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© Sikkim Science SocietyJournal of Hill Research22 (2): 68-85, 2009

Agro-ecological Diversity, Ecosystem Services and Impacts of Climate change in the Indigenous Farming

Systems of the Sikkim Himalayas

Ghanashyam Sharma

The Mountain Institute-India, “Abhilasha” Development Area, Gangtok 737 101, Sikkim

(Received 30 August 2009; accepted 17 December 2009)

ABSTRACT

The adoption of agroforestry practices in the Indigenous Farming Systems (IFS) has gained wider attention in the Multilateral Environment Agreements, international academia and policy makersfor their multifunctional role and dynamics of ecosystem services. The Convention on Biological Diversity has put forward ecosystem approach while Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) emphasized agroforestry as an appropriate means to reduce emissions and enhance sinks of green house gases. The multifunctional IFS are examples from the Sikkim Himalayas that support dynamic ecosystem services and livelihood to mountain communities. The Sikkim Himalayan Agriculture has been recently considered as a candidate site for the FAOs Globally Indigenous Agriculture Heritage (GIAHS) programme. The IFS are adaptive to the climate change situations and efficient means to carbon sinks. With the general awareness that climate change is rapidly impacting both ecosystems and services in the mountainous region, the sustainability of dynamic mountain IFS has been left with unanswered questions and challenges. Moreover, the current agriculture policy of introducing seeds of high yielding varieties and agriculture land conversion to non-agri sector is not favourable to poor and marginal farmers.

INTRODUCTION

The adaptive management of upland cultivated and non-cultivated systems in the Eastern Himalayas by growing multipurpose trees and species and intercropping understorey crops and fruits, livestock raising and protection of adjacent forests for variety of services is an indigenous practice of the mountain communities over many centuries. Such practices have recently been defined as agroforestry. It is now defined as a collective name for land use system and technologies involving trees combined with crops and/or animals on the same land management unit (Nair, 1993; Tamale et al., 1995; Ibrahim and Sinclair, 2005). The environmental services that agroforestry practices in Indigenous Farming Systems (IFS) can provide, and especially their potential contribution to the conservation of biodiversity, have recently attracted wider attention among the conservation scientists (Mcneely and Scroth, 2006). The Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) has also cited agroforestry as one of the options to reduce emissions and enhance sinks of green house gases. The IPCC Land Use Change and Forestry Report (2001) concluded that transformation of degraded agriculture land to agroforestry has far greater potential to sequester carbon than any other land use change. The ecosystems approach which is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that presents conservation and sustainable use in the equitable way, has been emphasized by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) during the Seventh Conference of the Parties (COP Decision VII/11, 2004). The Global community is now known to act on both mitigation and adaptation, and agroforestry has great potential to leverage these synergistically (World Agroforestry Center, 2006).

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Most of the IFS in the Sikkim Himalayas are at the subsistence level and have evolved over the years from trial and error by the farmers to meet the demands for food, fodder, fuelwood and timber (Sundriyal et al., 1994; Sharma et al., 2006). These subsistence farming systems are characterized by substantial diversity and also high degree of self-reliance (Maikhuri et al., 1996; Semwal and Maikhuri 1996; Palni et al., 1998; Ramakrishnan et al., 1994; Nautiyal et al., 2003; Sharma and Liang 2006; Sharma et al. 2006; Sharma et al., 2009). Such IFS promote low cost sustainable development in ecosystems, protects and conserves ecological systems, and improveseconomic efficiency of the farming community (Immanuel et al., 2010). The mountain farmers practice indigenous agriculture to meet their daily needs. Indigenous agriculture is supported by their Indigenous Traditional Knowledge Systems (ITKS) related to production and management. In the Garhwal Himalaya, the village ecosystems are rapidly facing degradation and loss of fertile ecosystems (Chandra et al., 2010). The land management in catchments of mountainous regions like the Himalayas is essentially related to the ecosystem services provided by these areas toboth upland and lowland communities. Such ecosystem services specifically involve the conservation of soil and water, the protection of land from soil quality deterioration, and the conservation of water for drinking and other farm uses (Sharma et al., 2006). In-depth research on IFS of the Sikkim Himalayas is lacking and literatures are very limited. Therefore, this paper was designed to discuss on the agroecological diversity of the IFS, ecosystem services and opportunities that they provide, functional roles of adaptive practices, dynamics of management diversity; andsome indicators of climate change impacts observed in the recent years.

Agro-Ecological Diversity of IFS

The Sikkim Himalayan IFS encompasses variations of agro-ecological zones covering a range of ecosystem diversity extending between 300 m to 6000 m asl. The subtropical zones (300 m above) houses rice cultivation systems in terraces and along the valleys. Above this are cardamom-based and farm-based IFS in the subtropical to warm temperate zones (600–2500 m), extreme subsistence farming in the cool temperate and lower alpine zones (2500–4000 m), and the trans-Himalayan nomadic agro-pastoral topastoral systems in the alpine Tibetan plateaus (4000–6000 m). The Sikkim Himalayas fall in the Indian monsoon region and has three main seasons: winter (November-February), spring (March-May) and rainy (June-October). The IFS are based on management diversities, socio-ecological and socio-economical conditions, traditional knowledge systems, land use types and the land use stages associated to traditional farming and their functional roles. The analysis and classification mentioned in this paper was established based on multiple criteria such as function of trees, shrubs and the understorey multiple crops, production zones and also based on the structural dynamism, social economic benefits, ecological resilience and adaptability of the TFS(Table 1).

