AIRJay Cheong Jia Hui#599939

2014Journal

Hi I’m Jay, a second year Architecture student at the University of Melbourne. I’ve always enjoyed drawing, experimenting with art materials and reading about architecture, but I was unsure of studying architecture as I’ve heard how tough it is. Fortunately my studies here so far have assuaged those doubts, thanks to the stimulating environment created by my tutors and peers.

I have some experience with Adobe Photoshop and Indesign, AutoCAD, Google SketchUp and Rhino. I’d like to learn Grass-hopper to a degree of proficiency and possibly improve my Rhi-no skills as well. My knowledge of digital architecture consists mostly of the flashy buildings done by Zaha Hadid and Frank Gehry - buildings that I find easier to appreciate when I think of them as art rather than architecture. I’m aware that design pro-grammes may end up dictating as opposed to inspiring one’s design, so I hope to navigate those tricky waters successfully during the course of this subject.

JAY CHEONGJ I A HU I#599939

INTRODUCTION

Studio Water elevation of Alvaro Siza’s Viana do Castelo Library

1

A.1.

A.2.

A.3.

A.4.

A.5.

-

Design Futuring

Design Computation

Composition/Generation

Conclusion

Learning outcomes

Bibliography

pp. 3-12

pp. 13-20

pp. 21-28

pp. 29

pp. 30

pp. 31-32

C O N T E N T P A G E

2

PRECEDENT STUDY:NAWT BALLOONS

This design proposal by Kelley, Norman & Fugate (2012) uses vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWT) - as opposed to the more traditional hori-zontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) - to generate energy. Minuscule, hair follicle-like vertical turbines are applied to the surfaces of balloons, then set to the skies to capture and convert wind energy1.

This Land Art Generator Initiative (LAGI) 2012 competition entry was chosen firstly because the layout of the presentation and the graphics caught my eye. Secondly, the technology utilised in the proposal was interesting, where the designers proposed to use vertical wind turbines over the more commonly found horizontal wind turbines, such as wind-mills. Subsequently I will evaluate this proposal based on the three key tenets of the LAGI brief, in which the art installation should:

1) Generate clean energy from nature2) Inspire and stimulate visitors at the site3) Relate to the site

Image source: Thomas Kelley and others, ‘NAWT Balloons’, <http://normankelley.us/index.php?/project/nawt-balloon/>

A.1. Design Futuring

3

4

Placing large balloons across Freshkills Park would make an interesting sight. Visitors cannot interact physically with the NAWT balloons, but can appreciate them from a distance. There was little, if any justification for the form of the NAWT balloon which assumes the typical, tear-dropped shape of a regular balloon. It would have been better if the designers had done more research about the ideal shape and distribution of vertical wind turbines that would generate the optimal amount of energy.

As many tiny, needle-like vertical wind turbines are spread over the surface of a balloon, the authors have named the project “Normal Axis Wind Turbine (NAWT) Bal-loons”, where each turbine is placed normal to a balloon’s sur-face. The proposal fulfills a key part of the brief, as a Type A NAWT bal-loon can produce 416,022kWh of energy when wind velocity is 7vw.1

The technical problems that may be encountered when placing many wind turbines close together appear to be resolved, as seen in Figure 2.1 under “staggered or-ganisation”.

However, the authors did not seem to consider the technical implica-tions of arranging multiple balloons together, as seen in Figure 3.2. It appears that functionality has been sacrificed for the aesthetic in this case, as the turbines of one NAWT balloon could be an obstacle to another when producing energy, particularly when the balloons are arranged close together.

Furthermore, the electric generator was glossed over in the proposal. An advantage of vertical wind tur-bines is that its generators can be placed on ground, allowing for easy accessibility.2 However, there is no mention of any safety precau-tions taken, in which the generator could be an obstruction or pos-sible danger to visitors.

Does the art installation harness clean energy from nature?

Does the art installation relate to the site?

The site for the installation is Fresh-kills Park in New York, where the area used to be a landfill.3 Apart from harnessing the wind of the area, there appears to be no rela-tion to the site. It is good that there is minimal disturbance of the sur-rounding environment because the vertical wind turbines are airborne, but there is a strong case for ar-guing that these NAWT balloons could be placed anywhere, not simply on Freshkills Park.

