire.
CLASS “D” FIRE: Fire involving material like magnesium, aluminum, zinc, potassium etc.
are classified as class “D” fire. Sand buckets are useful in most cases of metallic fires. Special
dry chemical powder also works on class “D” fires.
CLASS “E” FIRE: Fires involving electrical equipments are classified as “E” class fires.
Only carbon dioxide and D.C.P extinguishers are used on class “E” fires.
7.4 Fire Fighting Gadgets And Appliances:-
CO2:- It contain under pressurized liquid carbon dioxide.
SODA ACID: - Contain a double container with sodium bicarbonate solution in outer container
and dilute sulphuric acid in the inner container. After the inner container both react and produce
a liquid of entrapped CO2.
FOAM: - Contain aluminous sulphate in inner container and sodium bicarbonate in outer one.
After cracking the container both reacts to produce carbon dioxide and the foam stabilizer
makes stable form of carbon dioxide.
58
DRY CHEMICAL POWDER: - It contains an inert dry chemical powder of sodium
bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate or potassium chloride and diammonium phosphate along
with liquid carbon dioxide under pressure.
HALON/ BROMOCHLOROFLUORO METHANE: -Halon is in the form of a liquid gas
under pressure that is released on pressing the knob.
7.5 Safety Programme :-
The company conducts regular programmes for safety measures, which not only creates
awareness about safety but also maintains it; the fire and safety department of organizes many
programmes to motivate in this direction and to make the employees aware. National safety day
4th march is being celebrated each year with earnestness and includes various awareness
programmes, competitions and includes various awareness programmes, competitions etc. some
of these are listed below:
1. Training programmes on safety.
2. Home safety.
3. Use of safety equipments.
4. Safety quiz.
5. Safety slogan competition.
7.6 Safety Provisions:-
1. Personal protective equipment (PPEs ): The various types of PPEs are:-
Helmet for head protection.
Goggles for eye protection.
Ear plugs and muff for ear protection.
Safety shoes for foot protection.
Gloves for hand protection.
Face shields foot protection.
59
Full body protection suits.
Hoods for head, neck, face, and, eye protection.
Safety belts or life belts or harness.
Breathing apparatus or respiratory protection equipment.
Fencing of machinery.
Devices for cutting of power.
Hoists and lifts.
60
CHAPTER 8
PLANT UTILITIES
The utilities such as water, air, steam, electricity etc. are required for most of the
chemical process industries. These utilities are located at a certain distance from processing
area, from processing area hazardous and storage area etc, where a separate utility department
works to fulfill the utilities requirements.
Steam Generation
Cooling water
Water
Electricity
Compressed air
The utilities required for the plant are summarized as below.
8.1 Steam Generation:
Steam is used in plants for heating purpose, where direct contact with substance is not
objectionable. The steam, for process heating, is usually generated in water tube boiler using
most economical fuel available i.e. coal, fuel oil on the site.
In reboiler of distillation column,drying column and evaporator steam is used at
different temperature depending on requirement.
61
8.2 Cooling Water:
Cooling water is generally produced in plant by cooling towers. Cooling tower is used
to cool the water of high temperature coming from process. Cooling tower mainly decreases
temperature of water from process. There are two types of cooling tower.
8.2.1 Natural Type:
In this cooling tower the water from the process is allowed to fall in a tank. From some
height when falling it comes in contact with an air & gets cool.
8.2.2 Mechanical Type:
They are classified in three types:
Induced draft
Forced draft
Balanced draft
In induced draft a fan is rotating at the bottom while in balanced draft fan is rotating at the
centre. In forced draft a fan rotating at top.
Cooling by sensible heat transfer
Cooling by evaporation
8.3 Water:
The water is required for large industrial as well as general purposes, starting with
water for cooling, washing and steam generation. The plant therefore must be located where a
dependable water supply is available namely lakes, rivers, wells, seas. If the water supply
shows seasonal fluctuations, the temperature, mineral content, slit and sand content,
bacteriological content, and cost for supply and purification treatment must also be considered
when choosing a water supply.
62
8.4 Electricity:
Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants and fuel is ordinarily
required to supply these utilities. Power, fuel and steam are required for running the various
equipment like generators, motors, turbines, plant lightings and general use and thus be
considered, as one major factor is choice of plant site.
