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AIR COMMAND AND
STAFF COLLEGE
STUDENT REPORT INSTRUMENT REFRESHER COURSE
PRECOURSE WORKBOOK
MAJOR DAVID R. VANDENBURG 85-2765 "insights into tomorrow"
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DISCLAIMER
The views and conclusions expressed in this document are those of the author. They are not intended and should not be thought to represent official ideas, attitudes, or policies of any agency of the United States Government. The author has not had special access to official information or ideas and has employed only open-source material available to any writer on this subject.
This document is the property of the United States Government. It is available for distribution to the general public. A loan copy of the document may bo obtained from the Air University Interlibrary Loan Service (AUL/LDEX, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 36112) or the Defense Technical Information Center. Request must include the author's name and complete title of the study.
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REPORT NUMBER 85-2765
TITLE INSTRUMENT REFRESHER COURSE PRECOURSE WORKBOOK
AUTHOR(S) MAJOR DAVID R. VANDENBURG, USAF
■ •I
FACULTY ADVISOR MAJOR LAWRENCE C. ROSCOE, ACSC/EDOWA
SPONSOR MAJOR JOHN S. PLANTIKOW, 93 BMW/DOI (SIFC)
Submitted to the faculty in partial fulfillment of requirements for graduation.
AIR COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE
AIR UNIVERSITY
MAXWELL AFB, AL 36112
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jJNCLASSIFIEn SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE
I REPORT DOCUMENTATiOM PAGE ^j^2^^j%üi;iin3!7^'i^:;:.:-™^^~^2r/.:':'-^'^^viä?£^^3inir^si!7Tj
|1a REPORT SECUBiTY CLASSIFICATION
I UNCLASSIFIED I- i2B ■3£CiJR'TV CLASSIFICATION AUTHORITY
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L ä4 cfPFOSWING ORGANiZATlOP, REPORT NUMBER(S1
8 5-2 765 60 NAME OP PERFORMING ORGANIZATION |6b. OF F 1C6 S YMBO L
(If applicable)
ACSC/EDCC L ^Oc. ADDRESS fCi(y, S(a(c and ZIP Code)
I Maxwell AFB Al 36112
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INSTRUMENT REFRESHER COURSE
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,12. PERSONAL AUTHOR(S)
VanDenburg, David R..Major,USAF \3a. TYPE OF REPORT 13b. TIME COVERED
FROM TO
14, DATE OF REPORT (Yr.. Mo.. Day)
1985 April 15. PAGE COUNT
85 I 16. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTATION
ITEM 11: PRECCURSE WORKBOOK (U)
a i7 COSATI CODES
j FIELC GROUP SUB. GB.
18. SUBJECT TERMS (Continue on reverse if necessary and identify by btoclt number)
a
j 19. ABSTRACT iContinue on reverse tf necessary and iden tify by block number)
Air Force pilots attend an Insxrument Refresher Course (IRC) yearly to review instrument procedures and learn new techniques of instrument flying. Instructors are often forced to spend too much time reviewing basic procedures and are thus unable to cover recent advances in instrument flying. This workbook is designed to be a review of selected basic instrument flight procedures to enable pilots to refresh their knowledge prior to class. It is organized by subject and includes learning objectives, review material, and a selection of exercises to allow pilots to assess their knowledge in the areas reviewed.
70. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY OF ABSTRACT
HUNCLASSIFIED/UNLIMITEO D SAME AS RPT KDTIC USERS D
h 2?o. NAME OF RESPONSIBLE INDIVIDUAL
ACSC/EDCC Maxwell AFB AL 36112 ■1
21. ABSTRACT SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
UNCLASSIFIED
DD FORM 1473, 83 APR
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(205) 293-2483 EDITION OF I JAN 73 IS OBSOLETE.
22c OFFICE SYMBOL
UNCLASSIFIED SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE
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PREFACE
The workbook is designed to be used in a manner that is most use-ful to the pilot. For example, i-f pilots -feel they already have a good working knowledge o-f a subject, thay may wish to skip the review material and accomplish the exercises. I-f a pilot has trouble with a problem, the review material is available -for re-ference.
This workbook is designed to provide SAC pilots with a review of selected instrument -flight subject areas -for use prior to attendance at the Instrument Refresher Course (IRC). It was developed because there is no single source document for this type of review and course Instructors were spending a large amount of class time reviewing basics instead of teaching new technigues. The text is organized by subject and includes lesson objectives, a basic review of the subject, and a series o-f questions or problems related to the subject. The subjects were selected bv the author based on weak areas noted while teaching the Instrument Refresher Course. Also included is a listing of references and related sources for further review if desired.
The book will do no good if it is not used! Pilots attending the Instrument Refresher Course must take the time to accomplish the exercises and evaluate their knowledge in these areas. Doing so will save time during the class portion as the instructor will not have to discuss basic material.
This guide was compiled using the references listed in the bibliography and is not intended to conflict with the flight manual or anv other directive. If a conflict should arise, the flight manual or directive will be followed. The workbook is written to be published as a precourse workbook after review by the sponsor.
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
MAJOR DAVID R. VANDENPURG
from the
Technology
Major VanDentaurg received his Bachelor o-f Science degree in Mechanical Engineering -from Michigan State University in 1970. He was commissioned through the Air Force O-f-ficer Training School and earned his wings at Laredo AFB, Texas in 1972.
He is a B-52 instructor pilot with extensive experience in operations and training. Following B-52 Initial Qual i-f i cat i on training, he was assigned to the 340th Bombardment Sguadron, Blytheville AFB, Arkansas. From Blytheville AFB he was deploved to Andersen AFB, Guam in support of Linebacker II. A-fter this deployment and while stationed at Blytheville AFB. he earned a Master o-f Science degree in Systems Management University o-f Arkansas.
In 1978,, he attended the Air Force Institute o-f (AFIT) at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, where he earned a second Master of Science degree in Logistics Management. This degree led to a rated supplement position in aircraft maintenance at Wurtsmith AFB, Michigan. While there, he served as the Logistics Plans Officer, Job Control Officer, Maintenance Control Officer, and the QMS Maintenance Supervisor. In 1981, he was transfered to the 524th Bombardment Squadron, Wurtsmith AFB, where he served as a squadron instructor pilot, Flight Commander, and Training Flight Instructor Pilot. He is also a graduate of SAC's Instrument Flight Instructor Course (SIFC).
Major VanDenburg is a Senior Pilot witn approximately 2500 hours of flying time and 12 years of experience in SAC. He attended Squadron Officers School in 1976 and Air Command and Staff College in 19B5.
IV
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE i ü
ABOUT THE AUTHOR i v
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS vi i
Chapter ONE. CPU-26A/P DEAD RECKONING COMPUTER 1
OBJECTIVES. 1 REVIEW MATERIAL 3
Intraducti on 3 Description 3 TACAN Fix To Fix Problems ,..5 Solving Ratio Type Problems 9 Climb And Descent Gradient Problems 15 Establishing Visual Descent Points 17 Summary • 20
REVIEW EXERCISES 21
TWO. BASIC NAVI GAT ION .23 OBJECTIVES - .23 REVIEW MATERIAL 24
Introduct i on 24 Descr i pti on 24 Determining a Course and Distance 26 Aeronaut i cal Charts 28 Plotting Flight Plans 35 Summary 37
REVIEW EXERCISES 39
THREE. SIXTY TO ONE RULE 41 OBJECTIVES 41 REV IEW MATER I AL 42
Introducti on 42 Theory. 42 Applying the Rule to Climbs and Descents „..45 Using the Rule to Calculate Offsets 48 Summary 50
REVIEW EXERCISES 52
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CONTINUED
FOUR- AIR ROUTE TRAFFIC CONTROL CENTER FROCEDURE5 55 OBJECTIVES 55 REVIEW MATERIAL „ . . 56
Introduction 56 Processing an IFR Clearance 56 ARTCC Facilities. 60 Cant roll er Priorities 65 Last Communi cations Procedures 67 Summary .,,...,... 69
REVIEW EXERCISES 70
ANSWERS TO REVIEW EXERCISES 71
BI BLIOGRAPHY 74
INDEX 76
VI
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
FIGURE 1 FIGURE O
FIGURE "^ FIGURE 4 FIGURE 5 FIGURE -6 FIGURE 7 FIGURE -8 FIGURE •9 FIGURE -10 FIGURE -11
FIGURE -i FIGURE ^ _ ■■'?
FIGURE '~1 - -3 FIGURE '">- -4 FIGURE ""J -5 FIGURE •*», -6
FIGURE 3 -1 FIGURE ■^ _ '-i
FIGURE 3 _T,
FIGURE yt -4 FIGURE .ji -5 FIGURE 3 -6
FIGURE 4 -1 FIGURE 4 '-i
FIGURE 5 --1
Slide Rule Side of CPU-26A/P 2 Wi nd Face o-f CPU-26A/P 4 TACAN Fix To Fix Example.,... 6 TACAN Fix To Fix Example 8 Time/Distance Problem Example 10 Seconds Index of CPU-26A/P. . 13 Time/Fuel Problem Example 14 Descent Gradient Example 1^ Visual Descent Point Example 19 Descent Gradient Problem ...22 Visual Descent Point Problem 22
Aeronautical Plotter 25 Measuring a Course 27 Sample Chart Scale 29 Sample Chart Legend 30 Sample Pilot Chart 34 Sample Pilot Chart 38
Theory o-f Sixty to One Rule 43 Descent Flight Path: No Wind 47 Descent Flight Path: With Tail Wind 47 Holding Pattern Entry Example 48 Holding Pattern Entry Exercise 53 Descent Gradient Exercise 54
ARTS III Radar Depiction 61 NAS STAGE A Radar Depiction 64
Sample Pilot Chart 73
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Chapter One
CPU-26A/P DEAD RECKONING COMPUTER
OBJECTIVES
At the completion o-f this lesson the pilot will:
1. Given present position and ground speed, be able to use the
CPU-26A/P computer to determine the appropriate heading,
distance, and estimated time enroute <ETE) to a desired TACAN
fix.
2. Be able to set up the CPU-26A/P computer to solve ratio type
problems involving -fuel -flow, ground speed, and time.
3. Be able to use the CPU-26A/P computer to determine climb and
descent gradients.
4. Be able to use the CPU-26A/P computer to determine Visual
Descent Points (VDP) tor nonprecision approaches.
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Figure 1-1. Slide Rule Side of CPU-26A/P
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REVIEW MATERIAL
Introducti an
The CPU-26A/P computer is a very handy, yet seldom used,
piece o-f flying equipment. All pilots used it extensively during
Undergraduate Pilot Treuning (UPT), Many still remember how to
use it, but some do not use it as o-f ten or as effectively as
they could. This chapter reviews some of the basic uses of this
handy device. It begins with a description of the computer,
then discusses using the computer to solve TACAN fix to fix
problems for heading, distance, and ETE. Solving problems
involving fuel computations, ground speed, distance, and ETE
relationships, and finally, determining visual descent points
are described. The chapter concludes with a summary and a
selection o* exercises to allow pilots to assess their knowledge
of the use of the computer.
