International Journal of Scientific Research in Agricultural Sciences, 2(Proceedings), pp. 159-172, 2015

Available online at http://www.ijsrpub.com/ijsras

ISSN: 2345-6795; ©2015; Conference organizer retains the copyright of this article

159

Agriculture, Industry, and Wastewater in the Nile Delta

Rasha El Gohary

Associate Professor, Central Laboratory for Environmental Quality Monitoring, National Water Research Center, NWRC,

Cairo, Egypt; Email: rm.elgohary@yahoo.com

Abstract. In a developing country such as Egypt, there are growing challenges for providing water supply of good quality.

Nile water in Egypt is facing rising sources of pollution despite all the programs for pollution control. Discharging industrial

and domestic wastewater, return drainage of irrigated water, and flash flood into the River Nile represent the major sources of

pollution. The present work aims at highlighting the challenge encountering the environmental management of wastewaters in

Egypt. In addition, water consumption, industrial, domestic and agricultural pollution and their adverse impact on water quality

is discussed. The weak regularity in compliance and enforcement of the environmental legislation is evaluated. The total Nile

water income to Egypt is 55.5 Bm3/yr. The weight of water intakes: is as follows: agricultural, drinking and industrial are 54.4,

2.9 and 3.9 Bm3/yr, respectively. The necessity of providing around 2/3 of extra water is needed for agricultural expansion

from drainage water that estimated to be 16.9 Bm3/yr. The industrial pollution is at alarming degree particularly contamination

of River Nile, irrigation, drainage canals and lakes. The main objective of the study is to assess and evaluate the characteristics

of the Nile water system, and identify the major sources of pollution and its environmental and health consequences. The study

is also aimed to highlight the importance of water management via re-use and recycle of treated effluents for industrial purpose

and for cultivation of desert land. It is concluded that the available data revealed that the river receives a large quantity of

industrial, agriculture and domestic wastewater. It is worth mentioning that the river is still able to recover in virtually all the

locations, with very little exception. This is due to the high dilution ratio.

Keywords: Nile Delta, Water Quality, Wastewater, Industrial discharge, agricultural drainage water.

1. INTRODUCTION

Egypt has a total land area of 995,450 sq. km of which

only 2.8% is arable. Egypt had an estimated

population of 82,999,393 in 2009, and has had a

constant average growth rate of about 1.8% per year

since 2007. About 97% of the Egyptian population

lives on 4% of Egypt‟s total land area in the Nile

Valley and Delta. This yields an average population

density of 1,435 persons per square kilometer and

exerts tremendous strain on the River Nile‟s

ecosystem.

Egypt‟s main source of freshwater is the Nile

River. The river supplies 55.5 billion m³ of freshwater

every year, which represents 85% of all renewable

water resources in Egypt. Average rainfall in Egypt is

estimated at 18 mm or 1.8 billion m³ per year.

Furthermore, Egypt has four different groundwater

aquifers: the Nile Aquifer, the Nubian Sandstone

Aquifer, the Moghra Aquifer and the Coastal Aquifer

[1].

Since 2005, Egypt is classified as a water scarce

country as it has less than 1000 m³ of fresh water per

year per capita. Furthermore, it is forecasted that in

2025 the population will reach 95 million, which

would mean a per capita share of only 600 m³ per

year.

Table1: Decreases of the yearly water share per capita in Egypt over a century year 1897 1908 1918 1927 1937 1947 1960 1970 1986 1993 2000 2015

Water

Quantity per

Capita (m3

5084 4414 3854 3484 3103 2604 1893 1713 1138 981 957 663

1.1. Challenges

At present, the declining rate of water supply and

quality deterioration is a warning issue although it is

not considered to be critical yet. However it can be

stipulated that if appropriate measures are not taken,

Egypt will be soon subject to significant difficulties

concerning water resources [6]. In order to face this

challenge of the near future, specific strategies related

to water management have been formulated

responding to the critical issues and problems that are:

(a) Demand imbalance due to population growth,

agricultural and industrial development (Table 2),

160

(b) Deterioration of water quality due to

uncontrolled and expanding agricultural as well as

industrial activities,

(c) Changes in Egypt‟s share of Nile water due to

continuous decrease in the annual flow of the Nile at

Aswan and lack of agreement between the eleven

riparian countries of the Nile concerning the expected

new development of resources in other riparian,

(d) Ineffective use of water due to lack of strict

measures to enforce appropriate cropping pattern and

inefficient management of irrigation and drainage

networks and,

(e) Inefficient use of water due to subsidy to

farmers.