63
CHAPTER 9
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
9.1 Environmental Legislation:
Environmental legislation provides a legal tool with which activities affecting the
environment are regulated .these approaches are generally followed:-
Legislation that are limited in scope and deal with only one aspect of environmental
protection such as water pollution control ,air pollution control etc.the law for prevention and
control of the water pollution was enacted in 1974 and one for the prevention and control of air
pollutiomn was enacted in 1981 by the Indian parliament thogh this is piecemeal approach
towards environmental protection ,yet in developing countries like INDIA it is reasonable
policy.it is expected that the stage by stage control of the pollution in different spheres would
ultimately form part of the compressive policy.a proper co ordination of different activities and
the laws governing them is ,however important
Second approach to the environmental protection is comprehensive and deals with all
types of the pollution ,viz water air ,land ,noise ,etc. the laws based on this have to be massive
and the organizations implementing them have necessarily to be big ones
Third approach envisages of environmental protection with national development
planning .this, undoubtly, is the best approach as the environment as a whole is subjected to
national planning .prohibitive and the restricted manner ,in general ,become passive in
character with the passage of time .legislative measures should ,therefore, have a built in
dynamic character and be in the position to direct the activities of the country so as to prevent
them from becoming detrimental to the environment. The environmental ,therefore ,is sought to
be protected in a large measure by national plans of economic development.
64
9.2 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution )Act,1974:
An Act to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the maintaining
or restoring of wholesomeness of water, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out the
purposes aforesaid, of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution, for conferring
on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and for matters
connected therewith.
The central and state water pollution control boards adopted the following use based
classification of waters:-
Table 9.1 Fresh water:
Classification Best use to which it can be put
A DRINKING WATER SOURCES
WITHOUT TREATMENT BUT AFTER
DISINFECTION
B OUTDOOR BATHING
C DRINKING WATER SOURCE WITH
CONVENTIONAL TREATMENT
FOLLOWED BY THE DISINFECTION
D PROPOGATION OF THE WILD LIFE
E IRRIGATION,INDUSTRIAL
COOLING&CONTROLLED WASTE
DISPOSAL
65
Table 9.2 Sea water(including estuaries &tidal waters):
Classification Best use to which it can be put
A Water sport ,shell fishing ,salt pans
B Commercial fishing ,noncontact recreation
C Industrial cooling
D Harbor
E Navigation, controlled waste disposal
9.3 Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution )Act,1981:
The Act is designed to prevent, control and abatement of air-pollution; the provisions
relate to preservation of quality of air and control of pollution. Keeping in view these objects
the Act has provided for measures, which are preventive in nature, in the cases of indusries to
be established; and in the case of indusries already established, they are remedial. In the case of
estblished industries, it insists on obtaining consent of Board, making the industy amenable to
the administrative control of the Board. Once a consent is given, the Board can issue orders,
directions etc; which are to be complied with by the industry.
9.3.1 Bodies Constituted To Enforce The Act:
Central Pollution Control Board constituted under section 3 of the Water (Prevention
and control of Pollution) Act, 1974 was authorized to exercise the powers and performs the
functions for the prevention and control of air pollution.
66
State Pollution Control Boards constituted under section 4 of the Water (Prevention and
control of Pollution) Act, 1974 was authorized to exercise the powers and performs the
functions for the prevention and control of air pollution.
9.3.2 Fuctions Of The Central Control Board Are:
To advise the central government on any matter concerning the improvement of the quality
of air
To plan and cause to be executed a nation wide program foer the prevention and control of
air pollution
To coordinate the activities of the stae board &resolve disputes between them
To lay down standards for the quality of air
To collectand disseminates information concerning matters relating to air pollution
To perform other prescribed function
9.4 Noise Pollution:
Noise pollution has recently been recognized as pollution. There is ample medical
evidence that it affects speech, hearing and the general health and behavior of people exposed
to it over extended periods of time noise due to traffic is the pervasive and is, in the fact, a
controlling factor in combination with an octave band analyzer can be used to determine the
noise level. The community noise level is expressed as a weighed sound pressure level in
decibels dBa the sources of noises in environs of industries include metal fabrication process
,high pressure burners 9in furnaces ,rotary equipments, mobile units like welding machine,
cranes, vehicles, etc. pipeline carrying high velocity fluids and solids and vibrating and
grinding equipments among many other
67
CHAPTER 10
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND MANPOWERREQUIREMENT
10.1 Organizational Structure :-
CEO
General Manager ProductionManagerManager
Finance Manager Manager HumanResoucers
ChiefAccountant
BudgetAnalyst
TrainingSpecialist
BenefitsAdministrator
PlantSupritendent
MaintenanceSupritendent
Cooling
unit
Mechanical unit
Electricalandinstrumentationunit
Fire andsafetyhazard
Skilledlabour
Semiskilledlabour
Unskilledlabour
Skilledlabour
Semiskilledlabour
UnskilledlabourFigure.11.1 : organisation chart
68
10.2 Employees Required:
The following employees are required for the organization
S. No. Post quantity Salary
1) General Manager 1 2,45,000 pm
2) Production Manager 1 2,20,000 pm
3) Finance Manager 1 2,00,000 pm
4) Human Resources Manager 1 2,00,000 pm
5) Sales Manager 1 2,00,000 pm
6) Plant Superintendent 1 1,60,000 pm
7) Maintenance Superintendent 1 1,60,000 pm
8) Chief Accountant 1 1,20,000 pm
9) Accountant 2 1,00,000 pm
10) Chief Budget Analyst 1 1,00,000 pm
11) Budget Analyst 2 80,000 pm
12) Training Specialist 1 1,00,000 pm
13) Benefit Administrator 1 1,00,000 pm
14) HOD Chemical Section 1 2,00,000 pm
15) HOD Mechanical Section 1 2,00,000 pm
16) HOD Electrical Section 1 2,00,000 pm
17) HOD Fire & Safety 1 2,00,000 pm
18) Transportation 2 40,000 pm
19) Chemist 2 x 3shift 30,000 pm
20) Mechanic 2 x 3shift 20,000 pm
21) Electrician 2 x 3shift 20,000 pm
22) Fitter 2 x 3shift 16,000 pm
23) Labours (cleaning, peons etc.,) 15 x 3shift 10,000 pm
24) Security Head 1 x 3 shift 60,000 pm
25) Security Guards 12 x 3shift 16,000 pm
Total employees 129 41,32,000 pm
69
CHAPTER 11
MARKET PROSPECT
11.1 Nitrogen Use Scenario In India:
Nitrogen is one of the major plant nutrients without which the agricultural production is
not possible. Nitrogen use in Indian agriculture was nearly 55000 tons in 1950-1951 that
increased to 11.31 million tons in 2001-2002. The total food production of the country has also
experienced the similar increase from 50.83 to 222 million tons in the respective years.