Freshkills Park is divided into five main areas: the Confluence, the North Park, South Park, East Park and West Park.3 Each main area has a key theme or idea. However, in Figure 3.4, only the North and East Park are proposed to be de-veloped. No reason is given for this or the seemingly random place-ment of NAWT balloons. It would have been interesting if the design-ers had done something different with the wind turbines in each area of Freshkills Park, such as to have the wind turbines correspond to the theme of each area in the park.

Does the art installation inspire and stimulate visitors?

A.1. Design Futuring

1Thomas Kelley, Carrie Norman & Sarah Jazmine Fugate, ‘N.A.W.T Balloons’, <http://normankelley.us/index.php?/project/nawt-balloon/>2TMA Global Wind Energy Systems, ‘Global Wind Energy Systems’, <http://www.tmawind.com>3City of New York, ‘Freshkills Park’, <http://www.nycgovparks.org/park-features/freshkills-park>

5

Image 1: NAWT Balloons, selected projectboards1

6

A.1. Design Futuring

PRECEDENT STUDIES:A QUICK LOOK AT

OTHER LAGI ENTRIESThe following three examples apply three different types of energy generation techniques in their design: photovoltaic panels, solar panels and wind kites.

7

H E L I O F I E L D | Photovoltaic panels are raised on stilts to capture sunlight4. I like the idea of raising the panels, thereby creating shelter for visitors to the park. However, as an art installation it leaves more to be desired as the form and con-struction of the shelter is very simple.

C L O U D F I E L D | There are 3 ‘clouds’ which are created from a diamond-shaped grid. Each cloud serves a different purpose, where one is covered in solar panels, another in vegetation and the last in a waterproof membrane5. Compared to Heliofield, the form of this art installation is more interesting, but only one out of three clouds generates energy. The authors of this project probably should have focused solely on solar energy instead.

S O C K FA R M | This project harnesses both wind and solar energy. Wind kites are used to capture wind energy, but as this technology is supposedly new, the main source of energy generation is a greenhouse clad in photovoltaic panels6. The visual of the wind kites being set to the skies is pretty striking and it is an interesting technology, but again I think the project could be improved had the authors focused on a single energy generation technique instead.

4Michael Chaveriat, Yikyu Choe & Myung Kweon Park, ‘Heliofield’, <http://landartgenerator.org/LAGI-2012/mc19ad83/>5Elcin Ertugrul, Katherine Moya, Carlos Alegria & Joaquin Boldrini, ‘Cloudfield’, <http://landartgenerator.org/LAGI-2012/1vagewdc/> 6Nandini Bagchee, Artur Dabrowski & Andrew Swingler, ‘Sock Farm’, <http://landartgenerator.org/LAGI-2012/SOC26010/>

Image 2.1: Heliofield4

Image 2.2: Cloudfield5

Image 2.3: Sock farm6

8

ENERGY STUDY:ALGAE BIOFUELS

The location for the 2014 Land Art Generator Competition is in Copen-hagen, Denmark. The site is reclaimed land surrounded by water.7 Al-gae biofuels have been chosen for analysis because it grows in water - even saltwater and in poor conditions - and require some sunlight.8

7Land Art Generator Initiative, ‘Competition (2014)’, <http://landartgenerator.org/competition.html>8Bionavitas, ‘Frequently Asked Questions’, <http://www.bionavitas.com/faqs.html>Image source: Protists in Singapore, ‘Algae’ <http://sgprotist.wordpress.com/the-guide/algae/green-algae/green-alga-cf-oogonium-10x-dsc_1513/>

A.1. Design Futuring

9

10

M E C H A N I S MAlgae are grown with sunlight, water, carbon dioxide and a few inorganic nutrients. It is then deprived of nutri-ents before being harvested so as to produce a greater oil yield. The oil is then extracted from algae and treated, and can be burnt like a fossil fuel to produce energy. Although this biofuel-burning process generates carbon dioxide (CO2), CO2 is also removed from the atmosphere when algae photosynthesises.9

B U I LT E X A M P L E SCompared to solar and wind technology, algae biofuel is a considerably newer method of obtaining energy and has not been integrated into building and construction as much.10 Nevertheless, there have been some ex-amples, such as the Bio-Intelligent Quotient Building in Germany that integrated algae into its façade. The algae is harvested in the façade so as to create biofuel, which is then burnt to heat and shade the building.10