Trans-Himalayan Agro-PastoralismAgro-pastoralism in the alpine cold deserts of Lhonak valley, Muguthnag, Thangu Chho Lhamo and Lashar valley above 4000 m in North Sikkim has been a part of human life support systems over several centuries. The Trans-Himalayan nomadic Dokpas (nomadic herders) herd yaks, dzos (cow-yak hybrid), sheep and goats (pasmina type) in the high altitude plateaus and meadows adapted to sustain the harsh climatic conditions. The dry alpine meadows of these unique valleys have been indigenously managed and inhabited by the Tibetan nomads, a unique example of how people survive in such drought and cold-stricken landscapes through mobile livestock production systems overcoming all environmental fragility, marginality and poverty.Presently, there are only 23 families of the Dokpas managing about 90% of yak population of the Sikkim state. The wool, meat, cheese, fat (tsilu) of yak and sheep, and other various products are rare traded items. In recent years, through intriguing challenges and pressures, the Dokpas are restricted to a limited patch of the vast

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Chho Lhamo, Lhonak and Lashar plateaus, which is also called the Roof of the World. In the olden times, herders had open movements from the Chho Lhamo, or from the Lhonak valley into Tibet and back through Nyima La or Naku La pass when the boarder was open. The cross border grazing had advantages for yak cross-breeding and socio-cultural relationships in the form of marriages, trade and religion (NBSAP,2002). Currently, in the Lasar valley and Tso Lhamu plateau, yaks are owned by 21 families and sheep by only three families. Most of the herds are managed by Dokpas. Over the last two decades, the new generations of the herders have started migrating to cities for better education and employment. This has reflected into labour shortage in livestock grazing. Therefore, the owners of yaks and sheep in the recent years have started employing paid herders from other parts of Sikkim (TMI-India, 2009).

Slope-land Traditional Agriculture SystemsThe IFS are typically represented by steep slopes converted to terraced productive zones (traditionally called pakho-khet, pakho-bari, birauto, sim-kholyang), ridges of operational fields, and management of very steep slopes as bhasmey and khoriya (Sharma et al., 2006). The agricultural tools, farm implements and techniques, cultivation methodology, farm raised animals; local crops, irrigation system etc. are traditional. Besides the oboriginal Lepchas, the Bhutias and Nepalese are composed of a number of ethnic communities with different languages/dialects, and socio-cultural background. This cultural diversity contributes to rich agrobiodiversity and traditional ecological knowledge. Below the trans-Himalayan agro-ecosystem between 3000–4300 m, the communities mostly Lepcha, Bhutia and Sherpa in Phadamchen-Kupuk, Lachen, Lachung, Dzongu, Thangu and Thegu area practice subsistence farming by cultivating a variety of crops and fruits such as barley, wheat, potato, cabbage, apple, maize, peas, beans, peach, and medicinal plants. Grazing of cattle is a part of their life and livelihood. Communities are very enterprising; their traditional homestead products such as blankets, rugs and carpets made from the wools of high altitude sheep are rare marketable items apart from animal products such as meat, cheese, butter etc. Seabuckthorn (Hippophae tibetiana), and Yartsa Guenboob (Coedyceps sinensis) are potential high value products that plough back substantial income to communities. Local people collect mushrooms, tubers and many edible products from the wild for household consumption and often sell them in the nearby markets.

The lower agro-ecological zone consists of a wide range of indigenous production systems, that includes the terraced and valley rice cultivation, locally called the Khetsystem, agroforestry systems such as alder-cardamom (alainchi-bari) or farm-trees-mandarin (suntola-bari) agroforestry, Sukha-Bari, Pakho-bari system, and forest-based agroforestry system. Livestock are mostly stall-fed as grazing land is very limited. This system has traditional irrigation systems, management regimes, several cropping systems, crops diversity including medicinal plants, wild edibles, a large number of underutilized (also known as lesser-known) crops, semi-domesticated crops and their wild relatives. In an indigenous system, land parcels of a unit household are classified into different sections for growing agroforestry, terraces for growing crops and for resource allocation and utilization (Table 2). Farmers have developed diversity of management systems and conservation alternatives of mixtures of crops and farm animals with multipurpose agroforestry tree species that create appropriate environment to some high value crops and intercropping of many traditional varieties.

Terrace Rice Cultivation SystemsThe ancient Demazong vis-a-vis Sikkim was characterized the valley rice cultivationsystem along the river banks on flat lands traditionally called Thang (e.g. Tarey-thang-byansi, Pi-thang-byansi) and along the typically terraced slopes in the lower hills. A large number of landraces of rice are still cultivated while majority are disappeared from the system. Some of the dryland paddy varieties were Ghyya-dhan, Takmari, Bhuindhan, Marshi etc. while the irrigated rice varieties now are Attey, Timmurey, Krishnabhog, Bachhi, Nuniya, Mansaro, Baghey-tulashi, Kataka, Champasari, Sikrey, Taprey, etc. adapted to agro-ecological zones between 300–1800 m. Krishnabhog, Nuniya and Kataka are famous for their aroma, medicinal importance and fine quality

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grain as good as Indian basmati rice (Sharma and Liang, 2006). Almost all the dryland paddy landraces have now disappeared from the system. While many traditional irrigated landraces are disappeared already and others are on the verge of disappearance. The household mothers are generally the custodians of gene-banks of crop diversity. They keep the record of varieties/yields and preserve germplasm by growing them at heterogeneity of land parcels allotted for growing of landraces. Farmers grow a variety of pulses and beans to along the raised bunds and terrace edges. Rice terraces are used to grow maize, wheat, buckwheat, oil seeds, vegetables etc. after rice is harvested. Between the terraced open rice fields, along the slopes, are cardamom-based and forest-based agroforestry systems. Such traditional landscape designing multifunctional agroforestry and protection to the terraced open cultivation system is characteristic of unique agro-ecosystem management in the mountains. The system in addition supports water conservation and flood control, provides nutrient and biomass to the rice field and farm.

Agroforestry Practices in IFS

Farm-based agroforestry The farm-based agroforestry practices are primarily agrisilvicultural systems that comprise of home gardens, traditional beekeeping and livestock as the principal components of the farming system, multipurpose trees on edges of terrace crop production zones for growing a variety of landraces and local adaptive, underutilized crops and lesser known crops as protein banks. This type of agroforestry also comprises of multilayer tree gardens with fruit crops. The trees act as wind breaks and function as protective belts to the terrace risers along the edges of the crop production slopes called sukha-bari or terrace paddy fields. In addition, hedgerows of fodder species such as Thysanolaena agrostis and other ground grasses are grown for fodder and stabilizing the terrace edges. In the farm-based agroforestry, farmers manage multipurpose tree species for fodder, fuel woodlots and timber, and for a variety of other direct and indirect uses within and around the cultivable land. Trees on theterrace risers are grown for soil stabilization, while farmers practice intercropping under tree canopies. Management of fodder trees and food production is critical in maintaining the livestock. The farm-based system is efficient land-use and resource utilization for sustaining the agricultural practices in sloping lands, recycling of organic dry matter for soil fertility maintenance and improvement of the agro-ecosystem functioning and services. Farmers have converted wastelands or abandoned lands into agroforestry that provides a variety of resources such as green fodder, fuelwood, timber, non-timber forest products (NTFPs), litter etc.