Interestingly the N fertilizer consumption of India remained almost constant during the last six
years indicating the possibility of reducing N consumption. The highest N consumption is in
North zone owing to the introduction of rice-wheat cropping system followed by West, South
and East. The N use efficiency has been reported to be varying between 30% to 50% depending
on the crops and the management. But in most of the cases, N use efficiency has been
calculated based on the total N removed by the crops (above ground part only) ignoring the N
content left in the roots. It has been observed in controlled experiments that the total N uptake
by roots varied from 18% to 44% of the total N removed by the above ground parts, i.e. grain
and straw. If the root N is also accounted, the N use efficiency will be higher than reported. The
management of other organic sources has to be improved so as to increase the fertilizer use
efficiency as well as to check the direct release of N in the atmosphere. In this review all these
issues will be dealt.
11.2 Oxygen Use Scenario In India:
11.2.1 Introduction:
Oxygen is the second most widely used industrial gas, after nitrogen. It is commonly
accepted to have been discovered by Joseph Priestley in 1774. It constitutes 21 percent of the
Earth's atmosphere and over the past 100 years has grown to be consumed by a wide range of
70
industries, including steel and non-ferrous metals, chemicals, petrochemicals, glass, ceramics,
paper and healthcare.
11.2.2 Market Growth:
The global oxygen market has maintained a steady 5-6 percent growth over the last ten
years. Worldwide oxygen capacity rose from 0.75 to 1.2 million tpd from 1996 to 2006. The
focus of this growth has, however, shifted, with marginal growth in some developed countries
balanced by massive growth in developing economies. The oxygen supply in Western Europe,
for example, has grown by 46 percent over the last ten years, but grew by less than 1 percent
from 2005 to 2006.
Meanwhile, the North Pacific Rim is experiencing significant growth, with a capacity
increase of 16 percent over the last year. This demand for oxygen in such places as China is
confirmed by the recent trend towards gas companies establishing ASU production facilities in
the country together with the high output of plants and equipment by local manufacturers.
We believe it is important to cover two of the major consuming sectors and look at what
trends are taking place that will impact on oxygen demand in the near future. We also address
the swing towards huge oxygen demand from the gas-to-liquids sector.
11.2.3 The Steel Industry:
The largest end-user industry using oxygen is the $1 trillion global steel industry, which
consumes 48 percent of global oxygen output - approximately 580,000 tpd. Of this usage, 60
percent is captive, that is produced and consumed solely by the end-user. The majority is
provided by the industrial gas companies themselves under long-term (usually 15 year) supply
contracts. With such high usage, steel demand is clearly the primary driver for oxygen market
growth.
In steel production, oxygen is used to enrich air, increasing combustion temperatures in
blast and open-hearth furnaces, and to replace coke with other combustible materials. However,
71
technologies have changed over the years and the Electric Arc Furnace and mini-mills are
gaining increasing popularity as a production method. At the real tonnage end of production,
direct coal injection, direct reduction furnaces and other technologies are being used to improve
efficiency and scale.
Common to all technologies is the fact that the consumption of oxygen per ton of crude
steel produced has continued to rise. In the 1970s it was common to see oxygen demand
running at 15 cubic metres per ton of steel produced. This rose on average to 25 m3/ton in the
1980s, and then further to 35m3/ton in the 1990s. Some technologies now being introduced
across the world require in excess of 100 m3/ton produced.