E X I S T I N G T E C H N O L O G YAlgae bioreactors are commonly used to cultivate algae and ultimately produce biofuels. Open-air algae ponds are less popular, because it can be contaminated by other species and requires more resilient strains of al-gae.11 The Grow Energy Company has designed algae bioreactors in the form of panels, which can produce energy when used as cladding for a building. In addition, unlike solar panels and wind turbines, it is manufactured in a non-polluting manner.9

10 DAYS

50% MORE“Just like people, the more Doritos you eat, the more fat you produce. In the case of algae, the more carbon dioxide, the more lipids (oils) it pro-duces and, therefore, the more energy it produces.”

The time taken for algae to be grown and harvested12

Algae fuel can produce twice the amount of energy than corn ethanol, the leading source of biofuel12

-Anica Landreneau, sustainable design and con-sulting leader at Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum Ar-chitecture10

Image 3: BIQ Building in Germany uses algae panels to generate energy for use in the building10

Image 4: Proposed public art installation in the U.S. involving algae that pro-duces energy then used to light up the installation13

9Grow Energy, ‘The Verde System’, <http://www.growenergy.org/verde/>10The New York Times, ‘German building uses algae for heating and cooling’, <http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/25/business/energy-environment/german-building-uses-algae-for-heating-and-cooling. html?_r=1&adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1394513039-ZSOTFBFXQsI8ZvWRP386pg&>11University of New Hampshire, ‘Widescale Biodiesel Production from Algae’, <http://web.archive.org/web/20070416113418/http://www.unh.edu/p2/biodiesel/article_alge.html>12SEE Algae Technology, ‘Frequently Asked Questions’, <http://www.seealgae.com/article64.htm>

A.1. Design Futuring

11

1 2

3

1 Microscopic algae cells rearranged into a pattern14

2 Axonometric plan of a house cladded with algae panels15

3 Algae panels produced by Grow Energy9

13Tom Wiscombe Architecture, ‘Flower Street Bioreactor’, <http://www.tomwiscombe.com/project_17.html>14California Academy of Sciences Geology Flickr, ‘Arranged Diatoms on Microscope Slides in the California Academy of Sciences Diatom Collection’, <http://www.flickr.com/photos/casgeolo gy/8981509677/in/set-72157633997313366>15Grow Energy, ‘Hydral Multi-Energy System’, <http://www.growenergy.org/hydral/>

12

PRECEDENT STUDY:SILK PAVILION

This pavilion/sculpture installation is created by the Mediated Matter Research Group at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). The dome is created out of 26 polygonal panels, where each panel is criss-crossed with numerous threads. Silkworms are then placed at the bot-tom of the pavilion’s scaffolding to weave silk between the smaller gaps formed by the threads.16

16Metalocus Magazine, ‘The Silk Pavilion by Mediated Matter Group, MIT Media Lab’, <http://www.metalocus.es/content/en/blog/silk-pavilion-mediated-matter-group-mit-media-lab>Image source: same as above

A.2. Design Computation

13

14

I M PA C T O F C O M P U TAT I O N A L D E S I G N O N T H E S I L K PAV I L I O N

Research was carried out in two key areas:• Analysing silkworms’ ability to weave silk in

different light and heat conditions, and • Analysis of the exhibition site in which tem-

perature, sun path and various other factors came under scrutiny

This data contributed to the parameters of the project and gave rise to an algorithm that con-trolled the amount of thread in each panel to be woven by a CNC machine.16 Thus, certain pan-els may have have a denser amount of thread, thereby allowing more silkworms on it to spin silk.

However, it appears that computational design has not influenced the geometry of the pavilion very much, as the pavilion is a simple dome shape that is supposedly inspired by a silk-worm’s cocoon.

R E L AT I O N S H I P T O T H E L A N D A R T G E N E R AT O R I N I T I AT I V E ( L A G I )

A key aspect of the LAGI brief is to draw from nature, so I felt that the Silk Pavilion was an evocative example as it not only involves com-putational design - which controls the threads spun within each panel, - but also nature - in the form of silkworms. It is also interesting to note that the final pavilion has a randomised el-ement to it (in contrast to the more certain, un-ambiguous solution produced by computational design), as one is not able to wholly control the direction in which silkworms decide to spin silk.