Description
Familiantv with the computer is necessary if the pilot is
to use it effectively. Therefore, this chapter begins with a
description of each side of the tool. The slide rule face of
the computer consists of a basic circular slide rule adapted
specifically to flight problems. Referring to Figure 1-1, it
can be seen that this side consists of several scales, fixed and
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Figure 1-2. Wind Face of CPU-26A/P
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moveable. which can be positioned to solve many types o-f
problems. The two outside scales (one -fixed and one moveable)
both have rs-ference marks called the ten index. The -fixed or
outside scale is marked in miles. The moveable inside scale is
marked in minutes and hours and has a rate or speed index at the
60 minute point. This side o-f the computer is used to solve
fuel, rate, and descent and climb gradient problems.
The other side o-f the computer, shown in Figure 1-2, is
called the Mind face and consists o-f a frame, a rotating
transparent plate with a compass rose, and a slide. The slide
has a low speed side marked from 0 to 275 and a high speed side
marked -from 60 to 840. The side used depends on the approximate
speeds encountered in the problem to be solved. The frame
consists of a reference ma^k. labeled true index and drift
correction scales to the right and left of the reference mark.
The transparent disc can be rotated to any desired direction
under the reference mark and has a compass rose around the outer
edge. The center of the disc has a small black hole called the
grommet. This side of the computer is used to solve the heading
and distance portion of TACAN fix to fix problems.
TACAN Fix To Fix Problems
As previously noted, TACAN fix to fix problems begin on the
wind face of the computer. As with all navigation aid problems.,
the first step is to tune and identify the desired navigational
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Figure 1-3. TACAN Fix To Fix Example
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aid, and monitor the aural i denti-f i cat i on signal throughout the
maneuver. Re-ferring to Figure 1-3, the next step is to set up
the computer as tallows. Set the radial of the present position
under the index. Then position the grommet over a convenient
horizontal grid o-F the slide and establish a representative
scale to use -for mileage. For example, each vertical division
could represent 5 miles. Then mark the present position along
the centerline o-F the slide at the distance -from the grommet
corresponding to the present TACAN DME, This mark now
represents the present aircraft position and should be circled
to prevent con-fusion later. Next, do this same process -for the
desired TACAN -fix, using the same scale -for mileage. This is
illustrated in Figure l-4a. I-f the plate is now rotated, as
shown in Figure l-4b, so the desired -fix is directly above the
present position (circled), the no wind heading to the desired
•fix is under the index. Applying drift will yield the magnetic
heading to the desired TACAN fix.
Note the relationship established. The grommet represents
the TACAN station and the marks on the plate represent the
desired fix and the aircraft present position. The ground
distance from the aircraft present position to the desired fix
can easily be determined from the scale. If for example, each
division of the scale represents 5 miles and there are 10
divisions between the two marks representing the two fixes, the
aircraft is 50 miles from the desired fix. This information can
be used with the ground speed to determine the time reguirea to
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reach the desired -f i;; , as shall be shown in the next section. In
addition, if the procedure is repeated at regular intervals the
aircraft's progress to the desired fix can be tracked and the
heading and ETE can be updated as required.
Solving Ratio Type Problems
The slide rule face is used to solve ratio type problems
involving fuel, distance, and ground speeds. Time and miles
scales are constructed such that any relationship established
between two quantities will be true for all the numbers around
the scale. This property ran be used to relate known quantities
and to solve for unknowns. For example, problems involving
time, rate, and distance are easily solved using the slide rule
face.
Time, rate, and distance are related by the expression, the
distance is equal to the rate multiplied by the time spent at
that rate. Problems involving these quantities can be quickly
solved bv setting the rate index of the computer (the triangle
under the 60 on the inner scale) opposite the rate (the airspeed
or groundspeed) on the outer scale. Then, any time located on
the inner scale will be adjacent to the distance covered in that
time on the outer scale.
For example, assume an aircraft is maintaining a
groundspeed of 250 knots and is 375 nautical miles from the next
turn point. How long will it take to reach the turn point? If
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Figure 1-5• Time/Distance Problem Example
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the rate index is set opposite the 250 on the outer scale as
shown in Figure 1-5, the time required to travel 375 nautical
miles will be -found on the inner scale opposite the 375 on the
outer scale. In this problem, the answer of 90 minutes can be
read on the inner scale opposite the 375 on the outer scale.
Similarlv, the time to travel any distance at this speed can be
determined -from the inner scale opposite the distance on the
outer scale. If the distance to be traveled in a given time is
desired, it can be found on the outer scale opposite the time on
the inner scale.
The same procedure can be used to determine ground speed if
the distance traveled in a specified time is known. Simply set
the known distance on the outer scale opposite the time required
to travel this distance on the inner scale and read the ground
spet^d opposite the rate index.
If it is desired to work in minutes and seconds instead of
hours and minutes, use the smaller rate index which takes the
place of the 36 on the inner scale (see Figure 1-6) instead of
the larger rate index and apply the same procedures.
11
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Figure 1-6. Secondö Index of CPU-26 A/P
This is very useful in determining the time to cover
relatively small distances such as the time required to travel
from the Final Approach Fi;-; (FAF) to the Visual Descent Point
(VDP) and/or Missed Approach Point (MAP) for a nonorecisi on
approach.
Problems involving fuel consumption can be solved in a
manner similar to that discussed above. The rate inde;-; is now
set opposite the fuel flow instead of the groundspeed. The
outer scale now represents fuel instead of distance and a fuel
verses time relationship is established. For example, if 12,500
pounds of fuel has been consumed in 42 minutes, how long will
the remaining 34,500 pounds of fuel last and how much fuel will
be used in the next 20 minutes of flight? To determine this
13
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2500 42
1.56
Figure 1-?. Time/Fuel Problem Example
14
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in-formation re-fer to Figure 1-7. Bet up the computer to place
the 12,500 pounds o-f -fuel used on the outer scale adjacent to
the 42 minutes required to use it on the inner scale and read
the -fuel flow of 17,800 pounds per hour opposite the rate index.
With this relationship established, note that the remaining
34,500 pounds of fuel (on the outer scale) will last one hour
and fifty si;-; minutes (found on the inner scale). Similarly, to
determine the fuel to be used in the ne;;t 20 minutes, locate
twenty minutes on the inner scale and note the fuel consumed
(5950 pounds) on the outer scale apposite the twenty minutes.
Climb And Descent Gradient Problems
Climb and descent gradients can also be determined using
the computer. Since this type of problem involves working with
simple proportions, the computer is used as a circular slide
rule. For example,, if a desired altitude change is set on the
outer scale opposite the number of miles to accomplish the
change on the inner scale, the altitude change per distance will
be found on the outer scale opposite the ten inde;:. If the
altitude change is expressed in feet and the distance is
expressed in nautical miles, the answer (gradient) will be in
feet per nautical mile.
For example, suppose an aircraft is at 2100 feet MSL at the
FAF on the TACAN approach shown in Figure 1-8. The figure shows
that the VDP is 4.2 nautical miles from the FAF and the minimum
15
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deS'-6.~it öluitude is 1020 -feet MSL. What is the minimum descent
gradient reo-.;ired tc assure the ai - craft reaches .1020 -feet -ISL
prio:" to the VDP7
MISSED APPROACH lo 'J6QG out R ?i5 to 16 DME
Arc, art S to TAWAS
R 072 3U DME
TACAN 2.3
DME
IAWAS 16 DME .>•
fit 16,000
CATEGORY
CIRCLING
5 ASR 24
1 5 DME
65 DME
1 .•• |2100
.''{2500
.3 H*-3.0 NM i 1020/40
396 (400 tt)
1140-1 ^ 506 (600-lh)
1020/50 396 (400-1)
1200-2 566 (60C-2)
1040/50 416 (5001)
1020/60 396 (400-114)
1220-2 586 (600-2)
1040/60 416 {500-VA)
Figure 1-B. Descent Gradient Example
To solve this problem, place the altitude change, 1080 feet
(2100 - 1020) on the outer scale adjacent to the distance to
make the change, 4.2 NM (6.5 - 2.3) on the inner scale. The
required minimum gradient (258 feet per NM) will then be found
or, the outer scale opposite the ten inde;;. Thus the aircraft
must descend at least 258 feet per nautical mile to be at the
minimum descent altitude of 1020 feet hSL at the VDP. Descent
gradients to reach a final appproach f 1 ;•; altitude prior to the
16
.j-i-:i.>.l..^.tvi.tvi.«-i.>>.7L'i>..-.«..i.i..'i.a.H.».n'.. rr>. A,...H':-„-<;.J-'kT..».. >l^:■^_1;_")l^.J^;J„..■.-J.^.■;^JaAl■^,:>-1:,,■.■..:.-.. .v^-'•.-..■:,..■.';.,',- ^'r.-Sk'.' -V . r . > ■> .% ^ > r-1:. '■:.,i.''
mmnfm^v^y ijyuii^t^^^^^ PPPPPR^pipi^^M
FAF, and minimum climb gradients required during an instrument
departure, are calculated in the same manner.
Establishing Visual Descent Paints
Many nonprecision approaches do not have a published Visual
Descent F'oint (VDP). Thus the pilot must do without or use
another method to determine where to begin the descent from the
minimum descent altitude (MDA). Some pilots simply wait until
the runway "looks right", but narrow runways, night operations,
sloping terrain. and a lack of terrain contrast can make this
practice difficult and often dangerous. The CPLJ-26A/P computer-
can be used to assist the pilot in determining the location of a
VDP.
Since the VDP is simply a point from which a descent may be
initiated from the MDA to allow the aircraft to follow a normal
rate of descent to the runway threshold, the pilot must decide
upon a suitable rate of descent. As most pilots are used to a 3
degree glide slope, a 300 feet per nautical mile rate of descent
provides a familiar environment and the visual cues and power
settings during the descent will approximate those encountered
on a typical precisian approach. It should be stated that
although 300 feet per nautical mile was chosen for this example,
any rate of descent could be used. Once this desired rate of
descent is chosen, the computer can be used to determine where
the descent from the MDA should begin.