In China, the industry is trying to modernise its steel production facilities in order to
improve both efficiency and quality. Eastern Europe or, more appropriately, the former Soviet
Union, is also an interesting market as there is a large amount of oxygen capacity linked to steel
production but this has been under utilised since the break-up until recently. 98 percent of the
installed capacity is captive but it appears that the trend is moving towards outsourcing to the
gas companies - see recent Linde, Air Liquide and Cryogenmash announcements.
With the current rise in steel demand driven by construction and infrastructure projects
around there will be a continuing trend towards higher oxygen demand from the steel sector for
the next 5 years at least.
11.2.4 Chemicals:
The second largest end-user industry for oxygen is the chemicals industry, which
includes refined products, petrochemicals, agrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, polymers, pigments
and oleochemicals. The industry 19 per cent of the worldwide oxygen demand. 40 percent of
this is through on-site supply schemes. It manufactures a diverse range of materials and
products. The largest sector by turnover is the pharmaceuticals industry, followed by three main
groups: chemicals, specialist and products.
72
But how is the chemical industry performing? On a global level the industry is about a
US$2 trillion-dollar business that has been enjoying an upward growth trend at about 3-4
percent annually, since 1994. Mature markets such as Europe, US and Japan remain the largest
markets with Europe boasting $628 billion annual sales followed closely by the US with annual
sales of $506 billion, Japan $225 billion and China $184 billion.
However, it is clear that the strongest growth in production capacity (which will impact
on oxygen demand) derives once again from emerging regions such as Asia Pacific and Latin
America where multinational companies are building production facilities in order to meet
increased demand. China in particular is a good example of above average annual growth rates
of up to 14 per cent due to economic growth and GDP, compared to Europe which is ticking
along at three per cent per year growth.
Despite the overall positive upward trend, the European Chemical Industry Council is
worried over the future of European global competitiveness. This concern is caused by high
growth demand in Asia, increasing imports into Europe from Asia and Middle East,
delocalisation of customer industries, high production cost and an increasingly regulated
environment.
According to the Council, China is taking an increasing share of global chemicals
production. A spokesman stated: $quot;The region's rate of industrial production exceeds that
of the rest of the world. In addition, given its focus on agriculture, manufacturing and durable
goods, there is a higher demand for chemicals than in developed economies. A third factor is
the dynamism in the emerging countries of industries such as electronics/electrical, textiles,
construction, leather, and plastics processing. These sectors are very important end-users of
chemicals.
According to the spokesman, the mature markets are concerned that manufacturers are
moving to other regions of the world, such as the Middle East, which offers producers both
large-scale and low-cost production due to easy access to raw materials and cheaper labour.
73
Producers also want to get closer to their customer base and the Middle East offers all the
advantages to fulfil these requirements.
As a consequence, Europe's exports have dried up and it has become a major importer
of chemicals over the past two decades. This has lead to major mergers among the European
players to maintain competitiveness and a global presence. The situation hasn't been helped
either by the high energy prices in Europe or sudden high gas prices in the States.
Just five years ago, the chemical industry in Europe thought they would stay in business
by becoming a specialised chemical producer rather than remain a commodity supplier. The
Council, however, think the chemicals industry has turned a full circle. Special chemicals can
be produced and supplied cheaply from India and China, and fine chemical manufacturers have
realised that price is not everything. They have started to value other things like quality and
environmental issues. Their challenge is now to create tighter relationships with their
customers, generating loyalty and uneasiness to change suppliers.
11.2.5 What Future Does This Have For Oxygen Demand For Chemicals:
Commodity chemicals needed for consumer materials will be produced where the cost
base is low - hence the huge project activity in the Middle East. Ethylene crackers in excess of
1 million tons are being built, together with the associated downstream derivatives, some of
which will need oxygen in their processes, for example EDC/VCM and ethylene glycol. Just
look at the increase in oxygen capacity that has occurred over the past decade in Saudi Arabia
alone - over 8,000 tpd of oxygen is consumed in the petrochemicals sector.
Oxygen demand is growing even faster than that as the abundance of low cost natural
gas and ethane is leading to other major petrochemical production investments - such as
methanol. Mega-methanol technology can follow one of two routes - one is oxygen intensive
and we have seen some major plants installed in Iran in the past 5-6 years with associated large
oxygen capacity.
74
It will be interesting to see the development of chemicals production elsewhere around
the world. For example Russia has huge natural gas reserves but much of the gas fields are
land-locked and far from the demand centres such as China, Europe and the US. Development
of these reserves to chemicals output will occur but at a slower rate than the Middle East - with
one possible exception in Sakhalin Island.
75
CHAPTER 12
SITE SELECTION AND PROJECT LAYOUT
12.1 Site Selection:
The geographical location of the final plant can have a strong influence on the success
of an industrial venture. Much care must be exercised in choosing the plant site and many
different factors must be considered. Primarily the plant should be located where the minimum
cost of production and distribution can be obtained. The Location of the plant can have a
crucial effect on the profitability of a project, and the scope for future expansion. Many factors
must be considered.