In addition, the 6500 silkworms that are first used in the construction of this pavilion can produce about 1.5 million eggs when they turn into moths. From this, there is a potential of con-structing up to 250 additional pavilions.16 This regenerative process is not atypical to nature, and it would be intriguing to explore the rela-tionship between nature and digital fabrication, particularly also because I have examined algae biofuels as my energy precedent.

Image 5: Silk Pavilion in an MIT building

16Metalocus Magazine, ‘The Silk Pavilion by Mediated Matter Group, MIT Media Lab’, <http://www.metalocus.es/content/en/blog/silk-pavilion-mediated-matter-group-mit-media-lab>

A.2. Design Computation

15

1

1-3 Drawing of polygonal panels before assembly, after assembly & covered with silk16

4 Drawing of two panels covered with threads woven by a CNC machine16

5 Actual panel before silkworms cover it with silk17

6 Silkworm moth18

2

3

4

5

6

17Designboom, ‘The silk pavilion by MIT media lab’, <http://www.designboom.com/technology/the-silk-pavilion-by-mit-media-labs/>18Wanderlust Mind, ‘The Cycle of the Silkworm Life’, <http://wanderlustmind.com/2012/02/14/the-cycle-of-the-silkworm-life/>

16

PRECEDENT STUDY:CANOPY OF SMITH-SONIAN INSTITUTION

Foster + Partners constructed an undulating steel and glass canopy over the central courtyard of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC, USA. The geometry of this canopy was generated entirely through computational techniques. The contrast between the Greek Revival style of the existing Institution and the new, sleek canopy is striking, especially the shadows that the enclosure casts over the courtyard.

Image source: Foster + Partners, ‘Smithsonian Institution’, <http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/smithsonian-institution/gallery/>

A.2. Design Computation

17

18

I M PA C T O F C O M P U TAT I O N A LD E S I G N O N T H E C A N O P Y

The design of the canopy took into consider-ation structural, environmental, acoustic and aesthetic factors among others. Foster + Part-ners worked with various consultants to obtain the data input for the aforementioned factors.20 For instance, it had to be taken into account the fact that the glass canopy was to sink at cer-tain points to meet columns. To compound the difficulty of the problem, these columns had to be placed in specific locations so as not to ob-struct pedestrian traffic and the existing build-ings. These issues were all resolved through computational design - the final geometry of the canopy included 57 parameters.21

R E L AT I O N S H I P T O T H E L A G I

This precedent’s relevance to the Initiative lies in its details. For example, the canopy curls up at its edges to channel rainwater into drains that are hidden within columns.22 Foster’s project also has certain attributes that I hope to emulate and explore in my design in the weeks to come. I find it interesting how a stiff material like glass could be arranged into a billowing form through computational methods. In addition, I am rather fond of the canopy’s form, whose undulations bring to mind the Ysios Winery by Santiago Ca-latrava. The form is elegant and subtle - a quality that is not typical of many parametric designs.

Image 6: Foster’s drawing of new canopy juxtaposed with existing building16 Image 7: A panel of glass with steel beam19

19Rivka Oxman & Robert Oxman, ‘Theories of the Digital in Architecture’ (London; New York: Routledge), pp. 1–1020Foster + Partners, ‘Smithsonian Institution’, <http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/smithsonian-institution/gallery/>21Brady Peters, ‘Smithsonian Institution’, <http://www.bradypeters.com/smithsonian.html>22The New York Times, ‘A Delicate Glass Roof With Links to the Past’, <http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/19/arts/design/19fost.html?_r=0>

A.2. Design Computation

“Parametric design thinking focuses upon a logic of associative and depend ency rela-tionships between objects and their parts-and-whole relationships.”19

19

1

2

1 Beams supporting the glass panes can be seen to be thicker where they meet the columns to provide more stability22

2 Undulating form & shadows cast over central courtyard20

20

PRECEDENT STUDY:HAESLEY NINE BRIDG-ES GOLF CLUBHOUSE

Shigeru Ban Architects designed the Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Club-house in South Korea. Its atrium consists of a glass curtain wall and up to three-storey high timber columns and roof that were created with the use of parametric modelling. The column-and-roof structure consists of a total of about 3500 components, all of which are prefab-ricated in Switzerland23.