17
.fCvCvCv\.%'i>:i.-^w-^^^^^ ■ ^^'un"v^/v:.-"^^^^^^^,^^"-^^>■"^^^"L'""■ ''L'^"^'""-'''"L'>^'''"''"|,"''rt^''"^r'^>"''''<'
«!f«;am5J«U'»^^iwy.f:i..i;.ji;iiivi»^i.iiiKJi»:^ *F*imimmim*mimm!m&v* ^mm*
-sB-i fsrr :.rtg to Figure ■■"•"9, the' pilot will not» that, the
problem is to locate where to begin a predetermined rate descent
to lose the altitude -f^ofn the MDA to the runway threshold. One
way to do this is to set the ten index o* the inner scale
adjacent to the rate of descent in feet per nautical mile on the
outer scale. If the altitude to be lost 'MDA minus runway
elevation) is found on the outer scale, the distance from the
runway threshold to begin the descent will be found adjacent to
the altitude on the inner scale. If DME is to be used to locate
the VDF', the pilot must add or subtract the distance of the
TACAN from the runway threshold to determine the DME o-f the VDF',
If the pilot wishes to locate the VDF' based on a time from the
F'AF, simply determine the distance from the FAF to the VDF' and
calculate a time based on the ground speed as discussed
previously,
18
l"^,..7-, -,■"■■- S* \ A - n~ !>■- ■wl-.i.''.':-.*.. It./«-', .A/j.rtJWi ■■-"■%;„;■,if■,;fc>iV' aflmafttoteflilifiuiJ i 'Vrini fthafl n^i^•^^1l^l^1-"i■'lr^l^^l^rl>"n'frf'^f•^'^v'■''■'^1Trl■, äa^a tea '-•*->■'-- fotiMäJSiüBMJbd&d&i*
Cllmb~SSf:fboA=~~HR·356 ~~ to ONlfY 10 DMf II• at>d hold. 30 ~
AUIS ••••J !_§,000 TACAN 9 ••• I
D~E DIE ~,p •••••• I I I •• I '····· I .................... v~ 11QQ . I
I!LIV
CATEOORY
S-36
CIRCLING
Figure 1-9. Visual Descent Point Example
To illustrate this procedure~ rP.fer to Figure 1-9~ and
assume the pilot wishes to descend at a rate of 300 feet per
nautical mile. Where should the 'lOP be 1 ocated?
The first step is to determine the amount of altitude to ~e
1 ost. In this case~ subtracting the runway elevation (862 feet
MSI_) from the MDA <1360 feet MSL) results in 498 feet to lose.
Setting the ten index of the inner scale of the computer,
adjacent to 300 feet p~r nautical mile on the outer scale of the
computer~ the pi 1 ot wl. 11 note that 1.67 or approximately 1.7
nautical miles will be required (on the inner scale> to lose 498
feet \on the outer scale) at this rate of descent. Noting that
the runway threshold is at 5 DME~ the pilot adds 1.7 nautical
miles to the 5 DME and finds the VDP would be at 6.7 DME.
19
^'y^"-^'-H^ ^^^''^'^^«'^'^''JA^^^ ■J."^'~=T^17VK"'-v' •|-,."_'-:'~:~ "-i ':^;^■,-';v"■'."7•vll^M;•l,•^,l-;\"i-■^'^;'"^'^lk!■J^■J(■j.i-^,vii;^i-.._<".,-\'a-tP.'il;-*i"tv\vt^
Should the pilot desire s backup procedure, the time f'-cen
ths FAF to the VDP could be calculated. Noting that the FAF is
at Q DMF. the distance from the FAF to the VDF is 2.5 nautical
miles f9 - 6.7 - 2,3) . At a around speed of 100 knots -far
example, s time of 50 seconds would be oPtained by use of the
procedures previously discussed. Thus i-f the pilot started a
stop watch at the FAF, 46 seconds later the aircra-ft should be
very close to the VDP.
Bummar v
This chapter has reviewed some o-f the basic uses o-f the
CPU-26A/P Computer. It began with a brief description of the
computer. Procedures to solve for the required heading and
around distances during a TACAN -fix to fix problem were then
discussed. Procedures to solve ratio type problems for fuel,
time, and distance were then illustrated and the section
concluded with a review of procedures used to solve for climb
and descent gradients and Visual Descent. Points. The problems
illustrated could be solved bv other means, however, the
computer offers a simple and direct method to do so.
»
20
frlfalrnWnr^-;-"";-r'^WifcArfii^ a^vjL^.L^laJu^L'iiij:
mM^B^'Wt'WWPWyPIfWW'W'IE'W'W1
REVIEW PROBLEMS
1-1. An aircraft is currently on the 176 degree radial at 74
DUE of the TRASH TACAN. The pilot wishes to proceed direct to
the TRASH 085 degree radial at 65 DME.
a. What should be the initial no wind heading?
b. What is the ground distance from the present position
to the desired fix?
c. With a ground speed of 300 knots, what is the ETE to
the desired fix?
1-2. An aircraft has 85,000 pounds of fuel. With a fuel flow
of 20,000 pounds per hour, how much fuel will the aircraft have
remaining 90 minutes from now?
1-3. An aircraft is in a holding pattern waiting for snow
removal equipment to clear the runway. The pilot has 90,000
pounds of fuel remaining and a fuel flow of 18,000 pounds per
hour. How long can the aircraft hold and still depart with the
35,000 pounds of fuel required to reach an alternate?
■ - ii
1-4. Referring to Figure 1-10., and assuming the aircraft
crosses the FAF at 1500 feet MSL, what is the minimum descent
gradient it must maintain to be at 480 -feet MSL at tne VDP?
21
lL.^,-r^.^,r.^.i,.».;...-%-'-.-.J"i,r^..!vr..rwl--\.A.->.r.''j'-i -.(.'." ■.Ji.-..i'»-T., .•>\-. '-"IL'»L'H' J'fiV-'VL'.M ».-»'ff..-;. ..;■ *.;.-. E ..,.• «f.^ J.y—rj.,". A,?^?.^.'^.^'-!." .■ .'-!<: ,..'.•.■I'.'.J.^'.^K;W..X1IV-.:V. .'-. A.^V..,.'!,!,.-;^-.,
I I^JIU w.f^wna^QBiinqimpnagaq^ipiif^ppgMf^! uii^ip^^^i^yiii.ii^i
r' | WARNl R 30C 3^ DMf: n.1
18 R 300
12,000. ^O-^DME ,5 DME R.320 fOCH|
300o] i.J-^i 170001 ''••] 1 I5OOOI
MISSED APPROACH To 3000 out R 160
to 17 DME Arc W to ROCHS
It I I 3000 "r^/
J L
1.8 f)ME 5.5 1
D^ 1.5 I ' DME
1500
TACAN
CATEGORY
SI6
CIRCUNG
SPAR 16
IS 3
\ 171- to TACAN
TDZE ibl'Vs m
480/40 379 (400-14)
560-1 Ml 459 (500-m)
480/50 379 {400-1)
660 2 559 (603-2)
680-2 579 (600 2)
201/16 100 (lOOHO GS 7.W
Circling E of rwy- contortino not authorized.
;IEV 101
237
Ä 237
HIRL, REII. Rwy 16-34
Figure 1-10, Descent Gradient Froblem
1-5. Rs+errmg to Figure 1-11 below, determine a suitable VDP
based on a TACAN DME. Assuming a ground speed of 180 knots,
determine the approximate time from the FAF to the VDP and to
the MAP.
CATEGORY
S 19
R 355 15 DME
2800*..
I "^
MISSED APPROACH Cliinb to 5000 via R 175 to IEOOR 15 DME and hold.
5 DME VORTAC
S PAR 19
1140 1% 45/ (500-lKi)
ii40-m 451 (500-lh)
20001 "^^^J,
± K-4.0HM-»! j -g.
1140-1W 457 (SOO-lh)
1240-2 551 1600-2)
1280-2 5S 1 (600- 2)
783-W 100 (100-») GS 3.0-
Whon control towor doled, ACTIVATE MAtSR 9wy 1 120.9.
E1EV 689 I \ 175- to VORTAC
A 715
A 719
HIRL Rwy 1-19
Figure 1-11. Visual Descent Point Problem
22
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Chapter Two
BASIC NAVIGATION
OBJECTIVES
At the completion o-f this lesson the pilot will be able to:
1. Use the F'LU-1/C Navigation Plotter to plot courses,
determine ground distances, and plot TACAN range and bearing
information on an aeronautical chart.
2. Describe significant features of, and the information to be
found on a typical aeronautical chart.
3. F'lot a complete flight plan, including TACAN range and
bearing information, course, and ground distances, on an
applicable aeronautical chart.
25
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mmm '•W^t V ^V "Ti rT» "■■£■-"T. mmomjmmmmn^^
REVIEW MATERIAL
Intr nduct i on
This chapter is a review a-i- some oi the basic navigational
procedures learned in tor-ner •flight training programs. It
begins with a discussion of the PLU-l/C Navigation Plotter and
how it can be used to determine mileage, courses, and TACAN
information -from an aeronautical chart. Subsequent sections
discuss typical aeronautical charts and the in+ormation these
charts contain. Plotting an example flight plan on an
aeronautical chart is then discussed, emphasizing course, TACAN
information, and ground distance computations.
Descriptian
The aeronautical plotter shown in Figure 2-1, is a
navigational instrument designed specifically tö assist pilots
to draw and measure courses, plot positions, and plot
navigational aid information on an aeronautical chart. It
consists of a rectangular shaped bottom half designed to be used
as a straight edge and to measure ground distances on a chart.
The top half of the plotter is used to measure the direction of
courses laid out on a chart.
14
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RyiW^iiiiui,. ■i.".-. i^ip^pp^m ipi^pppppppi
TTnir^miiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiifi 1^0 iijo 4° . '1° . "t"
Ja ta ia to &■ j , t r ? ■ ■ ■ ^ t . T ■ . f ._^-L^JU^l-
-ip , 1.0 . V J.SSW
W M . ^ . ^ . ^ HB , na . nu . iy . '^ . ^ "^ -PÜT
iiiil:iiiliiiiliiiiliinliiiiliiiiliimiiiili!iiniiiliiiiliiiiliiiiTiiii|iiiiiiiiilii Ti« : »^ ; «p TT T*r
Fiiilim mm fcliliiM iiint-j
Figure 2-1. The Aeronautical Plotter
The top part is calibrated in degrees with two complete
scales, one o-f which is numbered -from 0 to 180 degrees and one
which is numbered from 180 to 360 degrees. The outside scale is
numbered so as to increase -from 0 to 180 degrees in a
counterclockwise direction and is used to measure courses -from
north through east to south. The second outermost scale has
numbers increasing from 180 to 360 degrees also increasing in
the counterclockwise direction and is used to measure courses
■from south through west to north. Two inner partial scales (see
1, Figure 2-1) are used to measure courses near 180 and 360
degrees. At the center o-f the semicircular top portion is a
small hole called the grommet, used as a center point -for all
course measurements.