In the light of the above mentioned concerns, water

management strategies are focused on raising

awareness for water use efficiency, controlling the

demand, protecting both surface and groundwater

from pollution and preventing deterioration in water

quality.

Table 2: Water supplies and demands in Egypt(109 m3 /year) ,[3]

With population growth and continuing

urbanization, the volume of wastewater continues to

grow and its disposal becomes a serious problem.

Reclaiming and reusing municipal wastewater for

irrigation is an easy and useful means of disposal and

an attractive and innovative alternative to meet

increasing water demand [46].

Fig. 1: Percentage of coverage of drinking water supply and sanitation services since 2004 till 2017

161

Figure (1) shows that the percentage of coverage of

sanitation services during the years 2004 and 2008

were nearly half the coverage of the drinking water

supply services, hence creating major wastewater

problems. Since 2008, the coverage of drinking water

supply reached 100% while the sanitation services

were still lagging behind. Presently, in 2011, the

sanitation services covered 80% of the demand, with a

projection to 100% in the year 2030 to satisfy most of

the required needs for safe wastewater disposal and

reuse.

2. AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE POLLUTION

IN THE NILE DELTA

Runoff from the agricultural sector frequently

contains pollutants that may have an adverse effect on

the river. Pollutants such as salts, nutrients like

phosphorus and nitrogen, and pesticide residue can be

found in this runoff [27]. Agricultural runoff often is a

“non-point” pollutant, in that it can come from

anywhere in a region, and not from a specific drain.

This can make it difficult to There are also problems

associated with agricultural runoff seeping into the

groundwater as well. There has been some success in

mitigating the effects of agricultural runoff as a

pollutant. This is a result of increased regulation

concerning the use of agrochemicals. A decrease in

the use of these chemicals has tended to make the

wastewater from this sector considerably healthier.

In the context of water quality management,

agriculture must be seen as a widespread non-point

source of pollution. Pollutants include leached salts,

nutrients like nitrogen and pesticides. These non-point

sources will be collected in agricultural drains to form

point sources of pollution for the River Nile, lakes and

irrigation canals. Although there are different

mechanisms for retaining the pollutants by passing the

polluted water through soil, the non-point sources of

pollution may influence the groundwater quality.

The intensive use of chemical fertilizers and

insecticides was essential for the exploitation of the

available land. The total irrigated area has become

about 3.11 million hectares. The agricultural areas as

well as the percentage of cultivation before and after

the construction of the High-Dam are given in Table

2. Table3 summarize the quantity of the most

frequently used pesticides, applied in different

governorates.

According to the National Water Resources plan

for Egypt (NWRP, 2001), the Nile River from Aswan

to Delta Barrage receives wastewater discharging

from 124 point sources, of which 67 are agricultural

drain and the remainder are industrial sources.

Physico-chemical characteristics and fecal

coliform counts of 43 major drains at the tail ends,

before discharge into the River Nile. The worst water

quality is that of Khor El-Sail Aswan, Kom Ombo,

Beba and Etsa drain.

In terms of organic load, it was found that the

highest organic load is discharged from Kom Ombo

drain (218.1 ton COD/d; 59.7 ton BOD/d). This is

followed by El-berba drain (172.7 ton COD/d; 59.7

ton BOD/d), . These two drains contribute 76% of the

total organic load (calculated as COD) discharged into

the Nile by drains from Aswan to Delta Barrage. Etsa

drain contributes about 11% of the total COD load

(56.8 ton COD/d).

162

Table 2. Overview of (functioning) (domestic) Wastewater Treatment Facilities on the Nile River System 1)

Region

Treatment Plant Facility Type of Treatment Discharge Towards

Capacity

[m3/day]