23Design To Production, ‘Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Club House’, <http://www.designtoproduction.ch/content/view/74/49/>Image source: Forgemind ArchiMedia Flickr, ‘Shigeru Ban Nine Bridges Golf Club’, <http://www.flickr.com/photos/eager/13389864603/in/photostream/>

A.3. Composition/Generation

21

22

C R I T I C A L A N A LY S I S O F D E S I G N G E N E R AT I O N

What is out of the ordinary about this project done by Shigeru Ban is that no 3D model of the column-and-roof structure was created during the execution phase. There were simply specific details about contour lines, angular measurements and grid di-mensions that defined the structure.24 Not until the generation phase were computational methods utilised. A parametric sys-tem was created to describe the entire structure, and this sys-tem generated detailed 3D models of every component - there were about 3500 components with almost 15000 joints - that made up the column-and-roof structure.24

The advantages of this approach is that the fabricated com-ponents are very precise, such that it was possible to connect one component to another with an assembly joint of only 2 mil-limetres (mm).25 Another positive is that the components are prefabricated25, thereby making the construction process on-site quicker. However, prefabrication can be a double-edged sword, as doing so requires the architect to be certain about ev-ery stage of the design process from conception to generation, lest on-site construction be held up by confusion. Nevertheless, the aid of the computer and computational design methods re-duces the likelihood of this occurrence.

“The essential feature of an al-gorithm is that it is made up of a finite set of rules or opera-tions that are unambiguousand simple to follow .”

-Robert Wilson & Frank Keil26

Above: 3D models of the entire column-and-roof structure, generated from a parametric system23

Across: View into atrium consisting of glass curtain wall and timber column-and-roof structure27

23Design To Production, ‘Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Club House’, <http://www.designtoproduction.ch/content/view/74/49/>24Fabian Scheurer & Hanno Stehling, ‘Lost in Parameter Space?’, Architectural Design, 81, 4, pp. 71-7925Christian Schittich, ‘Simply constructed’, Building Simply 2, pp. 28-2926Robert Wilson & Frank Keil, ‘Definition of Algorithm’, The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences (London: MIT Press), pp. 11-1227Shigeru Ban Architects, ‘Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Club House’, <http://www.shigerubanarchitects.com/works/2010_haesley-nine-bridges/index.html>

A.3. Composition/Generation

23

24

PRECEDENT STUDY:WHITE NOISE PAVILION

This temporary pavilion designed by SOMA Architects was created for the Salzburg Biennale, a contemporary music festival in Austria. It is made out of aluminium rods of uniform length. The pavilion’s de-sign was developed with the intent to evoke curiosity among visitors, where the irregular mass challenges human tendency to identify typi-cal shapes and patterns.28

28SOMA Architecture, ‘Temporary Art Pavilion, Salzburg’, <http://www.soma-architecture.com/index.php?page=vague_formation#>Image source: same as above

A.3. Composition/Generation

25

26

C R I T I C A L A N A LY S I S O F D E S I G N G E N E R AT I O N

The pavilion’s form consists of a number of arches. Each arch is made of layers of aluminium rods, in which each layer is connected to another through studs. The number of connections that each rod has varies, because that is dependent on its angle of inclination to another rod. A genetic algorithm (an algorithm usually used to find optimal solutions) was applied to find out the optimum angle of incli-nation for each rod, such that displacement was minimal when under the weight of the structure.29

To fabricate the structure, aluminium is cut from stock ware of 6m to minimise leftover material.30 As it is a traveling pavilion that has been erected in other countries such as Slovakia, it is appropriate of the architects to choose a lightweight material like aluminium to allow ease of transport. Further-more, the fact that pavilion has been generated from computational methods would make assem-bly and disassembly more convenient as well.

“Through computa-tion, the digital archi-tectural design envi-ronment has both the ability to construct complex models of buildings and give performance feed-back on these mod-els…(and) compu-tational tools can be used to increase effi-ciency” -Brady Peters31

Image 8: Parameterisation strategy for the pavilion. Alpha1 is the angle of inclination between one rod and another29