25
kinijAl^hfiiiiWw ■V;jH;u%:^A.^;^.:v,%\r.:w;JV.:uA,Nji.;w^^
^-^.-A •j^.-Bw v^«f TT^ J/ J:" vvi**i»\vwv«i 'wmt^wy ippmq^fp^H tiy mm*^yn^m^y*rP
i- &ceroi n,- - ' 3 a Lour and Dist ö i ire
Using ehe plctt er to determi
bet: ne trie course
weer; two Domti änd distan ce
on a chart
to locate and mar
mark the desi
k the
lay th(
is very easy- The first step is
oints of the desired course,
red course on the chart using a straight edge. Now,
Nex t
^ Strä,19ht ^ °' the plQtter alonQ t
"ntBr '^ 9—" Dn a msridian
9 the cc
course (see Figure 2-2). The true
intersection of t
and the seal
ourse 1i ne and
near the center of the
course may now be read as the
he meridian upon which thi ne grommet is centered
e on the plotter. Which scale to be used can be
determined by noting the small arrows on the scale. Simply use
the scale associated with the arrow painting in the direction
the aircraft is to travel as shown in Figure 2-2. It is also a
good idea to note a rough heading from the chart and compare
this with the course determined from the plotcer. This will
prevent using the wrong scale on the plotter and attempting to
fly a reciprocal heading. The course thus determined is a true
course since it is measured against a meridian which runs from
pole to pole. Since the heading systems of most aircraft
indicate magnetic bearing, the true course must be converted to
a magnetic course. To do this, . find the line of magnetic
variation nearest the center of the course plotted. This line
is generally blue and will be labeled with a number and a di rect-1 nn i ■( <-1,
"■ ■< the dlr-ecti„n ls east, simply Bubtr act the number
^ÄÄ^Wiiir^'1^'''-'"--^ -•'^■'''-'■'•■"'• i^aftjaiMaaiiAa^ ^■:.^.^ ■;...,^A^..\^LVj:^:„.A.^:.:H:L^:L^:L:>L-J.A.^;.^:.%"i-.\'.'i/^^-iVv:.-;;-.:,--:^.:';J
wmm^^m 3 v^,' iT•ryr,-; o^; .r. v. i^^m^ v "• j^^t f i ""i
o-f degrees on the magnetic variation line -from the true course
previously determined. If the variation is west, add the
variation to the true course. This procedure will result in a
course to be -flown with reference to a magnetic heading system.
Once the course is known, the pilot must determine the ground
distance between two points.
1* WTBIQpVt MQ0
Figure 2-2. Measuring a Course.
The bottom portion of the plotter has five mileage scales
as shown in Figure 2-2. Although these scales are not as
precise as some other methods of measuring distance, they are
quick and sufficiently accurate for navigational use. To use
cneee, note the scale of the chart being used and measure the
27
■-..'■-. v,- jjäjjiliijjij^^
mvnvwnwvwvT'^W'iwpi**!*?' *pn ■^P< v^nr^'-Ti-r»■*■ v■*-y^ ^%,-r.-v-TJ-I;"r",\j\.\-ü 1^ \%.f mw
distance Tetween the end points of the course line using the
appropriate bcals, Thr resLi.lt-p.nx distance JS .'.n nautical miles.
Aeronautical Charts
The aeronautical chart is one o+ the pilots most basic, yet
vital tools. It is simply a pictorial representation of the
surf are of the earth. However, modern charts contain many
additional symbols and notes representing navigational aids and
other data necessary for safe flight. This section discusses
the scales, symbology, and aeronautical information available on
the charts commonlv used by SAC pilots.
The scale of a chart (see Figure 2-3) is simply the ratio
between any given unit of length on a chart and the distance
that length represents on the surface of the earth. For
example, a Tactical Pilotage Chart (TPC) used during a low level
navigation training mission will have a scale of 1:500,000
meaming 1 unit on the chart represents 500,000 units on the
earth's surface. This means that 1 inch on the chart represents
500,000 inches on the earth's surface or approximately 7
nautical miles. Pilots can also measure a latitude line, since
1 degree of latitude is always equal to oO nautical miles,
regardless of the scale.
28
fcyakiäiayauy^tftoiii^aaiMittAftiia^^ - - ■ -. ! ^ V.I U.-..
'''^ly'WfWiPiiipppswpffp^p'PWBWWi^v?'^^ ^R^MHppnff^p^^lpi^PpPP?
i
TPC H- UNITED STATES
SCALE 1:500,000 Prepared and published by the Defense Mapping
Agency Aerospace Center, St. Louis Air Force Station, Missouri 63118. Base information Compiled January 1967. (NOS). Revised December 1981.
(NOS). (Revision limited to aeronautical informa- tion).
lithographed By DMAAC 3-83
EDITION 10
Figure 2-3. Sample Chart Scale
As mentioned previously, a chart legend also explains many
of the symbols used on that chart. Figure 2-4 is a sample chart
legend -from an Operational Navigation Chart (UNO. Note that
the basic contour lines are at 1000 -Foot intervals (see 1,
Figure 2-4). This means that points of egual elevation have been
joined to form lines of constant elevation and that these lines
have been repeated for every 1000 feet of change of elevation.
If the contour lines are close together, the terrain elevation
is changing more rapidly than if the lines are far apart.
Sometimes intermediate contour lines are illustrated at 500 and
1500 feet intervals. These will be different type lines
(possibly dashed) to prevent confusion.
Another very important terrain feature shown or an
29
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mmmmim*.
m
r LEGEND
RELIEF PORTRAYAL ,n. (i... in t.-,.t niGHESI lERCAIN -l.'/n
14433 ,.,,
..KOUM <„ 39'07'N lOö-'l/'W
TERRAIN CHARACTERISTIC TINTS
^ \ ,.n
)- ■ *
->
> ^ ■ . ^J - ■ \*
v ^ (-Jv^ ^i<1 . - ' ^ ' -a.- "
-.> Y>• -Ä ^
1
-v
>
^Ä.^^^
CONTOURS
B»4u inrerv.ii 1000 I -0 (nletmedi.i'e coniMijri s'nuvn di 500 ••!•■' anrl 1500 'aei
SPOI FLEVATIONS
ArcufQte C'ovatior.i
i ,-. ;'i ■:■■ .]'.• .1 ,,-
Q; ..«i . ..uibie f i.-. ]•
I -n.M.n Un.|«t,....„ ...
l'' t., u .•■.■..llM,n
Ink»- ;" I '.'"■ !■' -■ f .
. 0000
• 0000
0000
. 0000
CULTURE
pfinlfl '!■!■ t fr' ^
AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION
AHRODKOMEb
MM
W.I
- (DNA 910
OtDNA;*? V20
V-ii' ' de'-'! .'ii»!', i'Cfi'.jyort '^''vf: a Kafd suflace 'un
A iy lt_",qth -J ll'XX1 ien' '" mo' ' Run^cJv po'lfcfns and
6000 I,.(.i o'i'"-" ■ i "t..e >i ihow" oi I SOU000 scale
A ' ijr' 'unwii) P'i"Hfn .s 'i'i' sho^vfi 'He nt'mbß' iollowmg
f c;rh of H"' "inqes* 'i nwny lo 'h0
humi (til 'ef>I
VERTlCAt OBSTRUCTIONS
I '«•. n rsso A i.ni Mijl'ipte ■TV f/iO
HiyhnM »pi'i. ,il ohs'iu. I' "' -ill'
tu l<.-,i ipnr . .1 nh'. fl.- fim: tmiyl 'lie
ISM> '■•,'' ■ i .■■ .■ '.' ."
;,",0 1. : ' ■ i i' ,.• I
A 'Si0 I I250i
MM
VERTICAL OBSTRUCTIONS SHOWN HAVE BEEN SELECTED FROM INFORMATION AVAILABLE AS OF
FEBRUARY 1983
There is no assurance all vertical obstructions greater thai 200 feet have been reported.
All reported vertical obstructions cannot be portrayed due to chart scale. Obstructions shown are the highest within each 3 minute by 3 minute matrix, originating al full degree intersections, and at least 200 feet AGL.
' In and around major populated places the pattern is further reduced to enhance clarity.
There is no assurance the location and heights of por-
trayed obstructions are accurate.
RADIO FACILITIES
'X VHP OMNI RANGE (VOR)
V VOR T AC
\7' TACAN
l-l VOR DME
O Othei Fncililios
SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE
LFR45 \v;
Figure 2-4. Sample Chart, Legend
30
i^.^-^^.^.^^^:^rn^^i\:^-^^
ppMjMMppf^y^igpiyiippyiy ■HMH ■ lJ>a^M4*y^j||M|MMMaywgppp
aeronautical chart is the spot elevation as shown in 2, Figure
2-4. This is the height o-f a particular point o-f terrain above
some established datum plane, usually sea level. Spot
elevations are shown on both TPCs and ONCs and if preceeded by a
black dot, indicate the peak elevation plus or minus 100 -feet, A
small :■! before the elevation would indicate an approximate
elevation. If neither an ;■; or a period preceeds the elevation,
the accuracy is doubtful, so watch out! Note also, critical
peaks (those higher than all others in the area), are shown as a
period and heavy black numbers. This information could be very
useful during an emergency or unscheduled climb as it can be
used to determine safe terrain cleafance for that immediate
area.
Cultural information used on a chart will also be explained
in the legend. Towns, roads, railroads, lakes, rivers , mines,
and dams are a few of the cultural features often depicted. Once
again, referring to Figure 2-4 illustrates how these features
may be shown. For example, towns are usually shown as a rough
outline of the shape of the town or simply as a small circle if
the town is verv small. Roads may be shown as single black
lines and railroads are often depicted as cross-hatched lines.
Major power lines are usually shown as dotted lines. Since
these symbols may vary slightly, a pilot should review the chart
legend during mission planning to become familiar with the
svmbols on the chart to be used.
An aeronautical chart also depicts selected aeronautical
u
31
BIVI ^rtrW^'li^v^ """-•■'-'-^nirriiViii^VifaMitrt-ki^- ^■SrS.^.i^^^j\^^C>.Ä.*.i:* ;:».:i.L3 .^■■L.,.".'!'....,:* .■:..aSiii.V*:..\*..-C.a'., n.;. r'. K^-^y aiaÜM&^tf^«6ia<ÜMaJifl^a^a^ al.ri'..^yA'J
■ VT7 '^-T .r ~j ^j^^j'T^T^r^^z-^^^—^^x^^^M^^^^'Ji^^^^^*^
i-)ro.- ,iiat i. on such öS aerodromes, obs cr uct i o^s, navigation sids,
f-.nd spec] a 1 use airspace. The samp it? legend in Figure 2-4 may
be used to discuss this information.
Ms depicted an the sample legend in Figui e 2-4, major
aer-oarumes wii:h a minimum of I'OOu feet of hard surface runway
are shown with a runway pattern arid a ö'-n.'ü foot diameter circle.
This circle is centered on the actual position of the aerodrome.
A star depicted near the circle represents the position of a
rotating beacon. Note that not ail aerodromes have a runway
depicted. In such cases the length oi longest runway to the
nearest hundred feet follows the name of the field.