Upper Egypt

8 Treatment Plants

1 aerated Oxidation Pond

7 Trickling Filter

Mainly Agricultural Drains,

Some to Land Reclamation

225.000

Greater Cairo

Helwan Activated Sludge Land Reclamation 35.000

Berka Activated Sludge Agricultural Drain 600.000

Zenein Activated Sludge Agricultural Drain 330.000

Abu-Rawash Only Primary Treatment Land Reclamation 720.000

Delta

Alexandria East Activated Sludge Lake Mariut 475.000

Alexandria West Activated Sludge Lake Mariut 175.000

Zegazig Activated Sludge Agricultural Drain 90.000

Banha Trickling Filter Agricultural Drain 75.000

Shibeen Al-Kawn Trickling Filter Agricultural Drain 74.000

Tanta Aerated Oxidation Pond Agricultural Drain 60.000

Mahalla Kubra Trickling Filter Agricultural Drain 60.000

Kafr Al-Zayat Activated Sludge Agricultural Drain 90.000

Mit Mazah Oxidation Pond Agricultural Drain 75.000

Damietta Activated Sludge Lake Manzala 90.000

Ras El-Bar Extended Aeration Mediterranean Sea 50.000

Dakhla Oxidation Pond Agricultural Drain 62.000

28 Other Facilities

Oxidation Pond

Aerated Oxidation Pond

Extended Aeration

Oxidation Ditch

Trickling Filter

Activated Sludge

Aqualife

Mainly Agricultural Drains and

Lake Manzala

228.000

1) Only plants with a capacity > 50.000 m3 / day are listed separately.

Source: Arab Republic of Egypt Central Agency for Public Mobilisation and Statistics, „the Statistical Year Book 1995-2003‟, June 2004

163

Table 3: Quantity of the Most Frequently Used Pesticides, Applied in the Different Governorates

Governorate Pesticides used (ton/year) cropping

area(1000 feddan)(1)

intensity

of use (kg/

feddan) Mancozeb Malathion Dimethoate Cblorpyrophos Methomyl

Aswan, Qena, Souhag 44 58 24 55 11 713 0.27

Assiut, Minia, Beni Sueif 176 37 127 36 60 853 0.51

Fayoum 55 26 36 26 16 379 0.42

Giza, Cairo 58 70 27 68 18 183 1.32

Qalubiya 58 28 19 27 10 299 0.47

Minufiya 76 36 43 35 27 380 0.57

Sharqiya 150 43 79 42 35 860 0.41

Beheira 219 91 154 88 79 928 0.68

Other governorates Delta 108 77 57 76 32 1.050 0.33

Total 944 644 566 453 288 5.645 0.48

Table 16 . Half–life Times of Pesticides in Water 2)

Pesticide Half-life time in water

Carbamates (general) 2 weeks – 3 months

Carbofuran (carbamate) 10-21 days

Carbary1 (carbamate) 1500 days (pH 5), 15 days (pH 7), 0.15 days (pH 9)

Herbicides 1-10 weeks

DDT ( org.chl.) 2-4 years

Aldrin ( org.chl.) 8 days

Dieldrin ( org.chl.) 500 days at 25 ˚C (no degradation, only evaporation)

Lindane ( org.chl.) 200 days at 25 ˚C (no degradation, only evaporation)

Diazinon (org.phos.) 50-185 days (pH dependent)

Malathion (org.phos.) 3-12 days (pH dependent)

1) Net Cropping Area of the Considered Crops [52]

164

2.1. Agricultural Drains in the Delta

In the rural areas accommodating about half of the

population (35 million), 95% of the people have no

access to sewer systems or wastewater treatment

facilities. Accordingly, Delta drains mainly used for

discharge of predominantly treated or poorly treated

wastewater (domestic & industrial), and drainage of

agricultural areas. Therefore, they contain high

concentrations of various pollutants such as organic

matter (BOD, COD), nutrients, fecal bacteria, heavy

metals and pesticides.

The drainage water is becoming more saline; on

average its salinity increased from 2400 g/m3 in 1985

to 2750 g/m3 in 1995. But there are local variations.

For example, in the southern part of the Nile Delta

drainage water has salinity between 750 and 1000

g/m3 , whereas the salinity in the middle parts of the

Delta reaches about 2000 g/m3 and in the northern

parts between 3500 and 6000 g/m3 [45].

In a study published by Drainage Research

Institute (DRI, 2000), it has been estimated that the

Delta and Fayoum drains receive about 13.5

BCM/year. Almost 89.7% of which is contributed

from agricultural diffuse source, 6.2% from domestic

point sources, 3.5% from domestic diffuse sources and

the rest (0.5%) from industrial point sources .Bahr El-

Baqar receives the greatest part of wastewater (about

3 BCM/year). This is followed by Bahr Hadous, El-

Ghabia main, Edko and El-Umoum, with an average

flow of 1.75 BCM/years for each. The wastewater

received by the rest of the drains is less than 0.5

BCM/year for each. In terms of organic loads (BOD

and COD), Bahr El-Baqar drain receives the highest

load followed by Abu-keer drain. Also, El-Gharbia

Main receives significant amounts of organic

pollutants. For the high loads of organic wastes

received by Delta drains from domestic (point and

diffuse) and industrial sources which represent

sources of pollution for both River Nile and

groundwater [38].