An appropriate idea as to the plant location has to be obtained before a design project
reaches the detailed estimate stage. A firm location established upon the completion of detailed
estimate design. The factors which are considered for choosing a plant size are:
1)-Raw Material:
One of the main factors is the availability and price of suitable raw materials which
often determines the site location. Plants producing bulk chemicals are best located close to the
source of the major raw material; where this is also close to the marketing area.
2)-Market:
It affects the cost of product and market distribution and time for shipping nearby
market for by-product as well as the final products.
76
3)-Energy Availability:
Power requirements and steam requirement are high in most industries and fuel or
electricity are required to supply the utilities.
4)-Climate:
Extreme hot and cold weather and excessive humidity can have a serious effect on the
economic operation of the plant.
5)-Transportation Facilities:
Water, Rail Roads and highways are the common means of transportation used by
means of transportation used by many industrial concerns. The kind of raw material and
production determine the most kind of transportation. A site should have access to at least two
modes of transport between the plant and main office and transportation facilities for employees
are also desirable.
6)-Water Supply:
The process industries use large quantities of water for cooling, washing, steam
generation and as well as raw material. The plant therefore requires a dependable supply of
water. The temperature, mineral content, silt or sand content, bacteriological content and cost
for the purification treatment must also be considered when choosing a water supply.
7)-Water Disposal:
The site selected for a plant should have adequate capacity and facilities for effective
waste removal.
77
8)-Labour Supply:
The type and supply of labour availability in the vicinity of a proposed plant site is to
be examined.
9)-Taxation and Legal Restrictions:
State and local tax rate on property, income, unemployment, insurance and similar
items various from location to another.Similarily local regulations on zone building codes and
effects. Transportation facilities also affect the final choice of plant site.
10)-Site Characteristics:
The site characteristics of topography and structure must be considered also land,
building cost, expansion area should also be considered.
11)-Flood and Fire Protection:
The risk to floods, hurricane, and earthquakes should be accessed. Fire department
should be nearby and loss fire hazards should be there.
12)-Community Factors:
The character and facilities of a community also affects the location of the plant.We
have selected the upper western coastal Region and Northern Plains because of the above
reasons.
78
12.2 Plant layout for Cryogenic Air Separation:
There are some consideration from the above points regarding the site establishment of
our plant so the most favorable site is the coastal site that is near the sea as from there the raw
materials are easily available, so regarding this the most suitable site for the establishment of
this plant is the Gujarat ‘s Ahmadabad as there the raw material that is Air is easily available.
Layout of the plant must arrangement for processing areas, and leading areas, in
efficient coordination and with regard to such factor as
1. New site development
2. Future expansion plans
3. Economic distribution of services water, process steam, power and gas/
4. Weather condition- if amendable to outdoor condition
5. Safety consideration- possible hazards of fire, explosion and fumes.
6. Waste disposal.
The layout should be such that the very aim of effective construction planning and
solving in engineering design construction, operating and maintenance cost is achieved.
12.2.1 Roadways:
For multipurpose service following factors must be taken into account
a. A means for intersection movement for road traffic both prod strain and vehicular.
b. Routing of heavy traffic outside the operation area.
c. Roadways for access to initial construction, maintenance and repair points.
d. Roadways to isolated point, storage tanks and safety equipment.
12.2.2 Utilities Services:
The distribution of water, steam, power and electricity is not always a major item, in as
much as the flexibility of distribution of these services permit design to meet almost any
79
condition. But a title regard for the proper placement each of these services, aids in case of
operation, order lines and reduction in cost of maintenance.
12.2.3 Storage:
Hazardous material become a decided menace to life and property when stored in large
quantities and should consequently isolated arranging storage of material so as to facilitate or
simply handling is also a point to be considered in design. Be bides, a great deal of plant layout
is governed by local and national safety fire code requirements. Expansion must always be kept
in mind. Selection of building and floor space are also points to be considered in designing
layout.
12.2.4 Equipment Layout:
In making layout, sample space should be assigned to each piece of equipment,
accessibility is an important factor for maintenance unless a process is well seasoned, it is not
always possible to predict just how its various units may have to be changed in order to be in
harmony with each other it is well known that in chemical manufacturing processes may be
adopted which may be appear to be sound after reasonable amount of investigation in the plant
stage yet frequently require minor or even major changes before all parts are property operating
together. It is extremely poor economy to fit the equipment layout too closely into a building. A
slightly larger building than appears necessary will cost little more than one is crowded. The
relative levels of the several pieces of equipment and there accessories determined there
placement. For example, overhead equipment must have space for lowering into place, and heat
exchanger equipment should be located near access area where truck or hoists can be placed for
pulling and replacing tune bundles. Thus space should be provided for repair and replacement
equipment, such gases and forked trucks, and snow removal, as well as acess way around doors
and underground notches.