Image 9: Structural engineering diagram analysis of pavilion32

29Clemens Preisinger, ‘Linking structure and parametric geometry’, Architectural Design, 83, 2, pp. 110-11330Archello, ‘Mobile Art Pavilion - White Noise’, <http://www.archello.com/en/project/mobile-art-pavillon-white-noise>31Brady Peters, ‘Computation Works: The Building of Algorithmic Thought’, Architectural Design, 83, 2, pp. 08-1532Designboom, ‘SOMA: Music pavilion Salzburg Biennale 2011’, <http://www.designboom.com/architecture/soma-music-pavilion-salzburg-biennale-2011-complete/>

A.3. Composition/Generation

27

1

2

1 Detail of aluminium structure32

2 Single arch composing of numerous aluminium rods32

28

A.4. Conclusion

D E S I G N A P P R O A C H

The key issues of the Land Art Generator Initiative (LAGI) brief is to draw clean energy from nature, and produce a design that relates to the site and evokes a response from visitors. Thus, my intended design approach would be threefold:

1. Conduct in-depth research on algae biofuels (or any other energy genera-tion method my group and I decide on). If feasible, carry out small-scale energy generating experiments

2. Derive an algorithm from site constraints and environmental concerns. Con-sider the design forms I would hope to achieve and possibly introduce more parameters as a result of form and aesthetics

3. Work on integrating 1. & 2. together - probably the most difficult part of the brief. The need to integrate the first two tasks should be kept in mind at all times during the design process, so as to make this final task easier to complete.

I would strive to make the project innovative by working on a relatively newer energy generation technology, because many of the previous LAGI entries have used es-tablished solar and wind power methods. The art installation probably will not have a target audience as the LAGI brief states that the energy generated should be able to power much of Copenhagen - but I may work on having a more interactive installa-tion, thereby (hopefully) informing and educating the general public about this energy generation technology.

29

A.5. Learning outcomes

T H O U G H T S O N C O M P U T A T I O N

Computational tools give the architect carte blanche to design and more control - from the genesis of an idea to its physical fabrication (“design to production”19). However, Oxman & Oxman (2014) has identified that “the digital in architecture does support the emergence of certain distinctive geometric preferences and aesthetic ef-fects…(such as) blobs and the commitment to the curvilinear…”19, so it may appear paradoxical that computational design could be simultaneously liberating yet restric-tive. The confining nature of computational tools is also subtly implied by Peters (2013), whom acknowledges that “the invention of new design tools will cause shifts in the definition and boundaries of design…and architecture”31. Thus, one should be aware of such proclivities and limitations, and not have the “parameters” of a computational tool encroach upon a design idea. Doing so will allow one to utilise computational tools in a more freeing manner.

From what I have learnt so far, I could improve on the LAGI precedent discussed in Section A.1 on normal-axis wind turbines (pp.3-6) through parametric modelling. Instead of using a tear-drop shaped balloon as the authors have proposed, the bal-loon’s form can be experimented with by introducing parameters derived from Fresh-kills Park, e.g.: wind-velocity distribution, and from wind turbine technology, e.g.: dimensions of vertical turbine to optimise the capture of wind energy.

19Rivka Oxman & Robert Oxman, ‘Theories of the Digital in Architecture’ (London; New York: Routledge), pp. 1–1031Brady Peters, ‘Computation Works: The Building of Algorithmic Thought’, Architectural Design, 83, 2, pp. 08-15

30

Archello, ‘Mobile Art Pavilion - White Noise’, <http://www.archello.com/en/project/mobile-art-pavillon-white-noise> [accessed 20 March 2014]

Bagchee, Nandini, Artur Dabrowski & Andrew Swingler, ‘Sock Farm’, <http://landartgenerator.org/LAGI-2012/SOC26010/> [accessed 27 March 2014]

Bionavitas, ‘Frequently Asked Questions’, <http://www.bionavitas.com/faqs.html> [accessed 10 March 2014]

California Academy of Sciences Geology Flickr, ‘Arranged Diatoms on Microscope Slides in the California Academy of Sciences Diatom Collection’, <http://www.flickr.com/photos/casgeology/8981509677/in/set-72157633997313366> [accessed 10 March 2014]

Chaveriat, Michael, Yikyu Choe & Myung Kweon Park, ‘Heliofield’, <http://landartgenerator.org/LAGI-2012/mc19ad83/> [accessed 27 March 2014]

City of New York, ‘Freshkills Park’, <http://www.nycgovparks.org/park-features/freshkills-park> [ac-cessed 12 March 2014]