Vertical obstructions are also depicted on the chart and
discussec in the chare legend. For example. Figure 2-4 depicts
sinqie towers as a single spike mart; with two elevations. These
elevations are the height of the top of the obstruction above
mean sea level (top number) and above the ground (number in
parenthesis). Note that multiple towers are represented in a
similar manner except that two spikes are shown. Note also the
series ot disclaimers' ODviouslv a chart can only be accurate
up to the printing date, so the cartographers have devised a
metnod to plot new or recently discovered obstructions. They do
'-h:-- by publishing a CHart Update Manual (CHUM; which adds all
known obstruction information up to the date of the CHUM. Eie
sure- to update any chart prior- to use. Discovering an unplotted
tower at Low level could ruin a whole day'
As can be seen from the sample legend, aeronautical charts
12
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wmmm 1111' U. WI <■ l WB W W Wl'^l W^ H1"! 1' 1W i ij. L'JIL .■ -1. J^J J .'
use the same symbols to depict navigational aids such as TACANs
and VORs as do instrument approach plates (IAP). The chart will
depict the symbol in the correct location along with the namt of
the facility. In addition, some Operational Navigation and
Tactical F'ilotage Charts list the -freguency of selected TACAN
stations. For the other stations and for charts that do not
list this data, the pilot must refer to the appropriate enroute
supplement.
The last information to b .^ discussed concerning the chart
legend is the depiction of special use airspace. Most Alert,
Danger, Military Operations Area, Prohibited, Restricted, o»^
Warning areas are shown as blue-shaded areas. The first letter
of the designation will indicate the type of area depicted. For
example, an area labeled A~2ü3 would be an Alert area, such as a
local flying area, and not necessarily restricted to other
traffic. Most areas are shown, but not all areas are used
continuously. Pilots should check the Notice to Airmen
(NOTAMS), a local flight service station, or the appropriate
controlling agency prior to mission planning to fly through a
depicted area. Additional information on each area such as
altitudes, boundaries, and hours of operation, may be found in
the Flight Information Publications (FLIP).
i r]
33
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Plotting Flight Plans
Although most SAC pilots have a navigator on board to plan
the mission and navigate the aircra-ft, the position o-f the
aircraft and the accuracy o-f the -flight plan remain the
responsibi1itv of the pilot. Manv missions begin with a well
defined plan and an accurate chart of the proposed route;
however, due to unforeseen circumstances, such as mission
changes or hazardous weather, missions often must be replanned
inflight. Replotting a flight plan inflight can often reduce the
confusion and assist the pilot to monitor the progress of the
new mission and intel1igent 1v communicate the new route of
flight to ARTCC.
F'lotting a flight plan is reallv just using the skills
reviewed earlier- in this chapter. It consists of transferring
TACAN range and bearing information onto an aeronautical chart,
cross checking headings, and calculating estimated times of
arrival to back up the navigator.
Suppose, for example, an aircraft is near Fort Wayne,
Indiana, heading west for a low level training route when
notified that the route is closed. The crew elects to fly an
abbreviated navigation leg back to their home station (Wurtsmith
AFB, MI) to complete the mission with transition work in the
local area. The navigator reguests the pilot fly the aircraft
from its present position direct to the South Bend VORTAG, then
to the Traverse City 202 decree radial at 60 DME. then to the
35
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~53 jegr~e r~dial ~t 30 DME, dir-ect tel WL.lr-tsmi tt1. Since the
is busy replanning the navigation leg~ the pilot is
<':\sh:~d to c:r·oss--check headings~ di ~;t,·H·lces, ~nd determine a new
ETA to Wurtsmith. The n~viqator- will request air-speeds to ,
maintain r:~n aver-age gr-ound spE:-:>ed of 370 l::nots.
Referring to Figure 2-5, thF.? pilot could pr·oceed as
follows. the fir-st point is the South Bend VORTAC, the
pilot should simply cir-cle this point on the ch~r-t and move on
to the second point. Since the next point is given as a TACAN
magnetic radial and DME and the infor-mation on an aer-onautical
is or-iented to tr-ue nor-th. magnetic var-iations must be
c:lpplied. Since the pilot must add a west variation <and
~;ubtrC~ct an east var-iation> fr-om the tr-ue cour-se to determine
the magnetic cour-se~ the pilot must simply rever-se the pr-ocess
to deter-mine a tr-ue position fr-om a magnetic one. Thus. the
Traver-se City 202 degr-ee r-adial combined with 4 degr-ees of west
variation results in a true position along the 198 degr-ee r-adial
All the pilot must do is lay out the 198 degree
radial on the chart and use the apprdpr-iate scale on the plotter-
to locate the"60 DME fix along that line. Plotting this point
c:onnec:ting it ~~th the Sduth Bend VORTAC r-esults in the
intended c:ourse. The heading can be determined with a plotter
(applying magnetic variation) and the distance can be measur-ed
with divider-s or with the appr-opriate scale of the plotter-. In
the example used, a tr-ue headinq of 006 deqr-ees with a magnetic
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variation of 4 degrees west results in a no wind heading o-f 010
degrees. The distance between the two points is approximately
119 nautical miles. Knowing this distance, the pilot can use a
CPU-26A/F' computer to calculate an ETE o-f 19 minutes based on
the navigator's planned 370 knots ground speed.
Tne rest of the flight plan can be plotted in a similar
manner and the results would look like Figure 2-5. The pilot
can thus back up the navigator's headings, monitor the position
and progress of the aircraft, and determine an approximate ETA
based on the sum of the times of the individual legs.
V.
m
bummary
This chapter has reviewed some of a pilot's most basic
navigational skills. The use of the PLU 1/C navigation plotter
was first described, highlighting course,, distance, and TACAN
fix plotting. The aeronautical chart and the information it
contains was then discussed. The chapter concluded with a
practical application of the first two sections as plotting a
flight plan was illustrated. Although this information is very
basic, an occasional review is important. After all, safe
flight often depends on precise navigation and the proper use of
an aeronautical chart.
m
37
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38
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REVIEW EXERCISES
2-1. Using the chart provided in Figure 2-6, determine the
magnetic heading from the Corpus Christi 296 radial at 25 DME to
the Center Point VORTAG.
2-2, Where would a pilot -find in-formation concerning the Alert
areas depicted on Figure 2-6 between Corpus Christi and Laredo,
Texas?
m.
2-3, Using the chart provided in Figure 2-6, plot the following
f1i ght pi an:
a. Depart Randolph AFB, Texas, using radar vectors direct
to the San Antonio VORTAC, then direct to the Laredo 290 degree
radial at 30 DME, then direct to the Corpus Christi 260 degree
radial at 20 DME.
b. Determine the magnetic headings for each leg of the
above flight plan.
c. Determine the ground distances for each leg of the
above flight plan.
d. At an average ground speed of 350 knots, determine the
ETE from Randolph AFB to the Corpus Christi radials.
39
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Chapter Three
SIXTY TO ONE RULE
OBJECTIVES
At the completion o-f this lesson the pilot wills
1. Understand the theory and limitations o-f the sixty to one
rule.
2. Be able to apply the sixty to one rule to determine initial
pitch changes -for climbs and descents.
3. Understand techniques to monitor the progress oi climbs and
descents to insure desired per-formance is being achieved.
4. Be able to apply the sixty to one rule to determine a
heading to establish a desired o-f-fset -for teardrop holding
pattern entry and approach planning.
41
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I
REVIEW MATERIAL
Introduction
This chapter discusses the sixty to one rule o-f instrument
flying. It begins with a discussion of the theory and
derivation of the sixty to one rule. Subsequent sections
discuss applying the sixty to one rule to climb and descent
problems and using the rule to determine offset headings for
teardrop holding pattern entry and approach planning. The
chapter concludes with a summary and a selection of review
ex ere i ses.
Theory
The sixty to one rule is a very useful concept for
instrument flying. Simply stated the rule says that for any
aircraft, at any airspeed, a 1 degree pitch change will result
in a climb or descent of 100 feet per nautical mile. Similarly,
the rule can be applied in the horizontal plane and states that
a 1 degree heading change will result in a 1 mile offset over a
60 mile course, or 100 feet of offset per nautical mile. Pretty
simple, but a tool that can simplify descent and climb problems,
assist, in approach planning, and help utilize the basic concept
of instrument flying.
For example, the "Control and Performance" concept of
42
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Instrument flying requires that the pilot (1) establish an
attitude or power setting on a control instrument. (2) trim to
relieve control pressures, (3) cross check the performance
instruments to assure the desired performance is being attained
and finally, (4) adjust the attitude or power setting as
necessary. The sixty to one rule can assist with steps (1) and
(4) by providing an estimate for pitch changes, thus allowing
the pilot to change the aircraft attitude a predetermined
amount.
__
60 NM
\
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V y C=2(7r)r
Figure 3-1. Theory of the Sixty to One Rule
Figure 3-1 illustrates the basic idea of the sixty to one
rule. The aircraft is assumed to be at the center of a 60 mile
radius circle and the pilot makes a 1 degree pitch change.
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To make the computations easier, consider a nautical ftu .1 e
to be 6000 +eet (as opposed to 6080 -feet; and appro;; i matt the
f:actar 2 (77) to be 6 (instead of 6.283). In addition. the
vertical distance labled d in the figure is assumed to
appro;; i mate the arc o-f the circumference between the two
horisontal lines. Going through the math.
d~ 1/360 of the circumference of the circle
for each degree of pitch change
Circumference = 2(Tr)r = (2) ("") (60) = 360 NM
d = (1/360)(360) = 1 NM per degree of pitch
change per 60 Nh
This means that d is equal to 6000 feet in 60 Nli or 100
feet per nautical mile in a no wind situation. Compensating for
winds will be discussed later in this chapter. For now,, simply
remember- that a pitch change of 1 degree will result in a climb
or descent of 100 feet per nautical mile regardless of airspeed
or type of aircraft.
44
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Applying the? Rule to Climbs and Descents
To use this information, the pilot needs one more piece o-f
i n-f ormati on! a means o-f checking the performance o-f the aircra-ft
after the pitch change. Air Force Manual 51-37 indicates the
aircraft mach meter reading multiplied by 10 gives a rough idea
o-f airspeed in nautical miles per minute. For example, at 0.7
mach, the aircraft is traveling approximately 7 nautical miles
per minute. I-f the pilot multiplies the pitch change in -feet
per nautical mile, bv the speed in nautical miles per minute,
the vertical velocity in -feet per minute is obtained. Thus, a
performance instrument (the VVI) can be used to determine i-f the
initial pitch change was correct. Note, however, this VVI
reading will change with the airspeed (or mach in this case) so
that a constant gradient climb or decent will result in a
constantly changing VVI reading. The pilot could easily check
the descent periodically by repeating the calculations.
For example, assume a pilot wishes to maintain a descent
gradient of 350 -feet per nautical mile so makes a pitch change
of approximately 4 degrees. If the aircraft was traveling at
0.6 mach, what should the Vertical Velocity Indicator (VVI) read
initially'7
The aircraft is traveling approximately 6 nautical miles
per minute. Six nautical miles per minute multiplied by 400
(350 rounded up) feet per nautical mile should result in an
initial VVI reading of 2400 -^eet per minute.
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Bupcose the WI had read only 1800 -feet per minute. This
indicates that only a 3 degree pitch change was made and the
desired gradient o-f 350 -feet per nautical mile will not be
attained. (1800 feet per minute divided by 6 nautical miles per
minute equals 300 -feet per nautical mile)
Another good technique is to monitor the altitude loss (or
gain) per mile by monitoring the altimeter and the DME readout
when preceeding to or -from a TACAN. This method will quickly
indicate if the desired gradient is being maintained. If not,
it is probably because the flight level winds are effecting the
flight path. Remember, all calculations up to now have been for
a "no wind" Ljndition.