Farm forest-based agroforestryThe farm forest-based agroforestry practices are agro-silvopastoral/agro-silvocultural systems comprising a diversity of multipurpose woodlots required for local construction and repairs, fuelwood, fodder for stall-fed livestock, bamboo groves, and pasture areas for seasonal grazing within the marginal landholdings. The forest-based practices of agroforestry are developed as support land. This system supplies nutrients and organic matter to the farm. Farmers often collect minor forest products such as fruits, fibres, medicinal plants, tubers, other wild vegetables. In the recent years, to overcome considerable shortage of fodder, most of the barren slope lands have been extensively converted into broom grass plantations locally called amliso-bari under the multipurpose tree species.

High value crop-based traditional agroforestryHigh value crop-based agroforestry practice comprises of large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) based (called alainchi-bari) and mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata) based (suntola-bari) practices. About 70% of the cardamom-based agororestry practices are under N2-fixing Himalayan alder (Alnus nepalensis) while 30% are under the mixed-

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tree agroforestry species. A total of 16,949 cardamom holdings have been recorded in Sikkim state, most of which are smaller than 1 ha. About 30% of the total area under cultivation is between 1−3 ha large (Sharma and Sharma, 1997; Sharma et al., 2000). The cultivation area of large cardamom had increased by 2.3 times in the past 20 years that has now declined by almost 30% in the recent years although gap filling and replantation under the same canopy cover is a regular management practice. About 1316 ha of the reserved forest in Sikkim was used for under-canopy large cardamom cultivation on lease to farmers with no rights of cutting the trees (Singh et al., 1989; Sharma et al., 1994). However, most of these plantations were under protected areas and reserved forests which were withdrawn from the growers by the Department of Forest, Wildlife and Environment, Government of Sikkim during 2004-2006 while some farmers around the Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary, West Sikkim are still cultivating large cardamom in forest areas paying nominal compensation to the state government.

The striking constraint in the large cardamom farming has been the viral infestations locally called Chirkey and Furkey which has resulted into productivity decline in the recent years. The indigenous Lepcha community incorporated disease resistant wild cultivars of cardamom locally called Churumpho in cardamom orchards infested by viruses. Two new local cultivars Dzongu Golsai and Hee-Seramna have been evolved out from the practice and are tolerant to viral diseases (Sharma G. et al.,2009). Interventions on preparation of efficient, environment friendly and acceptable curing kiln, value addition to the produce at site and forward and backward linkages to the system for obtaining good outputs have been least successful and need to be strengthened. Another prominent socio-economically regarded agroforestry is mandarin orange based farming. N2-fixing Albizia species are extensively grown with agroforestry trees in the terraced croplands. Such farming involves a number of multilayer fruit species, and mixed intercropping of maize, pulses,beans, ginger, buckwheat, finger millet, pulses, oilseeds, taro and yam. Mandarin orange and ginger are potential cash crops of Sikkim after large cardamom. Mandarin orange is a high value, comparatively less labour intensive farming. Diversity of crops and other associate tree species are maintained in the system for other subsistence requirements and benefits. However, the system is considered as highly nutrient exhaustive as compared to the cardamom based system. The interacting components and flow of services in a unit mountain farming system in Sikkim is presented in Figure 1.

Agrobiodiversity in TFSThe unique mountainous terrain of the Sikkim Himalaya consist of varied physiographic factors and topography that allow location specific diverse biological microclimatic conditions giving rise to a range of ecosystem diversity rich in agrobiodiversity. The challenging mountain physical specificities have resulted into vulnerability whereas such biophysical features of diversified landscapes at a shorter distance allow conducive environment for genetic variations and landraces with sustained natural resource management. Sikkim Himalayan region is a reservoir of gene pool of several unique crops, land races and their wild relatives. The indigenousethnic communities contribute to agrobiodiversity with various farming systems with a matrix of agricultural crops (landraces of rice, maize, buckwheat, beans, pulses, finger millets, yams and tubers, ginger and cardamom). The ethnic communities have unique features in their systems for agriculture, agrobiodiversity, sustainable land use and land tenure ownership (Ramakrishnan et al., 1998). The majority of the inter-cropping such as cardamom, mandarin-based intercropping, ginger-maize, paddy-soybean, pulses-turmeric, maize-potato and vegetable crops are practiced as understorey crops. The local high value cash crops in Sikkim are large cardamom, mandarin orange, ginger and potato. The conservation pattern of agrobiodiversity differs to different ethnic communities. One of the promising examples is the largecardamom which was first believed to be domesticated by Lepchas which was later on adopted by Bhutias and Nepalese. The management of local agrobiodiversity includesall species and varieties important to the communities with emphasis on crops, plants

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and animal combinations, to reduce risks, increase production and enhance conservation. Sharma and Sundriyal (1998) reported that the agricultural biodiversity that has been maintained by women through traditional systems has been diminished with the promotion of hybrid seeds, HYVs, monocropping, and intensification ofindigenous agriculture systems. The Sikkim Government Food Security and Agriculture Development Department has introduced HYVs of rice, maize, wheat, finger millet, barley, urd, pulses, mustard, soybean in about 26,112 ha (Annual Report, 2009). The promotion of HYVs has posed a great threat to the on-farm conservation of genetic resources. There is lack of institutional initiatives to save genetic resources from complete disappearance from the system. The priority of the State Government policy in agriculture sector is to make the state fully organic by 2015 (Annual Report, 2009). Farmers have thus initiated to cultivate demand driven high value cereals, pulses and cash crops for commercialization which again is a threat to agrobiodiversity especially to lesser known and underutilized crops.