80
12.2.5 Plant Expansion:
Expansion must always be kept in mind. The question of multiplying the number of
units or increasing the size of the prevailing units or units merits more study than it can be
given here. Suffice it to say that one must exercise engineering judgment; that has a penalty for
bad judgment scrapping of present serviceable equipment constitutes but one phase for shut
down due to remodeling may involve a greater loss of money than that due to rejected
equipment nevertheless, the cost of change must sometimes be borne for the economics of
larger units may in end make replacement imperative.
12.3 Organizational Structure:
Major submission of activities in an industrial enterprise may be characterized as
follows-
1) Managerial- planning, or gazing integrating, controlling and measuring.
2) Technical- research, development, engineering construction maintenance and
production.
3) Commercial- purchasing and marketing.
4) Financial- securing finds investigating and accounting.
Managing is a scientific kind of work which requires knowledge and understand of a set of
basic principle. Management visualized as compressing four principle sub function.
1) Planning- determines the objective of enterprise and basic policies and procedures.
2) Organizing- designing and manning the organization structure in keeping the objectives
and work to be done.
3) Integrating- achieving effective and efficient utilization of the resources of a business
through leadership, coordination, control and training of people at all levels.
4) Measuring- recording and interpreting critical performance data in order to better
accomplish function 1,2 and 3 above.
81
The organization function may be elaborated further as follows-
1) Classifying the total work into primary types such as research, engineering.
2) Dividing the work load so classified into amenable components and jobs.
3) Grouping like work into components comprising an orderly organization structure.
4) Define responsibility for performance of each component and job compensate and
assigned and delegated authority.
5) Fitting individual to jobs according to there capability.
The organization structure depends very much on objective size complexity and degree of
dispersion of enterprise. With change in circumstances change in organization structure may be
indicated.
Organization structure may be classes as-
(1) Centralized
(2) Decentralized
The centralized form is suitable for small, medium, sometime large, in which each
major function is manageable by one research director, all manufacture by one director of
manufacture, all sales by one director of sales, and so on responsibility of coordinating various
function being in the office of general manager.
Under decentralization, a company’s operations are subdivided according to product,
technology, geography, or fields of sale. The number of subdivisions may vary from up to score
or more. In any organization even the extreme degree of decentralization, a certain minimum of
central organization is needed. In addition the executive office there is for central staff officer,
groups and departments in various fields, such as treasury, law employee and public relations,
planning and soon.
An important point to be kept in mind in connection with small size requires capable
talents if success is to be achieved and sustained quite as much as in large enterprise. It is also a
82
principle that in all except the most extra ordinary circumstances the diverse talents necessary
for successful industrial management are not possessed by one person . Not only is the team
management usually better the one man ruling, but it’s provides for the succession in event of
death, in capacity or retirement
83
CHAPTER 13
COST ESTIMATION
13.1 Total Equipment Cost:
13.1.1 Cost Estimation Of Distillation Column :
Cost in year 2002=Rs 1240910
Cost index in year 2002=1116.90
Cost index in year 2014=1322.56
Cost of Distillation unit in 2014=(cost in year 2002)*(cost index ratio in 2012to2002)
=1240910*1322.56/1116.9
=Rs 1469404
Cost of five distillation column in 2014=7347018
13.1.2 Cost Estimation Of Reboiler:
Cost in year 2002=Rs 1045910
Cost index in year 2002=1116.90
Cost index in year 2014=1322.56
Cost of Reboiler in 2014=(cost in year 2002)*(cost index ratio in 2012to2002)
=1045910*1322.56/1116.9
=Rs 1238498
Cost of five reboilers in 2014=Rs 6192490
13.1.3 Cost Estimation Of Condenser :
Cost in year 2002=Rs 354546
Cost index in year 2002=1116.90
Cost index in year 2014=1322.56
Cost of Condenser in 2014=(cost in year 2001)*(cost index ratio in 2012to2001)
84
=354546*1322.56/1116.9
=Rs 419830