Figure 3-2 shows a 3 degree descent gradient with no wind.
As expected, the aircraft loses 300 feet each mile and though
the WI constantly changes as the airspeed changes, the desired
gradient, is maintained.
Figure 3-3 however, is the same descent except for the
addition of 60 knots of tailwind. Although the aircraft is
still descending 300 feet per mile through the air, the air mass
is moving to the right so the aircraft covers more ground and
the actual descent gradient relative to the ground is less. Over
the years pilots have developed a rule of thumb of simply
changing their attitude 1 degree for every 60 knots of wind.
Thus, with a 60 knot tailwind, increase the attitude change by 1
degree.
46
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——-^ FL 320 |
1 o 1 1 IP 1 1 DISTANCE 1
Figure 3-2. Descent Flight Path; No Wind
Si
>
>
TAILWIND
0
FL 350
FL 330
FL 320
10 _1_
DISTANCE
Fiqure 3 Descent Flight Path; With Tail Wind
47
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'1
Using the Rule to Calculate O-f-fsets
The 5i;;ty to one rule can also be utilised in the
horizontal plane, A good example o-f its use is -for a teardrop
holding pattern entry.
Figure 3-4. Holding Pattern Entry E;;amplE
Figure 3--4 depicts a holding pattern a pilot intends to
enter -from the west, using a teardrop entry procedure. A-fter
crossing the holding fix, the pilot could legally fly any
heading (course, with course guidance) up to 45 degrees from the
holding radial on the holding side. Using the sixty to one rule,
the pilot could determine a heading that will offset the
^8
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aircraft the proper distance -from the inbound course to allow a
roll out on course at the completion o-f the turn inbound.
Assuming a true airspeed of 240 knots, the pilot knows the
aircraft will travel about 4 NM per minute and the turn radius
will be about 2 NM. (Mach would be 0.4 and turn radius is
approximately mach times 10 minus 2) Therefore, the aircraft
will travel about 6 NM outbound in 1 and 1/2 minutes. The pilot
wants to be a turn diameter (4 NM) from the inbound course at
the end of the outbound leg. Going through the numbers results
in the following relationship:
a = TD
360 CIRCUMFERENCE
a = (360)TD
CIRCUMFERENCE
a = (360)TD
(2) ( ?7- ) (L)
Where a is the angle of offset, TD is the turn diameter of
the aircraft in miles, and L is the length of the outbound leg
in miles. Since (2) ( TT ) ] s approximately 6, the above
expression can be simplified to:
49
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^ = (TD)(60)
(L)
In this e;; ampl e:
a = (4)(60) = 40 degrees
(6)
To simpli-fy the whole procedure , multiply the aircraft
turn diameter (TD) by 60 and divide the answer by the inbound
leg length. The answer will be the o-ffset heading in degrees.
In this case, the pilot should turn 40 degrees to the left upon
station passage, time outbound for 1 and 1/2 minutes, (apply
drift) and make a 30 degree bank turn inbound. This should put
the aircraft very close to, if not on, the inbound course.
Summary
This concludes the chapter about the sixty to one rule. It
began with a discussion of the theory and derivation of the
rule. Application of the rule to climb and descent gradient
problems was then discussed. Finally, using the rule to
calculate headings to establish offsets for teardrop holding
pattern entries and mission planning was described. The sixty
to one rule is a very useful tool and should be a part of every
50
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professional flier's bag of tricks. When properly used, it can
greatly improve a pilot's instrument flying by providing target
pitch attitude changes for various instrument maneuvers.
51
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REVIEW EXERCISES
3-1. A pilot is returning to home station a-fter a training
mission and is currently 200 NM -from the base at -flight level
350. The pilot has planned for a 3 degree enroute descent, and
wishes to be at 3000 MSL (pattern altitude) 15 NM -from the
field;
a. Where will the pilot begin the descent?
b. What descent gradient should the pilot hold?
c. What will be the initial pitch change? (no wind)
d. 1+ the pilot was traveling at 0.6 mach, what will
be the initial WI reading?
rvij
3-2. The pilot in Problem 3-1 is descending through Flight
Level 250 and is informed by ARTCC o-f traffic at 12 o'clock.
Center requests the aircraft be at or below FL 200 in 10 NM.
a. What pitch attitude (reference level flight) will
the pilot reguire? (no wind)
b. If the aircraft was experiencing a 60 knot tail
wind, what pitch adjustment could the pilot make to compensate
for the wind.
52
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3-3. An aircraft is 80 miles from home station at the
completion o-f a training mission when Center advises the pilot
that RAF'CON has lost all power and cannot accept any aircraft at
this time. Center clears the aircraft to proceed direct to the
YUCCA VOR at FL 200 to hold as published (see Figure 3-5). The
pilot decides to use a teardrop entry. The aircraft is
traveling at 0.4 mach and the pilot plans on traveling outbound
for 1 and 1/2 minutes. Winds are light and variable. What
outbound heading could the pilot use to enter holding?
Figure 3-5. Holding F'attern Entry Exercise
n 53
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3.-4, A pilot is flying the TACAN approach shown in Figure 3-6.
a. What minimum pitch change should the pilot make at
the FAF?
b. Assuming a True Airspeed o-f ISO knots, what WI
should the pilot expect?
c. I-f the minimum pitch change is made, where will
the aircra-ft be when reaching the MDA?
R355 15 DME
2800 '••^
MISSED APPROACH Climb to 5000 via R-175 to IEGOR 15 DME and ho!d.
5 DME VORTAC
W I 1 DME
2000
CATEGORY
S-19
CIRCLING
S-PAR 19
1140-lVi 457 (500-m)
mö-n? 451 (500-m)
h-W.MM-H A
1140-1% 457 (300-m)
1240-2 551 (600-2)
1280-2 591 (600-2)
783-W 100 (100-W) GS 3.0*
Whon control lowar clowd, AaiVATE AAAISR Rwy 1 120.9.
ELEV 689 \ 175* to
\ VORTAC
A 715
A 719
HIRl Rwy 1-19
k*.v.
Figure 3-6. Descent Gradient Exercise
5^
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IIU.JIIIII^IJI^I)^^
Chapter Four
ARTCC PROCEDURES
OBJECTIVES
>
At the completion of this lesson the pilot will:
1. Be able to describe the in-formation -flow process that occurs
during the submission, processing, and issuance of a typical
Instrument Flight Rule (IFR) flight clearance.
2. Be familiar with the information available to a typical Air
Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) controller to control air
traf f i c.
3. Understand the services available, limitations, and task
priorities of a typical ARTCC controller.
4. Be familiar with the pilot procedures anticipated by an
ARTCC controller in the event of loss of communications between
the controller and an aircraft.
55
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REVIEW MATERIAL
I ntroduction
Current directives speci-Fy all Air Force pilots will
utilize Instrument Flight Rule (IFR) procedures to the maximum
extent possible. This necessitates close coordination between
pilots and Air Route Tra-f-fic Controllers on an almost daily
basis. Although most pilots are very comfortable working and
communicating with ARTCC, some do not understand the procedures,
services, and limitations involved. This chapter begins with a
discussion of the information flow necessary to process and
deliver an IFR clearance to an aircraft both prior to takeoff
and while airborne. The information available to an air traffic
controller is then described and some of the services available,
limitations to these services, and controller task priorities
are then discussed. Anticipated pilot procedures in the event
of lost communications between a controller and an aircraft are
then illustrated. The chapter concludes with a summary and a
selection of review questions to allow pilots to assess their
knowledge of ARTCC operations and services.
Processing an IFR Clearance
Since most U5AF pilots file and fly using IFR flight plans.
56
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a through understanding o-f how a requested route o-f -flight and
other pertinent i n-for mat ion is submitted, processed, and
approved can allow a pilot to better utilise the system. This
section describes the information flow in the clearance process.
Processing an IFR flight plan normally begins at Base
Operations and usually consists of pilot submission o-f a D D
Form 175 and a crew/passenger listing. Often, a SAC Form 207 is
also submitted if the flight plan is too long to fit on a D D
Form 175. The dispatcher enters some of the information
contained on this paperwork directly into the ARTCC computer
system. Items such as the aircra-ft tail number, hours of -fuel
on board, alternate airfield, flight time to the alternate,
pilot's name, ground distance to destination, and the aircraft
unit of assignment, are not transmitted to ARTCC. If the
aircraft is departing a civilian airfield, a flight service
station will submit the flight plan information subject to the
same limitations.
When the flight plan is submitted, the ARTCC computer will
check each point and reject the flight plan if it finds improper
identifiers or NAVAID fix information. For example, fixes
differing from those published for Air Refueling tracks or Low
Level entry and exit points will be rejected. Thus, even if a
selected NAVAID is known to be out of service, the published
fixes must still be filed or the flight plan will not be
accepted by the computer. Once verified and entered into the
ARTCC system, the flight plan will remain in the computer for up
•}■■•■"
57
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to two hours after the proposed departure time unless extended
by changing the proposed departure time.
The next step in the process occurs approximately 30
minutes prior to scheduled departure. At this time. the
clearance is automatically printed out in the base clearance
delivery or departure control -facility at bases possessing the
required equipment. At most locations, it is also printed out
in the tower. If departing from a civilian -facility, the pilot
may have to receive the clearance from clearance delivery, a
local flight service station (FSS) by radio or telephone; or, if
practicable, take of-f under VFR conditions and request the
clearance from FSS or ARTCC after airborne. Once the aircraft
is airborne, the tower noti-fies Base Operations o-f the actual
takeoff time. If the aircraft is landing at other than the
departure base. Base Operations personnel send a flight
notification message to the destination either directly or
through FSS, depending on the communications system in use. If
the aircraft is returning to the departure base. Base Operations
personnel simply note the takeoff time and the expected arrival
time in their log.
In some cases, a pilot will take off with a valid flight
p] -TI and due to mission changes or hazardous weather, be forced
to change the route of -flight while airborne. This is not
di-fficult and can be done in several ways. The two most common
methods o-f changing a flight plan while airborne are through
ARTCC or through FSS.
58
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If a pilot can transmit the requested -flight plan change
directly to ARTCC the i n-f ormati an flow and processing are
somewhat simplified. In this case, an ARTCC controller will
input the requested route directly into the ARTCC computer
system. Once this is done, and the computer has verified and
accepted the routing, the controller will amend the pilot's
clearance and the process is almost complete. Remember, the
pilot must also update any other changes such as the ETE or
amount of fuel on board with the SAC command Rost and the FSS
which services the departure base. In some cases, however, an
ARTCC controller may be too busy or unable to accept a flight
plan change and the pilot must utilise a different procedure.