Indigenous Traditional Knowledge Systems (ITKS)The IFS developed and owned by the traditional mountain communities houses a large number of Genetic Resource (GRs) and associated traditional knowledge (TK) of global value. The ITEK is the inherent identity that is embedded to each ethnic community, very unique and diverse in all respects. It is reflected on their cultivation system, ethnobiology, and health and nutrition management. The ITEK associated to GRs wealth of the communities has become the centre of attraction to national and international pharmaceutical companies and an immediate concern of Intellectual Property Rights and Protection of Plant Varieties Farmers’ Rights and TK. In 2009, the Society for Better Environment, a local NGO initiated formation of Biodiversity Management Committees for documentation of GRs and associated TK in Peoples Biodiversity Register. The documentation would help register knowledge-base, prevent biopiracy and promote bioprospecting. India is a pioneer in making and enforcing the ABS law (Oli, 2009) and in adopting the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmer’s Rights Act (2001). In the global context, institutional mechanisms need to be developed to regulate and protect access to GRs/TK and benefit sharing arising from the commercialization of these resources (Oli, 2009).

Ethnic Food Products in IFSThe existence of rich agrobiodiversity is due to diversity in cultural and traditional food habits of ethnic communities. Cultivation of crop varieties is dependent on different agroecological ranges and the inhabitant ethnic societies, and follows cultures, traditions and customary rituals. Indigenous communities have sound knowledge on landraces of domesticated crops and their wild relatives, underutilized crops and conserve them for their traditional and cultural rituals and festivals. For instance, the Newar festivals include the Kokkti-Purney or Kwanti Purnima and the Rakhi Purnima. On the day of Rakhi-Purnima, Newar community prepares a special soup of newly germinated pulses known as Kwathi or Kokti. It is prepared out of nine types of pulses such as a mixture of beans (Ghew simi, Singtamey simi, Mantulall simi, Rajmah), Mung (Kalodal, Panhelidal), Field Peas (Matar/Kerau), Horse gram (Gahat), Ricebean (Masyam), Soybean (Bhatmash), Cowpea (Tuneybori), Gram (Chana dal) and lentil (Musuridal). The mixed beans sprouts are used to prepare traditional delicacies with local spices (medicinal herbs). Kwanti Purnima is an auspicious day, families and relatives are invited, and soups are served with other traditional recipes. Similarly,other communities have different traditional food recipes prepared on auspicious days. The communities thus protect GRs of pulses and crops grown in the Himalayas, and thus is one of the best examples of managing cultural agrobiodiversity.

Communities enjoy fermented products and local beverages (such as Kodo ko Jaanr, Bhaati-jaanr, Raksi, etc. traditionally prepared out of finger millet, rice) throughout the year. These products are primarily used to perform rituals called pitri puja, kul puja, tonsi mundhum etc. by different communities as per their culture or religion. The fermented products, such as Gundruk (from leaves of mustard, cabbage,

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radish, taro leaves), Sinki (made from raddish), Kinema (soybean product), Khalpi (pickles from cucumber), Tamako-achar (bamboo shoots) and a lot more have health benefits as an appetizer and fast-food supplement during the lean season, and support earning cash for the households (Tamang, 2009). For instance, Tamang (2005) has listed out more than 29 types of fermented foods, 9 types of alcoholic beverages, and 85 types of traditional non-fermented foods of different ethnic communities of the Sikkim Himalayas.

Functional Role and Services of IFS

The Khangchendzonga-Landscape has been conducive to house biodiversity of global significance; the unique ecosystems are providing services and outputs what is recently described as provisioning, regulating, and supporting to well being by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). A schematic representation of goods and services provided by the traditional agroforestry systems is given in Figure 2.

Biodiversity, Wildlife Habitat and PA Corridor, Landscape Sikkim Himalaya is a part of the 34 globally significant biodiversity hot-spots and endemism in the Himalayas (CI, 2005) with rich agrobiodiversity as one of its principal components for livelihood security of the mountain people. Sikkim, Assam and other northeast states of India, appear to be distinct in floral and faunal assemblages because they became a gateway between Southeast Asia and South Asia after the tectonic plate collision some 10–65 million years ago, which resulted into the formation of the Himalaya (Mani, 1974; Gupta, 2001). It forms a part of the meeting ground of Indo-Malayan and Indo-Chinese biogeographical realms as well as Himalayan and Peninsular Indian elements that has given rise to a very rich biodiversity both wild and in cultivated landscapes. The conservation of biodiversity rich land spaces, forests, agroforestry systems, rivers and rivulets, hills and the valleys are attached to the rich culture of the communities deeply rooted and interwoven over several centuries. Landscapes form the functional unit for biological and ecological processes, since biodiversity and ecological services are normally delivered by landscape functions (Sharma, 2004). Apart from conservation of large number of important wildlife species, traditional agroforestry in the IFS have directly contributed to biodiversity through in-situ conservation of diversity of tree species, lower canopy shrubs, understorey vegetation, minor forest products and medicinal plants. Thus, IFS is a close loop system where human needs are fulfilled from within the system and reduces anthropogenic pressure to the adjacent forests. They provide suitable habitat for wild animal species that tolerate disturbance to a certain level on the farmland and large patches of agroforestry at a landscape level to support movement of these species and function as corridors (Sharma and Chettri, 2007). The agroforestry practices in the cultivated systems between the PA networks in the Sikkim Himalayan region serve as the biological corridor for the movement of wild animals designated as flagship species in the wider spaces along the Himalayas within India, and across international corridors and borders towards Bhutan in the east, Tibetan Autonomous Region of China in the north and Nepal in the west. Agricultural landscapes allow gene flow of the globally threatened and biologically restricted species and retain the biological connectivity of the discrete biological units (Sharmaand Chettri, 2007). Wild biodiversity and traditional agroforestry, in the context of Sikkim Himalayas are continuous landscape elements which are characterized by the proximate interaction between natural systems and human dimensions. The high crop diversity and diversity of agroforestry systems are principal land use components for management of heterogeneous landscapes in the region that encounters the constraints of inaccessibility, fragility and marginality. The schematic model of interacting components in a unit traditional farming system is represented in Figure 2.