Designboom, ‘SOMA: Music pavilion Salzburg Biennale 2011’, <http://www.designboom.com/architec-ture/soma-music-pavilion-salzburg-biennale-2011-complete/> [accessed 22 March 2014]

Designboom, ‘The silk pavilion by MIT media lab’, <http://www.designboom.com/technology/the-silk-pavilion-by-mit-media-labs/> [accessed 15 March 2014]

Design To Production, ‘Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Club House’, <http://www.designtoproduction.ch/content/view/74/49/> [accessed 20 March 2014]

Ertugrul, Elcin, Katherine Moya, Carlos Alegria & Joaquin Boldrini, ‘Cloudfield’, <http://landartgenerator.org/LAGI-2012/1vagewdc/> [accessed 27 March 2014]

Foster + Partners, ‘Smithsonian Institution’, <http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/smithsonian-institution/gallery/> [accessed 16 March 2014]

Grow Energy, ‘Hydral Multi-Energy System’, <http://www.growenergy.org/hydral/> [accessed 12 March 2014]

Grow Energy, ‘The Verde System’, <http://www.growenergy.org/verde/> [accessed 12 March 2014]

Kelly, Thomas, Carrie Norman & Sarah Jazmine Fugate, ‘N.A.W.T Balloons’, <http://normankelley.us/index.php?/project/nawt-balloon/> [accessed 12 March 2014]

Land Art Generator Initiative, ‘Competition (2014)’, <http://landartgenerator.org/competition.html> [ac-cessed 12 March 2014]

Metalocus Magazine, ‘The Silk Pavilion by Mediated Matter Group, MIT Media Lab’, <http://www.metalo-cus.es/content/en/blog/silk-pavilion-mediated-matter-group-mit-media-lab> [accessed 15 March 2014]

Bibliography

31

Oxman, Rivka & Robert Oxman, ‘Theories of the Digital in Architecture’ (London; New York: Routledge), pp. 1–10

Peters, Brady, ‘Computation Works: The Building of Algorithmic Thought’, Architectural Design, 83, 2, pp. 08-15

Peters, Brady, ‘Smithsonian Institution’, <http://www.bradypeters.com/smithsonian.html> [accessed 16 March 2014]

Preisinger, Clemens, ‘Linking structure and parametric geometry’, Architectural Design, 83, 2, pp. 110-113

Scheurer, Fabian & Hanno Stehling, ‘Lost in Parameter Space?’, Architectural Design, 81, 4, pp. 71-79

Schittich, Christian, ‘Simply constructed’, Building Simply 2, pp. 28-29

SEE Algae Technology, ‘Frequently Asked Questions’, <http://www.seealgae.com/article64.htm> [ac-cessed 10 March 2014]

Shigeru Ban Architects, ‘Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Club House’, <http://www.shigerubanarchitects.com/works/2010_haesley-nine-bridges/index.html> [accessed 20 March 2014]

SOMA Architecture, ‘Temporary Art Pavilion, Salzburg’, <http://www.soma-architecture.com/index.php?page=vague_formation#> [accessed 20 March 2014]

The New York Times, ‘A Delicate Glass Roof With Links to the Past’, <http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/19/arts/design/19fost.html?_r=0> [accessed 16 March 2014]

The New York Times, ‘German building uses algae for heating and cooling’, <http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/25/business/energy-environment/german-building-uses-algae-for-heating-and-cooling.html?_r=1&adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1394513039-ZSOTFBFXQsI8ZvWRP386pg&> [accessed 12 March 2014]

TMA Global Wind Energy Systems, ‘Global Wind Energy Systems’, <http://www.tmawind.com> [accessed 12 March 2014]

Tom Wiscombe Architecture, ‘Flower Street Bioreactor’, <http://www.tomwiscombe.com/project_17.html> [accessed 10 March 2014]

University of New Hampshire, ‘Widescale Biodiesel Production from Algae’, <http://web.archive.org/web/20070416113418/http://www.unh.edu/p2/biodiesel/article_alge.html> [accessed 12 March 2014]

Wanderlust Mind, ‘The Cycle of the Silkworm Life’, <http://wanderlustmind.com/2012/02/14/the-cycle-of-the-silkworm-life/> [accessed 15 March 2014]

Wilson, Robert & Frank Keil, ‘Definition of Algorithm’, The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences (London: MIT Press), pp. 11-12

32