If ARTCC cannot accept a flight plan change, the pilot
should work through a FSS. In this case, a pilot must transmit
the requested route change to a flight service station. The FSS
operator then inputs the requested route into the ARTCC computer
system. Note however, receipt of the requested changes and even
input into the computer system does not change the pilot's
original clearance. Once the requested route has been accepted
by the computer and the clearance modified, the pilot could be
notified by one of two methods. One method is through ARTCC
directly. The other is through the FSS which input the
requested changes. Either method will suffice, however, many
pilots prefer to receive their clearance directly from ARTCC;
thus eliminating the FSS operator and a possible source of
confusion in the information flow process. This completes the
59
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discussion c-f the i n-f ormati on flow with the exception of closing
the flight pi an.
Once an aircraft has terminated a flight, the flight plan
must be closed. Current directives require that a pilot
verbally verify the closure of the flight plan with tower or
Base Operations personnel. At military fields, this is a back
up procedure since Base Operations personnel normally close a
flight plan upon landing notification from tower. At a civilian
field, a pilot must close the loop through FSS either by radio
prior to landing, or by radio or telephone after landing.
ARTCC Facilities
Under normal conditions ARTCC controllers can use their
facilities and experience to provide many extra services to a
pilot. Many of these are a direct result of the modern
equipment in use today. This section discusses the equipment
used, the information available to a controller, and the
services this information allows.
Modern ARTCC facilities utilize one of several types of
radar scope displays. The basic radar presentation shown in
Fi'-njra 4-1 is provided by a scope known as the ARTS III. It
consists of primary targets, or radar energy reflected from an
aircraft, secondary targets, which consist of radar energy
transmitted bv the aircraft transponder, some ground returns,
heavy precipitation, and alphanumeric data. The additional
60
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* ■• —' ^^~-
^ Ns «iH \ ........
(•» Dm NOII
«Ml NAS Slitft A AHICC I
Figure 4-1. ARTS III Radar Depiction
61
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intormation provides a controller with the location of
obstructions, local airports, and certain aircraft
identification features for secondary targets.
A typical secondary radar target consists of a rectangular
shaped mark at the aircraft position, a computer generated
identification line, an altitude readout (if the aircraft has an
operating mode C transponder and the center is equiped to
display the altitude), and the assigned transponder mode 3
setting. In addition, many radars will display a flashing "Low
Altitude" warning if the computer determines the aircraft
altitude, as reported by the mode C, places the aircraft in
unsafe proximity to the ground. Some radars will flash the
aircraft identification line to indicate a possible conflict in
air traffic. The "Ident" mode of a transponder may show up in
several ways, such as an enlarged target or a flashing target,
depending on the equipment in use.
Heavy precipitation will show on a radar scope as a dark
area. This dark area can be greatly reduced by using a feature
called Circular Polarisation. Controllers using this feature
may not observe all the precipitation in the area of radar
coverage. It is important that pilots understand this
limitation and be alert for unreported hazardous weather. In
most ARTCC facilities circular polarization is selectable and a
controller may be willing to disable this feature to provide
additional weather information to a pilot if requested.
A basic radar presentation will also normally depict the
62
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1
position of high obstructions, local air-fields, and airways or
jet routes running through the area of coverage. In some areas,
this additional information allows tne controller to provide
vectoring service. The controller is provided with minimum
vectoring altitudes based on the known obstructions. These
altitudes will vary with the section of controlled airspace the
aircraft is in but will assure safe terrain and obstruction
c1earance.
A second type of radar presentation, known as NAS Stage A,
is shown in Figure 4-2. This radar presentation is a digitised
display of radar information and not raw radar data. The
presentation contains basically the same information as the ARTS
III with certain modifications and additions.
Aircraft symbology is slightly different on the NAS Stage
A. For example, a primary return is shown as a plus sign, a
dot, or an X while a secondary return is depicted as a slash
with identification data. This identification line contains the
aircratt call sign, assigned altitude and mode C altitude
readout if the aircraft is so equiped, and a computer
identification number. The scope will display two additional
slashes beside the aircraft position to depict a transponder
"Ident". An emergency mode 3 code setting cf 7700 or a radio
failure setting of 7600 will show as additional notation to
alert the controller, as shown in Figure 4-2, items 20 and 23.
In some facilities, a code of 7700 or selecting emergency on the
transponder will also activate an alarm.
63
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Tarpit SymboJ»
2't tnrwft*ö v'li'Wy tmit* Uf^al I
3 UncOfTdaod beacon Urpd /
4 CmrvUlad baacon (Mp«! \
i lütniing b«Kon urg*l ■ t*CcKt»lB(»d nxfani irv« MsocUitlon ot (tJw data Mlh 1h« compolai pro- ^•clad track ol w« •dannfiad aircraftl
0 ' f,» t/*.:k (No fltght pJan tracking) A
7 f l«t track (flight p4an tracktngl 0
8 Co«t IBMCU» txgst la«) *
8 Pinanl Puaillon Hold X
Data Blotk Infüfmjiiion
lO*Ai»c<i»l Idanti'iotion
11 -AM>g<^«d Aintuda f L*1»0, mod« C alt.ludt iwn« w (yiihin 1300' of aagnd atniudi
12 'Computw ID «101. Handofl t«lo5«ciar 33 (0-33 would mMn hmnöolt KC«p(»d) I'Nr'i 10, II, (7 camtltulf • "full d*t<
Wock' 1
13 AMigrtrd iltlluda U.OOO', alrcrpfl li clvnblnfl. noda C raadout «v« 14.300 Mh«n laat twacon Inlarrogalton waa r«c<Hv*d
M Laada< Una connccUng tairgal aymbol and data block
15 Track v«4ocltv *"* dlrvcilon wclor Una (Pro^^lMlahMdol tar gat)
16 AHign«d aliltuda 7000. akcrafl la daacaodlng, laat moda C raadoul (or laat raponad afittuda MM IOC abö«Ft330
I 7 Tran«>ondaf code rftotM« tn full dau biock onty «vtwn ött1*rt\\ than aaägnad coda
IB Atrcrad i| 300" atxxa aa^gnM ■htiuito
19 Haporlad altttuda (No moda C readout) lama it aulgnad An "N" «vould Indl- cal* rv> raported altltuda)
?0 Tranaponda« MI on arriaf nancy coda 7 TOO [£MRG flaahaa to anraci aflantlon)
31 Trarvp<y>ctor coda 1700 <Vf H) iMxh no moda C
73 Coda 1 TOO (VFR | with moda C and laat »ttltuda readout
73 Tranaponda« aai on Radio F atluf a coda »00, (HOOF Harfiai)
34 CorrHXjtaf 10 *778, CST tndlcatn targat >■ in Coaal ttatui
Tb AagnMJ atlNud« F L790. tranapondat coda (Tbaaa two Ham* conitttuta a "l)mlt»d data block")
Othar lymboli
76 Nawlgational Aid
37 Airwvy ot j«t route
78 Outltnc of twaathaf ralurna banad on pftmarv nrtaf CSaa Cbapta' *. ARTCC Radar W«am«f Dt^ilay. H'iraprawni ar*M of high dvntlry practpilalton Mitch mtghi ba ttiundmlorms Radtd im** Indkata lower denfity praopt- tat ton)
39 Obatrucnon
30 Alrpora Map» C] , Smail f
NAS Sl*t>* A Con|foil«r« Vtew Pl«n Di6p!»v Thts f)gur» HluBlrslai Ifw conltoll«.*! rad«i »cop« (PVD) wf>«n opflratlno in lh» fu iu'om.Hon (RCP) mod« which I« normmiy 20 hours [>«f day (NolB WNm nol In •utomtlkjn mod«. Ih« dl»pUy Is Hm.l.r lo lh« tM0»db«fvJ mod iho*n in lh« ARTS HI n^«f Scop« Itflur« Canun ARTCC n oulaKJ« lh« cootlguou« U S «(so optK.le m -broadband mod«)
Figure 4-2. NAS STAGE A Radar Depiction
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Areas of precipitation are also illustrated di-f-f erent 1 y on
the NAS Stage A radar. Since the display is a digital
representation o-f the actual data, precipitation would not be
visible. Therefore, the computer presents areas of
precipitation as a series of lines with the letter "H" depicted
at the locations of the heaviest density precipitation. Thus,
the controller's ability to observe hazardous weather is often
1imi ted.
An additional feature available with the digitized radar is
the projected flight path of an aircraft. Upon request, the
computer is capable of depicting an aircraft's route of flight
through the controller's area of responsibility and will also
generate a projected flight path based on present course. Thus,
a controller can quickly determine if an aircraft is on course,
observe the next filed point, and decide if the aircraft will
remain on course based on present heading.
Controller Priorities
ARTCC controllers can assist a pilot in many ways. For
example, pilots often utilize controllers to process inflight
changes to flight plans, assist in the avoidance of hazardous
weather, assist in accomplishing cell and inflight refueling
rendezvous, and obtain weather information for landing. This
section is a brief description of the guidance provided to the
controller to determine which services to provide first or
65
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whether to provide these services at all.
The pilot must understand that all controllers are directed
to give -first priority to maintaining aircra-ft separation and
issuing safety advisories. Current controller regulations,
however, caution that because o-f the many variables and
situations involved, it is impossible to publish a standard set
of duty priorities that will apply in every situation.
Conceguent 1 y, controllers are instructed to evaluate each
situation individually and exercise their best judgement.
Additional services may be provided contingent upon such factors
as workload and freguency congestion.
In general, services involving aircraft control and safety
receive the highest priority. For example, terrain and aircraft
avoidance advisories, Sigmets, and Airmets are broadcast before
lesc- time sensitive reguests. Duties such as relaying PIREF'S,
assisting aircraft navigation through hazardous weather, and
notifing pilots of reported bird concentrations are not as
critical, but will be handled as expediously as possible. Other
services, such as relaying altimeter settings, providing landing
weather, and accepting flight plan changes are of a lower
priority and will be accomplished as time permits.
Controllers are also instructed as to priority for
operational aircraft. As might be expected, aircraft in
distress have priority over all other aircraft. After that,
controllers handle aircraft on a first come, first serve basis
with a few exceptions. For example, civilian ambulance flights
66
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lyipiyy^liqppBlwpygita^wifwptppw^iwp^
and military air evacuation flights generally receive the next
highest priority, closely -followed by Search and Rescue (SAR)
aircraft. Controllers are instructed that unexpected weather or
heavy traffic flows may preclude these priorities, and that
their decisions as to which services to provide need not be
explained to pilots. Therefore, a pilot must be prepared to work
with the controller to assure a safe environment in which to
fly.
Lost Communications Procedures
This section examines lost communications procedures from
the controller's point of view. It is intended to expand upon
the procedures published in the Flight Information Handbook
(FIH) and current Air Force publications. It is based on FAA
regulations used by controllers and conversations with
experienced air traffic controllers. Remember, as with other
flight procedures, if confronted with a situation not discussed
in current regulations, controllers expect the pilot to use good
judgement and will base their actions on anticipated pilot
act i ons.