Protective functionsIn a Himalayan watershed level land use system, overland flow, soil and nutrient losses were very high (about 72%) from the open agriculture (cropped) fields while

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cardamom-based and other agroforestry systems conserved more soil and nutrients under the traditional practices. Traditional interventions such as the use of multipurpose species e.g. broom grass and trees upon terrace risers, use of N2-fixing trees Albizia, Alnus and Erythrina for maintenance of soil fertility on rain-fed slopes and plantation of horticulture trees have reduced the soil loss by 22% which is quite substantial in steep slopes. Soil and water conservation values in cardamom and broom grass based agroforestry were higher suggesting greater conservation potential for extensive large scale land use change from forestry to agriculture (Sharma et al.,2001). The adoption of sustainable agriculture and agroforestry models such as that of traditional practices of the Sikkim Himalayas has helped reduce deforestation thereby minimizing pressure on forests and biodiversity due to human intervention. Thediversity of agroforestry practices in the IFS around the reserve forests, protected areas and along the riparian habitats constitutes a continuous forest corridor thereby biodiversity and forests are well protected. The agroforestry systems surrounding the open cropped area act as windbreaks and considerably reduce soil degradation and landslide events. The indigenous communities have thus developed their effective watershed management techniques that involve food, fodder, fuelwood and timber production and biodiversity management in agricultural lands.

Socio-economic benefitsAbout 89 per cent of the population constitutes from the rural areas with their primary livelihood activity as agriculture inhabiting in only about <8% of the total geographical area remained for agriculture in Sikkim. The small farmers with operational land holding of less than 2 ha constitute more than 70%, holding only 28% of the operational area, while 30% of the farmers hold 72% total operational area which shows a great disparity of land possession among the farmers in Sikkim (Subba, 2006). The per-capita land-holding in Sikkim has sharply declined over the years to 0.11 ha. All such situations cited above are causing socio-economic transition and a societal disparity. About 90 per cent of the farmers are small and marginal possessing total operational land holdings between 0.11–2 ha. Indigenous agriculture system in Sikkim is still at subsistent level. The cash income earned from large cardamom in Sikkim increased from 1.9 million USD in 1975 to 13.8 million in 2005. Sikkim contributes about 40% of the world’s production of large cardamom after Nepal. The total area under cardamom agroforetry in Sikkim in 2007 was 26,734 ha of which only 19,343 ha was productive for agronomic yield. The difference of 7,391 ha area was under replantation and gapfilling. Similarly, large cardamom cultivation in Darjeeling Hills during 2007-08 was around 3,305 ha of which only 2,715 ha was productive. The total production during 2007 in Sikkim was 4,358 MT while production in Darjeeling was only 614 MT (Spices Board, 2008). The market rate estimate as per local market value for Sikkim in 2007 was 13.6 million USD while for Darjeeling was 1.9 million USD. In 2010 June, the local market rate of dried cardamom was Rs. 48,000 per 40 kg. Pakistan is the single largest market importing up to 9,000 MT of large cardamom in a year (Srinivasa, 2006). It is exported to UAE, Iran, USA, Afghanistan, UK, Malaysia, South Africa, Japan, Argentina which are potential markets. The major domestic markets in India are Kolkata, Delhi and Guwahati. India is the largest market of large cardamom produced in Nepal and Bhutan.

Watershed functions: Carbon sequestration and climate changeAgroforestry trees play a major role in sequestering carbon, the carbon stocks from different components like crop, tree, litter and soil were compared between the cardamom-based agroforestry and the rainfed agroforestry with Albizia, Alnus and mix forest-tree species as shade trees. Alnus-cardamom system had 3.5 times more atmospheric carbon fixed compared to rainfed agriculture (Rai and Sharma, 2004).The burning of plant biomass as a management practice and decomposition of litter provide a sink for atmospheric CO2 and also reduce emission of nitrous oxide. Promotion of such techniques that are familiar to small farmers such as crop rotation,

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cutting back chemical fertilizers through the use of composts can act as important sink for atmospheric CO2 storing it below soil surface (Altieri, 2008). The total stand C stock in a Himalayan watershed measuring an area of 3,014 ha was 624 x 103 Mg while total carbon stock in 1 m depth soil was 456 x 103 Mg (Rai and Sharma, 2004). The total carbon stocks when compared in the cardamom based agroforestry showed highest stocks in the Alnus-cardamom stands followed by forest-cardamom andAlbizia cardamom stands. Alnus-cardamom agroforestry had significantly higher floor litter carbon concentration than other stands. However, as a whole, the system under the nitrogen fixing Alnus showed higher carbon stocks compared to the other systems(Rai and Sharma 2004). The belowground biomass carbon in agroforestry stands also contributed more to total carbon storage (Sharma et al., 1997). The adaptive traditional agroforestry enormously sequester carbon, contributes to regulate climate change and reduce global warming (Rai and Sharma, 2004; Sharma et al., 2008). Using traditional agroforestry model as carbon sinks, and by designing a suitable carbon trading system, the Kyoto Protocol provides a new source of financial support for protection and management of biological diversity. Evolution of such mechanism would be a potential source of income to the vulnerable smallholder farmers in the Eastern Himalayas.

Sacred/cultural landscapes and aesthetic valuesThe Khangchendzonga landscape is historically described as Beyul (the hidden land) and Ters (the hidden treasure) which are linked to diversity of resources and ecological functions (GIAHS 2009; Sharma et al., 2009). The diversity of sacred landscapes extend from Sikkim on both sides along the Himalayas and has been referred to as Beyul-Khepalung often named for flora or fauna such as the Dema-Dzong (the valley of rice) for Sikkim mentioned in the Buddhist sacred text Neysol. The traditional conservation wisdom is based on intrinsic realization of paramount single entity consisting of the plants, animals, humans and the abiotic natural components. The Himalayan region is also described as Ney Pemathang or Shangrila (the hidden paradise on earth), and is worshipped in various religious-traditional festivals such as Pang-Lhab-Sol (mother deity Khengchendzonga) and Tendon-Lho-Rum-Faat (Tendong Hill) (Sharma and Liang, 2006). The sacred landscapes in the Ganga River System of the Central Himalaya, Dema-Dzong valley of the Eastern Himalayas, and the sacred mountains such as Holy Hills of the Dai tribe of Xishuangbanna in Yunnan Province of China (Ramakrishnan, 2000) are all examples of biodiversity conservation and natural resource management based on ITEK system. Over the last two decades, Sikkim in the Eastern Himalayas has established itself as a recommended destination for contemporary tourists (Rai and Sundriyal, 1997). The scenic beauty, rich biodiversity, friendly people and rich culture are attracting two million tourists per year from all over the world. The multi-ethnic groups residing in the area with diverse traditional knowledge blended with culture and religions have made them a nature lover and to be in the wilderness (Sharma E. et al., 2008). Conceptualised and inspired from Sikkim Biodiversity and Ecotourism project (Sharma E. et al., 2002), Sikkim state of India is taking a lead role in diversifying and promoting ecotourism by promoting ‘home stays’. The IFS represent best possible land-use practices from a unit cultivated system to landscape at spatial scale for their aesthetic, cultural, education, ecotourism and biodiversity values while they are the primary source of food and resource security.