Cost of six condenser in 2014=Rs 2518978
13.1.4 Cost Estimation Of Pump :
Cost in year 2002=Rs 957273
Cost index in year 2002=1116.9
Cost index in year 2014=1322.56
Cost of Pump in 2014=(cost in year 2002)*(cost index ratio in 2012to2002)
=957273*1322.56/1116.9
=Rs 5667699
13.1.5 Cost Estimation Of Compressors :
Cost in year 2002= Rs 1090910
Cost index in year 2002= 1116.9
Cost index in year 2014= 1322.56
Cost of Compressor in 2014=(cost in year 2002)*(cost index ratio 2012 to 2002)
= 1090910*1322.56/1116.9
= Rs 1291784
13.1.5 Cost Estimation Of Storage Tank:
Cost in year 2002=Rs 42546
Cost index in year 2002=1116.9
Cost index in year 2014=1322.56
Cost of Storage tank in 2014=(cost in year 2002)*(cost index ratio in 2012to2002)
=42546*1322.56/1116.9
=Rs 50380
85
Cost of three storage tanks in 2014=151140
Therefore total purchase equipment cost=Rs 23169109+8883378
=Rs 32052487
13.2 Estimation Of Total Investment Cost:
13.2.1 Direct Cost (DC):
1. Purchased Equipment Cost (PEC)= Rs 32052487
2. Installation Cost Taking a 25% of PEC
Installation Cost = Rs 8013122
3. Insulation cost taking 8% of PEC
Insulation cost= Rs 2564199
4. Instrumentation Cost & Control Cost taking 10% of PEC
Instrumentation Cost& Control Cost = Rs 3205249
5. Piping Installed Cost taking a 20% of PEC
Piping Installed Cost = Rs 6410497
6. Electrical & Installed Cost Taking a 10% of PEC
Electrical & Installed Cost = Rs 3205249
7. Building Process, Auxiliary Cost taking a 10% of PEC
Building Process & Auxiliary Cost = Rs 3205249
8. Yard Improvement taking 20% of PEC
Service Facilities = Rs 6410497
9. Land Taking a 10% of PEC
Land Cost = Rs 3205249
Total direct cost = Rs 68271798
86
13.2.2 Indirect Cost:
1. Engineering & Supervision Cost taking 10% of DC
Engg.& Supervision Cost = Rs 6827180
2. Construction Expenses & Contractor’s Fee taking a 10% of DC
Expenses & Contractor’s Fee = Rs 6827180
Total Indirect Cost = Rs 13654360
13.3 Working Capital:
Working Capital (WC) taking 35%of TCI,
So, Working Capital , WC= 0.35TCI
But, Total capital investment, TCI= FCI+ WC
So, FCI = 0.65 TCI
FCI = DC+IDC
FCI =Rs 81926158
Now, We can calculate the value of TCI
TCI = Rs 126040243
WC= Rs 44114085
13.4 Estimation Of Total Product Cost:
Manufacturing Cost = Direct Product Cost + Fixed Charges + Plant Overhead
13.4.1 Fixed Charges:
1.Depreciation:- There are four types of depreciation is used in the industries. But we are using
straight line depreciation method for determining the depreciation on the Equipment,
Instrumentation & Piping.
87
Here we are taking salvage value 8% of the cost of Equipment, Instrumentation, & Piping.
NOW,
1.Depreciation on equipments
= (equipment cost – salvage value)/working years
= (32052487 – 0.08*32052487)/20
= Rs 1474415
2.Depreciation on Piping
= (Piping cost – salvage value)/year
= (6410497– 0.08*6410497)/20
= Rs 294883
3. Local Taxes
Local Taxes taking 1% of FCI
= Rs 819262
3) Insurance
Insurance taking 0.5% of FCI
= Rs 409631
Total fixed cost = Rs 2998191
Total Production cost (TPC):-
TPC=Manufacturing cost + General Expencess
TPC=(Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead cost) + (0.1 TPC + 0.1 TCI)
TPC=(0.66TPC + 2998191 + 0.15 TPC) + (0.1 TPC + 0.1 TCI)
0.09 TPC=2998191 + 0.1*126040243
TPC = Rs 173357948
88
13.4.1.1 Direct Production Cost:
1).Raw Material Cost =30% of TPC
Total cost of raw material = Rs 37812073
2).Utilities Cost =10% of TPC
Total utilities cost =Rs 12604024
3).Operating Labour cost = 15% of TPC
TotalOperating Labour cost =Rs 18906037
4).Plant &Royalties = 5% of TPC
TotalPlant &Royalties cost =Rs 6302012
5). Direct Supervisory & Electrical labour cost= 15% operating labour
TotalDirect Supervisory & Electrical labour cost=Rs 2835906
6).Operating Supply Cost
Operating Supply Cost = 1%of FCI
= Rs 819262
7).Laboratory charges= 15% of operating labour cost
=Rs 2835906
8).Maintenance & Repair Cost
Maintenance & Repair Cost = 2.2% of FCI
= Rs 1802376
9).Plant overhead cost
Taking 15% of maintenance cost
= Rs 26003692
Total manufacturing cost = Rs112919479
89
13.5 Profit Analysis for the Project:
13.5.1 Earning:
Total Gross Earning = Total Income- Total Product Cost
For determining the total gross earning, we know
Annual methanol production = 18000 TPA
Selling Price = 14.5 Rs/kg
Annual Income =18000*1000*14.5
= Rs 261000000
Taking 90%annual sale
Total annual income =Rs 234900000
Gross Earning = Annual Total Income – Total Production Cost
= (234900000- 173357948)
= Rs61542052
Net Profit = Gross earning – Taxes
Taking tax 40% of gross earning
=61542052-0.40*61542052
Taxes = Rs 24616821
Profit:-
Net profit = Rs 36925231
Annual rate of return (ROR) = (Net profit /T.C.I.)*100