If communications are lost with an aircraft on an IFR
■flight plan, the controller's actions will be based on certain
anticipated pilot actions. For example, the controller expects
the pilot to follow the flight plan and verify radio failure by
changing the mode 3 transponder setting to 7700 for 15 minutes
67
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and then to 7600 -for the remainder of the hour, repeating this
procedure each hour until the -flight 15 terminated. The
controller also expects the pilot to land when practicable. This
is not to be con-fused with as soon as possible and should not
encourage pilots to land at an unsuitable air-field or short o-f
the destination.
The controller will always attempt to contact the aircraft
using alternate methods. For example, VHF eguipped aircraft can
expect controllers to attempt contact on VHP frequencies,
including 121.5 MHz. UHF Guard frequency (243.0) may also be
utilized, as well as flight service frequencies. In addition,
pilots should monitor VOR frequencies along the route of flight
since some NAVAIDS are equiped for voice transmission. Pilots
receiving AR'TCC instructions, but unable to reply, may be
directed to place their transponder in "standby" or "ident" as a
means of acknowledging transmissions. If contact cannot be made
or maintained, the controller will clear airspace accordingly.
A controller's actions will be slightly different if the
aircraft is in the traffic pattern when communications are lost.
Once an aircraft is in the traffic pattern, the pilot
should always have a plan for lost communications situations.
If IFR conditions exist, the controller will issue lost
communications instructions for all radar approaches. If these
instructions are not suitable, the pilot should request
different instructions. If an aircraft is being vectored to a
FAF for a published approach when communications are lost, the
1
68
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pilot is cleared to use the aircraft navigation equipment to
-find the FAF for any published approach to the active runway.
The controller will monitor the aircraft position and clear
other traffic as necessary. The controller will also notify the
tower, and the pilot should monitor the tower for light signals,
weather conditions permitting. Most bases publish local
procedures which supplement the general guidance 50 a pilot
should always be familiar with any local directives if possible.
Summary
This chapter has reviewed some of the procedures and
services provided by a typical AR'TCC facility. It began with a
discussion of the information flow involved with filing,
processing, and delivering an IFR clearance. The information
available to a controller was then described. Controller
priorities and lost communications procedures were then
discussed. All Air Force pilots can expect to work closely with
ARTCC in most of their daily flight operations. Thus, a strong
understanding of the controller's limitations and guidance is
vital if the pilot is to obtain the maximum benefits and operate
the aircraft safely.
69
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REVIEW EXERCISES
4-1. When flying out o-f a Military air-field is it necessary to
request Ground Control or Clearance Delivery to place the
"clearance on request"?
4-2. At a military airfield, what office is responsible for
transmitting a flight notification message if one is required?
4-3. Is it possible for an ARTCC controller to observe
hazardous weather on a radar scope?
4-4. What happens in an ARTCC facility when a pilot selects
"emergency" or sets code 7700 in the mode 3 of the aircraft
transponder^
4-5. Upon what will the actions of a controller be based when
confronted with a lost communication situation not covered by
requl at i ons-7
70
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ANSWERS TO REVIEW EXERCISES
1-1. a. 037 MH b. 100 Nh c. 20 minutes
1-2. AJ. rcra-ft will burn 30,000 pounds of -fuel in 90 minutes and will thus have 55,000 pounds o-f fuel remaining,
1-3. The pilot can burn 55,000 pounds of fuel and depart with 35,000 pounds of fuel. At 18,000 pounds per hour, the pilot can hold for appro;; i matel v three hours.
1-4. The aircraft must lose 1020 feet in 3,7 Nautical Miles. This requires a descent of 276 feet per nautical mile.
1-5. The answer depends on the rate of descent the pilot choses to use to descend from the MDA at the VDP to the runway. Assuming a 3 degree descent, the pilot will descend 457 feet (1140 - 683) in appproximately 1,5 NM, Therefore, the VDP must be 1.5 NM from the end of the runway. The TACAN is 0.4 NM from the end of the runway (1 - 0.6) so the VDP should be at 1.9 DME. (1.5 + 0.4). The distance from the FAF to the VDP is 3.1 NM (5 DME - 1.9 DME). At 180 knots ground speed, this will require 62 seconds. The distance from the FAF to the MAP is 4 NM. At 180 knots ground speed this will require 80 seconds.
2-1 . 327 TH 8 Variation = 319 MH
2-2. Most alert areas and their hours of operation are listed in FLIP. A pilot could also obtain the current status of the area from the controlling agency (ARTCC),
2-3. a. See figure 5-1. b. See figure 5-1. c. See figure 5—1. d. 45 minutes
3-1. a. The pilot wishes to lose 32,000 feet at 300 feet per nautical mile. This descent will require 107 nautical miles. Since the pilot wishes to be level at 3000 MSL at 15 DME, the descent should begin at 122 DME.
71
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^^■"■i-.^iuH-^'j^'V"^'''.^ ^.T"-* "'.■' '•l.'V i.11 u-i'j,;'n'ti:'«-T"!^«";ri \!'*~r*-i'Ti'nmjpl\''. v;« ^«i v^ v/V.,^'yn!3-»'T»,J^ j".^"<;'«"J^'.';><'V^v» 7-^ ■■■^■^-.■■■j ■^■»y-; v.i g^ryryr? w.
b. 300 feet per nautical mile. c. 3 degrees -from level -flight d. 1800 FPM.
pilot wants to lose 5000 feet in the next 10 This descent would require a 5 degree pitch
3-2. a. The nautical miles, change.
b. The pilot would make an additional 1 degree pitch change (for a total of 6 degrees) and monitor the progress of the descent.
3-3. A heading to establish an offset distance of one turn diameter from the inbound course could be established by multiplying the aircraft turn diameter by 60 and dividing the answer by the length of the inbound leg in nautical miles. In this case, (4) (60)/(6)=40 degrees. The pilot could turn to 040 degrees plus or minus drift, although any heading between 035 and 080 would be legal JAW AFM 51-37.
3-4. a. The pilot wishes to lose 860 feet (2000 - 1140) in 4 nautical miles. This rate of descent requires a descent of 215 feet per nautical mile. Therefore, the pilot should make at least a 2.5 degree pitch change.
b. 750 FPM. (3 NM/Min)(250 Ft/NM) c. At this rate of descent, the aircraft will be at the
MAP when reaching the MDA and possibly past the pilot's preferred VDP.
4-1. Not normally. Most military facilities have the equipment to automatically print out a pilot's clearance thirty minutes prior to expected departure time.
4-2. Base Operations personnc-l.
4-3. Yes. The degree to which hazardous weather will show depends on the type of radar equipment installed and whether or not circular polarization is in use.
4-4. The answer depends on the equipment in use and varies from a flashing ID line to an enlarged return. At some facilities, an alarm may also be activated.
4- J. Anticipated pilot actions and the pilot's last clearance.
7 2
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Figure 5-1. Sample Pilot Chart
73
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
REFERENCES CITED
Articles and Periodicals
Sams. Ronald., Maj, U5AF, "Descents . . Combat CretM, August 1983, pp 7,24,
The Easy Way-"
Walters, Thome H. Jr., Capt, USAF, "Big Instrument: 60 To 1 Rule." Combat Crew, March 1979, pp 19-21.
0-f-ficial Documents
3. De+ense happing Agency Aerospace Center. POD Flight In-formation Publication (Terminal) NE, High Altitude United States. St. Louis: De+ense Mapping Agency Aerospace Center, 20 December 1984.
4. U.S. Department o-f the Air Force. Air Navigation^ AF' Manual 51-40. Washington, D.C. : Government Printing 0-f+ice, 15 March 1993.
5. U.S. Department o-f the Air Force. Dead Reckoning Computer (MB-4 or- CPU-26) , AF Pamplet 60-19, Volume V. Washi ngton, D.C: Government Printing Of-fice, 16 July 1984.
6. U.S. Department o+ the Air Force. General Flight Rules, AF Regulation 60--i6. Washington, D.C: Government Printing O+fice, 5 December 1980.
7. U.S. Department of the Air Force. Instrument Flying. AF Manual 51-37. Washington D.C: Government Printing 0-fTice. 15 August 1979.
8. U.S. Department o-f the Air Force. Navigation For Pilot Traim ng. ATCP 51-16. Washington, D.C: Government Printing Gf+ice, 15 July 1983.
9. U.S. Department o-f Transportation. Airman's Information Manual . Washington. D.C: Government Printing Office, 25 October 1984.
74
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CONTINUED
10. U.S. Department of Transportation. Air Tra-f-fic Control Traffic Control Handbook 7110.65D. Washington D.C.: Government F'rintinq Office. 25 October 19B4.
Air
Other Sources
11. Defense Mapping Agency Aerospace Center. JNC 44 Aeronautical Chart. St. Louis: Defense Mapping Agency Aerospace Center. Revised November 1982.
12. Carter, William., Air Field Manager, Maxwell AFB, Al. Interview with Author. 7 January 1985.
13. McUmber. Warren..Air Traffic Control Supervisor, Maxwell AFB. Al. Interview with Author. 10 January 1985.
75
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INDEX
Aeronautical Flotter, 14 HRTCC Facilities, 60 ARTCC, Scope Display? öi ARTS ill Radar, 60 Clearance Delivery, 56 Clearance Processing, 56 Clearance Verification, 57 Charts, Aeronautical, 28 CHUM. 32 Computer. CPU-26 A/P. 3 Controller Priorities, 65 Contour Lines, 29 Course, Measuring With Plotter, 26 Critical Peak, 31 Cultural Information, 31 Flight Plan. Changing Inflight, 59 Flight Flan, Closure, 60 Flight Flan, Flotting, 35 Gradient Determination, 15 Grommet, CPU-26 A/P, 5 Ground Distance, Determining, 26 Legend, Aeronautical Chart, 30 Lost Communications F'rocedures, 67 Mileage Scales. Flotter, 27 Minimum Vector Altitudes, 63 NA5 Stage A Radar Depiction, 63 Navigation Aids, Depictions on Chart, 33 Operational Navigational Chart (DNC), 29 FIREF', Relay Priority, 66 F'nmary Radar Return, 60 Ratio Type Froblems, 9 Rate ot Descent. Nonprecision Approach, 19 Rui iv Depiction, Chart, 32 Seale. Chart, 29 Secondary Radar Return, 60 Seconds Inde., , LF,U-26 A/P, 11 Siütv To One Rule. Climbs and Descents, 45 Sixty To One Rule. Correcting For Wind, 46 Si;;tv To Onp Rule. CTfset Calculations, 48 Si ;■; t y To One Rule. Theory. 42 Special Use Airspace, 33
76
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CONTINUED
Speed Inde;;, CPU-26 A/P, 5 Spot Elevation, 31 TACAN, Fix To Fix Problems, 5 Tactical Pilotage Chart (TPC), 28 Ten Index, CPU-26 A/P, 5 Terrain Advisories, 66 Terrain Elevation, Aeronautical Charts, 31 True Index, CPU-26 A/P, 5 Visual Descent Point, 17 Vertical Obstructions, Aeronautical Chart, 31 Wind Face, CPU-26 A/P, 5
77
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