The traditional IFS starting from the lower elevation of 600 m to 4500 m continue with forest ecosystem diversity and alpine meadows provide great aesthetic values for developing agro-tourism and ecotourism destinations. A large number of naturalists and scientists, educational and cultural tourists, pilgrims and nature lovers from across the world visit Sikkim every year. The region is becoming the attraction for many ecotourists mainly due to its wilderness in natural settings maintained by agroforestry and cardamom farming with rich traditional knowledge. They provide opportunities such as bird watching and trekking to the higher mountains. The ‘home stay’ destinations such as Kewzing and Payong-Sokpay inSouth, Yuksam in west, and Dzongu and Pasthang in North Sikkim have substantial

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area under cardamom cultivation and are promoted as a product of ecotourism package by travel agents as reported by the Ecotourism and Conservation Society of Sikkim.

Human well beingThe traditional agroforestry practices of the Sikkim Himalaya provide economic and social well being to the communities (Sharma, 2006). The high value cash crops are paramount important for fetching economically sound monetary benefits to the smallholder farmers for health care, education and social activities while the farm-based agroforestry provide essential products for subsistence needs such as food and nutrition. Apart from the scenic and aesthetic beauty, the recreational opportunities, mountain ecosystems are the main reserves of water systems for both agriculture and portable water. Agroforestry practices are the constant source of non-timber forest products, underutilized crops, clean air and water, and thus in all, improving the quality of life of the mountain communities. The diversity of IFS are managed through organizational diversity that includes the diversity in the manner in which the farms are operated, owned and managed and the use of resource endowments from different sources in a traditional way. The management of such multifunctional IFS and domestication of useful species, livestock, food, air, water and material for shelterhave contributed to well being of the smallholders and their society as the products of these systems are crafting the local and international market regimes.

Indicators of Impact of Climate Change in IFS

Trans-Himalayan and Sub-alpine agroclimatic zones In high altitude areas (4000−5500 m), yak, sheep and goat rearing symbolically integrates with the sociocultural life of the indigenous communities and contributes to socio-ecological adaptability to changing climatic conditions. The climate change impacts in the Trans-Himalayan areas have been felt in the last 10 years with the shift of snowfall events and time. The herders have realized the increased summer temperatures followed by decline of snowfall. Elderly farmers remarked that 20 years ago at Thangu (4000 m) area, snow fall events use to be continuous for a week to 15 days. In the last five years dramatic changes have been realized at Thangu, snowfall events are untimely, occasional snowfall takes place that lasts only for one to two days. Herders recount that more than 10 feet snowfall was natural at Thangu, Bamzey and Dambochey (4000−4700 m) in 15−20 years ago which is declined almost by 40%. Rangeland degradation, frequent landslides/mudslides, flooding, avalanches during winter, reduction of pastures are commonly observed in the Trans-Himalayan and alpine areas. These unusual natural events such as avalanches are threats to yaks, goats and sheep and also to herders. Similarly, seasonal shift of snowfall events and untimely snowfall has impacted greatly to Trans-Himalayan agropastoralism. As a consequence the Dokpa, nomadic movers with yaks, goats and sheeps and even horses seasonally depend upon the availability of grazing pastures. In Muguthang (5000 m) and in the Lhonak valley (4500 m), they have gradually shifted to a sedentary lifestyle. Diversification of agriculture crops and permanent establishments are now observed at Muguthang. During 1995−96 there was a serious outbreak of disease and heavy snowfall that killed a large number of sheep. After this event, sheep rearing is now completely abandoned in Lhonak Valley by Dzumsa, a traditional institution of Lachen. A few reports are available on species migration to higheraltitudes. The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP, 2002) for Sikkim has reported that mosquitoes are appearing in Lhonak valley well above 5000 m while house crows are spread in Lachung where they were uncommon earlier. However, similar observation was reported from Tibet Autonomous Region of China where changes in climate along with land use had impacts on ecosystems and human health (Xu et al., 2008).

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Temperate and Sub-tropical agroclimatic zones The climate change events observed and recorded over the years in the IFS revealed that frequent mudslides in terrace risers (in khet and bari systems), productivity decline of crops (e.g. cardamom, ginger, orange, rice, maize, wheat, buckwheat etc.),emergence of diseases and pests etc. have resulted into emerging food insecurity in the mountain region (mainly to those farmers living in highly inaccessible areas). Farmers remarked that the sowing time of maize at the sub-tropical zone has been delayed by 15−20 days while it is same in temperate zones. Uniquely, the harvest of maize is perfectly same in the sub-tropical zone while harvest time has shortened by 15−20 days in temperate zones. The farmers of the Sikkim Himalayas have lost the comparative advantage of large cardamom; the cultivation area of this commercial crop has declined to 50% in the last 10 years (Annual Report, 2009). The total cultivation area of large cardamom was 26,700 ha in the Sikkim and around 3,300 in Darjeeling until 2000 (Srinivasa, 2006) while this figure has come down to 12,500 ha in 2008 in Sikkim (Annual Report 2009). In the Ilam area of Nepal, large cardamom in the last 10 years growing below 2100-2200 m has climbed up by 200 m in more than a decade and is now growing in 2300−2500 m. Farmers reported that cardamom in high altitudes is performing well with no signs of diseases while plantations are severely declined in lower altitudes. Similarly, Alnus nepalensis growing upto 2200 m is now showing up above 2500 m in Sikkim. This was also observed in Ilam district of Nepal.