= (36925231/126040243)*100
= 29.29%=30%
13.5.2 Pay Back Period:
Pay back period = Total capital investment / Net profit
=126040243 / 36925231
= 3.414 year
≈ 4 year
90
13.5.3 Breakeven Calculation:
Breakeven cost per kg = F.C.I./Production capacity in kg
= 8192658/18000*1000
= 4.55 Rs/kg
General expenses = 10% of T.C.I. + 10% of TPC
=0.10*126040243 + 0.10*173357948
= Rs 29939819
Production per year (n)
=(Sum of plant overhead cost+Depreciation+General expenses)/(14.5-4.55)
=(26003692+ (1474415+294883)+29939819)/(14.5-4.55)
=57712809/(14.5-4.55)
(n) = 5800283kg
Breakeven point = (n/Total production)*100
= (5800283/18000*1000)*100
= 32.22% of capacity
91
13.5 Breakeven Chart:
Fig. 13.1 Break even chart
13.5 Breakeven Chart:
Fig. 13.1 Break even chart
13.5 Breakeven Chart:
Fig. 13.1 Break even chart
92
13.6 Cash flow chart:-
Net cash flow to the project
Income tax=Rs 2.462*107 Net profit after taxes= Rs 3.693*107
Net profit before taxes= Rs 3.693*107
Total sales=Rs 2.349*108Cost of operation =Rs 1.734*108
T.C.I= Rs 1.261*108
loans
Loan
Other capital input bonds common stock preferred stock
Operation for
Complete project
W.C.I=Rs 4.4114*107
Stockholdersdividend
F.C.I=Rs 8.193*107
Otherinvestment
Capital
Source
and
Sink
Repaymentof loans
93
CHAPTER 14
SUMMARY
This project describes the cryogenic air separation to its components (Nitrogen,
Oxygen and Argon). A special attention was devoted to the separation of argon. In theoretical
part we included information about air properties, separation process, air cooling, air
clearing, distillation of air, products of air and their application and other aspects of air
separation.
In practical parts we have described: Thermodynamic of air separation, in this section
the Peng‐Robinson state equation for calculation of equilibrium coefficient of nitrogen and
oxygen system was used. And also the isobaric t, xy and x,y diagrams of N2‐O2 and Ar‐O2
binary systems at different pressures were analyzed. After that we Calculated air distillation by
McCabe‐Thiele method, and Enthalpy balance of reboiler and total condenser was done.
Aspen simulation of air separation process forms the core of this work. The process
flowsheet including heat exchange and cryogenic separation was designed. Material and
enthalpy balance calculations in steady state were made for all basic process equipment. The
work contents the results of process simulation including results of material and enthalpy
balances, temperature and composition profiles in all columns. The optimal parameter of
distillation column such as reflux ratio, number of theoretical stages and feed stages were set.
Mechanical calculation of air distillation tower, safety aspects of air distillation process,
Principles of control of air distillation columns are another chapters of this work. And finaly the
economy of air distillation process is evaluated. Using Aspen Economic evaluation the
investment costs of air distillation process was estimated. The operational costs of the proces
were obtained based on the literature information and Afghanistan conditions.
94
CHAPTER 15
CONCLUSION
An air separation plant processing 4168.06 kmol/hr of air to the basic air
components Nitrogen (3247.02 kmol/hr), Oxygen (817.708 kmol/hr) and Argon (56.77 kmol/
hr) was designed. Purity of produced Nitrogen is 99.275% and Oxygen is 99.49 % and
purity of Argon 99 %. A system of 5 distillation towers was designed for separation of
air into Nitrogen, Oxygen and Argon.
From the thermodynamic analysis of binary isobaric diagrams of the systems
N2‐O2 and Ar‐O2 results that cryogenic separation of Nitrogen and Oxygen and also
separation of Nitrogen from Argon is not very difficult, but separation of Argon from
Oxygen can require large number of theoretical stages and large value of reflux ratio.
Argon is separated in the last two columns. A side stream reached with Argon is
drawn out from the top part of the column C2. In column C3 a mixture of Argon and
Nitrogen is distillated from Oxygen, which is removed from the bottom of this column.
The mixture of Nitrogen and Oxygen is separated in the column C4. The purity and
recovery of Argon beside conditions in columns C3 and C4 can be influenced also by
different factors in columns C1 and C2, such as distillate rate of column C1, side stream
stage, and reflux ratio in the column C2. The influence of these parameters was investigated.
From the economic evaluation of the process results that the cost of basic
equipments for air distillation process is around 30 millions USD, However the energy
consumption of the process is very high.
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