The extreme climatic conditions such as long dry spells, emergence of viral diseases such as Chirkey, Furkey and fungal disease Colletotrichum blight have contributed to large cardamom plantation and productivity decline. Most of the commonly found cultivars of cardamom are susceptible to this disease (Spices Board,2008; Annual report 2008). Similarly, Sikkim mandarin orange (Pendam and Bhirkuna are main growing areas) has dramatically declined both in terms of productivity and plantation area. In the 1990s emergence of new diseases were observed in almost all citrus growing areas of Sikkim. Some of these diseases and pests are citrus dieback (drying of twigs from the tip/gradual degeneration), root/foot rot, powdery mildew, scab, shooty mould, anthracnose, red rust, nematodes, vascular-borne disease caused by Tristeza virus, colonization of ants in the citrus twigs and roots etc. The average decline of yield is 3.5 times lower compared to 10 years ago. The climate change events and their impacts such as erratic rainfall, poor yield, and high incidence of pest and diseases have also been observed by the coffee growers in Chickmaglur district of Karnataka (Chandrasekharan 2009). Similarly, Miguel and Padoch (2009) have reported from the estuarine floodplains of Brazilian state of Amapa that as a consequence of climate change, higher and longer flood durations have been observed with significant impact to smallholders who plant crops and practice traditional agriculture.

Multipurpose agroforestry speciesIndigenous farmers harvest fodder tree branches/twigs during winter season tosupplement the animal feed. Due to untimely rainfall the tree fodder production has been reduced with stunted growth of branches. This is followed by wide emergence of pests eating up the green foliage of some fodder trees. The untimely precipitation has resulted into dramatic change in phenology of agrofoerestry species. One highly preferred fodder tree Ficus lacor (locally called Rato Kabro, Seto Kabro) is showing up with budding and growing foliage in November, while the natural season of new foliage emergence is February end. Farmers reported that invasive alien species such as Chromolina adenophorum, Epatorium odoratum, Bidens biternata, Artemisia nilgirica, Lantana camara, Ageratum conyzoides, Cestrum auranticum, C. fasciculatum, and Galingosa parviflora have caused serious problems in the farmlands, forests, traditional agroforestry systems, fallow lands, croplands and wetlands. These invasive species are fast colonizing and have been spread from sub-tropical to temperate agro-climatic region causing productivity decline in the last 10 years. Regular field survey and observation revealed that rapid spread of alien species Artemisia nilgirica, Bidens biternata, Eupatorium adenophorum, E. odoratum etc. have resulted into decline of daily requirement of grasses, thatches, firewoods, timber, etc. while damage to nearby

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forest areas has allowed the wild animals to invade croplands. Some naturalized exotics such as Ageratum houstonianum, Erigeron karvinskianus, Galinasoga parviflora, Erichthites valarianiifolia and Gleolaria maxicana has been observed profusely colonizing.

Table 1. Major agroforestry practices under IFS in the Sikkim Himalaya.

Agroforestry systems Agroforestry practicesAgrosilvoanimal systems Farm-based Agroforestry :

Multilayered vegetation structure with fodder species, shrubs and understorey crop based garden agroforestry, multiple intercropping in terraced productive zones and woody perennials and multipurpose species at the edges of the farm lands for soil erosion control, forming protective belts and windbreaksHomegardens involving animal husbandry, traditional beekeeping, vegetable crops, protein banks, underutilized crops and lesser known cropsTrees and ground shrubs/herbs or other agroforestry species such as Thysanolena species for soil reclamation

Agrosilviculture systems Farm forest-based Agroforestry:Multipurpose trees species for fodder, fuel and timber and bamboo groves, and animal feed bank and for other productive needsNTFPs and minor forest products, and medical plants or other plantation crops and pasture lands, water sources conservationSoil conservation and reclamationHigh value cash crop based agroforestry:(1). Cardamom-based agroforestry: Alnus-cardamom and Mix-agrofrestry tree-cardamomEcologically adaptive and socially accepted multifunctional tree crops such as Albizia spp., Alnus nepalensis and mix tree agroforestry species and understorey commercial cash crop large cardamomGround fodder species and NTFPS, medicinal plantsTrees, shrubs and ground grasses in soil conservation and reclamation

Agrihortisilviculturesystems

(2). Mandarin orange-based agroforestryMultilayer arrangement of fruit orchard and fodder trees, intercropping of understorey traditional crops varieties, lesser known crops, protein banks, yams, taros etc.Vegetable crops, traditional beekeeping, animal husbandry and trees for fodder in the appropriately designed homegardensMandarin orange trees, multipurpose trees and N2-fixing Albizzia spp.

(Source : Sharma G. unpublished)

Sikkim Himalayan IndigenousAgriculture Systems

EcologicalEnvironmental

Social-economical

Landscape/Biodiversity

Sacred/Spiritual

NPP/ carbonsequestration

Hydrologicalprocesses

Soil formation/soil stabilization/erosion regulation

Nutrient cycling

Spiritual/religious

Cultural/traditional/ritual

Historical/Archeological

Biodiversity/Habitat

Climate regulation

Reduce globalwarming

Agrotourism/ecotourism

IKS, Education/inspiration

Traditionalinstitutions/communities

Economical gain/market potential

Bioresources/medicine

Figure 1. Schematic representation of categorization of services and flow of resources and functions in a Indigenous Farming System in a mountain ecosystem in the Sikkim Himalaya. (Based on Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005)

Human health/well being

O2 production

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Table 2: Indigenous system of household farm classification in the Sikkim Himalayas.

Land Units Traditional Classification

Attributes of practices

Ghar-ghyryan Rachyan-ghyryan The land parcel around a household, mainly allocated for growing seasonal vegetables (beans, leafy vegetables, squash, yams, colocasia, chilies, turmeric etc.), fruits (banana, guava, pear, plum, jack fruit etc.) and some traditional crops.

Pakho Khet Terraced price fields of more 30° slope, grasses are grown along the high terrace raisers. The rice fields are mostly rain fed, irrigated subject to availability of water from the nearby streams and jhorasthat appear only during rainy season. Crops grown are mostly rice, pulses, maize, and fodder trees for land stabilization as well as for fodder. Terrace-fall during rainy season is frequent causing excessive soil loss.

Byansi Also called Thang are the flat lands along the river beds, mostly irrigated from the nearby streams. Rice, wheat, pulses at the bunds, buckwheat and maize are grown. Nutrient rich soil accumulates from up streams, very fertile and productivity is comparatively high. Some examples in Sikkim are Tareythang Byansi, Pithang Byansi, Tanak Byansi and Daramdin.

Shim/Kholyang Rice fields which have a water source, water available throughout the year is a source of water during dry seasons. Such land does not require external irrigation facility. Shim is a source of drinking water for households, for grazing animals and also for wild animals. Water is also stored in small dug ponds. Farmers conserve such seepages by planting good tree species.

Bagarey Rice fields at the river banks, full of pango mato (clay soil), as per the farmers this is malilo mato (fertile soil) for rice. Productivity and agronomic yield in such land is high. Farmers cultivate rice, pulses and soybean.

Khet

Birauto Farmers keep on maintaining the farmland, repair and manage the slopes by terracing. The newly terraced rice field is called the Birauto.

Tar bari A flat dry field, non-irrigated, meant for growing maize, vegetables, ginger, orange, wheat, barley, beans, pulses, oilseeds, millets, buckwheat etc. Tar bari is mainly rain-fed due to shortage of water.

Kothe bari Dry field near the household, farmers grow seasonal and off-season vegetables.

Pakho bari This land consists of more than 30° slope. Terraced dry fields, farmers grow maize, millets, pulses etc. and grasses along the terraces. The land remains fallow during dry seasons. During winter farmer slash and burn as a management practice and cultivate pulses, tapioca and other lesser known crops.

Bhasmey/Khoria In sloppy fallow area farmer clear, slash and burn during the month of December-January and cultivate mixed landraces of pulses, horse gram with maize. After the crops are harvested the land remains fallow. The system cycle was once in two to three years, but now annually. This land supplies fodder, and litter for mulching. Such land parcels are unsuitable for terracing or other agriculture land use. Animals are grazed during winter.

Bari

Siru bari Dry infertile field allocated for Khar (Imperata sp. used for thatched roof), farmers grow timber, fodder and fuelwood tree species. Small farmers’ use Khar for thatching roofs of animal sheds.

Alainchi bari Traditional agroforestry of large cardamom under Alnus nepalensisor mixed forest tree species.

Jungle (Forest Parcel)

Bans-ghari + Jungle

Bamboo groves and other fuelwood/timber species grown in a parcel of land. Such land would be infertile, dry either sloppy, or unsuitable for cultivation. Farmers loop branches of trees during November-February for green fodder and fuelwood and also as a management practice. Bans-ghari at the edge of the agriculture fields prevent landslides and soil loss and provide household requirements.

(Sharma et al., 2009)

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CONCLUSION

In the context of several externalities of the fast changing world, global policies and prospects, the IFS in the Sikkim Himalayas show successful examples of sustainable management of resources, goods and services they provide and climate change adaptation. The agricultural biodiversity has been critical in sustaining the livelihood of the traditional communities. The current agriculture policy of procuring seeds of HYVs in Sikkim is not favourable for food security of poor and marginal farmers and has largely contributed to loss of indigenous crop varieties and diversity of landraces. The land conversion to non-agriculture sector has impacted to a deficit of nearly 72,000 MT, 12,500 MT, and 3,500 MT of food grains, pulses and oilseeds, respectively (Annual Report, 2009). The access to and control over seeds of indigenous varieties is rapidly degrading and is shifting from indigenous communities while large area of fertile agriculture land has been converted into construction-based projects. Thus agricultural biodiversity has been a neglected area in conservation policy. The farming communities are largely becoming dependent to profit making companies in term of seed supply. Rapid changes in policies and situations lead to changes in crop diversity resulting into economic losses. The emergence of diseases and human-wildlife conflict has contributed to decline in farm crop production, fodder production and soil erosion etc.

In socio-ecological and socio-cultural terms, IFS is a mixture of natural and man made adaptive ecosystems developed by mountain societies – an evolving dynamic landscape management system that supports human needs providing ecological/economical sustainability to both upstream and downstream communities. Large cardamom and mandarin are high value cash crops that are regular source of income to small farmers while traditional crops, underutilized and lesser known crops provide food security and nutrition to mountain farmers. The IFS has high potential to sequester carbon, retain biodiversity, support habitat to wildlife and above all it is considered as self sufficient system. The system provides on-farm and non-farm employment opportunities such as resources, production, ecotourism and agro-tourism. The IFS is playing a vital role in securing human well being besides ecological and environmental sustainability. It supports and restores adaptability, ecological

Household

TraditionalAgroforestry System* Livestock

Farm-basedAgroforestry System

Forest-basedAgroforestry System

Forest &Biodiversity

Off-farmEmployment

Conservation, protection

Intangible services

No extractionLitte

r, timber, N

TFP

Crop, fuel, fodder, litter,

timber, NTFPCrop, fu

el, fo

dder, li

tter,

timber

, NTFP

Labour, management, investm

entLabou

r, manag

emen

t, inve

stmen

t

Power, manurePower, manure

By-products, fodder,bedding material, grazing

Fodder, bedding material, grazing

Labour,

managem

ent,

investm

ent

Acts as a w

ildlife corridor,support land for farm

, compost, fencing

Acts as a w

ildlife corridor,supports forests an

d biodiversity

Labour, m

anagement,

investment

Labou

r,trade of tim

e

Income for

household, farmM

eat, milk,

other products

Act as a wildlife corridor, support land for farm

* Alnus-cardamom agroforestry; Albizia-mix-tree-mandarin agroforestry

Provisionin

g, regulating,cultural services

Provisioning, regulating,

cultural services

Act as a wildlife corridor, Supports forests and biodiversity

Figure 2. Schematic model of interacting components in a Indigenous Farming Systems in the Sikkim Himalaya. Source: Author

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resilience and enhances ecosystem services to the region and the world at large and contributes to sustainable development.

It is evident that the impact of climate change has been witnessed in the Sikkim IFS. As an adaptive step, The Mountain Institute-India and Rural Management Development Department, Government of Sikkim in active participation of the local communities have initiated Spring-shed development programme to conserve local water sources which are drying up in the recent years. The mountain farmers have been applying the traditional technologies to adapt in the changing situations at temporal and spatial scales. These mitigation measures need scientific and technical support through appropriate policies and investments. The farming systems play key roles in ecosystem functions and services in addition to conservation of biodiversity as they are situated between wilder biodiversity landscapes and cultivated systems. The IFS need to be strengthened to achieve the goals of sustainable development and biodiversity conservation. The incremental benefits of Himalayan agriculture and ecosystem services bridge the linkage of upstream and downstream population and beyond to benefit for well being from goods and services to the present and future generations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Author is thankful to Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, and United Nations University, Tokyo for funds and facilities provided during the postdoctoral research. TMI-India provided facilities for the preparation of this manuscript.

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