Table 4: Comparison between the values of some parameters for River Nile

The permissible levels for: D.O Not less than 5

mg / l; BOD5 Not more than 6 mg / l.;

COD Not more than 10 mg / l.; TDS Not more

than 500 mg / l.

Table 5: Comparison between the Medium Values for some Parameters at the Monitoring Points on Rosetta and Damietta

Branches

From the above mentioned values it seemed that

Damietta Branch is less polluted than Rosetta Branch

even some values for the determined parameters are

higher than the normal values for the River Nile.

Table 6: Comparison between the Average (DO, BOD, COD) for Monitoring Points at Governorates

Parameter- Aswan Souhag- Asuot Menia- Banisweif- Cairo Gharbia- Dakahlya- Damiatta- Alex. Port Said

_________________________________________________________________

DO 5.82 8.0 8.0 7.5 5.9 6.5 6.56 6.0 6.0 5.1 6.61

BOD 5.23 2.85 2.5 5.0 1.7 3.9 15.24 2.5 - 2.57 2.62

COD 9.34 11.70 7.6 8.0 8.4 9.76 21.99 8.4 22.8 16.8 13.97

3. INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION IN THE NILE

DELTA

There are about 700 industrial facilities along the river

[27]. Industrial wastewater is often highly toxic,

containing heavy metals that can combine with the

suspended solids in domestic wastewater to form hard

to manage sludge.

Many industries directly discharging wastes into

the River Nile .Industrial pollution sources can be

characterized as point sources of a wide variety of

pollutants, of which heavy metals and toxic organic

compounds generate the most concern. These

165

pollutants originate primary from heavy engineering,

electroplating and chemical industries. Of the latter

category, industries like pesticide manufacturers,

petroleum refiners, and plastic and rubber

manufacturers are of particular concern.

The industries in the EEAA database are classified

according to different categories compared with the

Water Master Plan Table 7.

Table7: Main Industries and Characteristics of Effluent Discharge

In Upper Egypt (km 50 to km 552 from the High

Aswan Dam) the industrial pollution sources mainly

comprise outfalls from sugar industries (9 outfalls

directly to the Nile and 2 on drains discharging to the

Nile); food and beverage industries (4 outfalls); paper

industries (2 outfalls); power stations (3 outfalls); and

chemical/ fertilizer (3 outfalls). These types of

industries are mainly expected to pollute the receiving

water with more or less readily degradable organic

waste material (sugar/ food/ beverage industries),

suspended matter (paper), salts (fertilizer) and heat

(power stations).

In the Greater Cairo area (Km 900 to km 950) the

major industrial outfalls also comprise sugar industry

(6 outfalls), food and beverage (3 outfalls) and power

stations (3 outfalls), but in general this area can be

characterized by more heavy types of industry (5

outfalls from chemical industry, 5 outfalls from glass

industry, 1 outfall from iron & steel industry).

Moreover, this reach of the river receives heavy

polluted industrial drainage water, containing waste of

the iron and steel industry and the cement industry in

Helwan/Tibeen area (Tibeen Drain). These types of

industry tend to pollute the receiving water with

suspended matter, heavy metals and all kinds of

organic micro-pollutants. Between km 552 and km

900 there is no significant industrial pollution [22].

Irrigation canals also receive industrial wastewater,

at least 40 industries could be identified that discharge

to the irrigation canals. With exception of the Isamilia

Canal, they seem only to generate moderate pollution.

In the Ismailia Canal, 5 industries could be identified,

discharging in the first 15 km of the canal. The canal

also serves drinking water purposes in the cities of

166

Port Saied, Ismailia and Suez. The industries comprise

a starch & glucose factory, a fertilizer company, a

chemical industry (also pesticide production) a

pharmaceutical industry and an engineering industry

(motor cars).

It becomes clear that certain heavily polluting

industries have a specific geographical distribution,

like cement in the southern Cairo area, chemical in

Alexandria and the northern Cairo area, food and oil

& soap in Alexandria and the Delta, metal in the

Greater Cairo area, sugar in Upper Egypt and textile

in Alexandria, the Delta and northern Cairo area.

The pollution is most severe in the drainage canals

and sewerage systems (which in turn discharge their

treated or non-treated effluent to the drainage canals

and the River Nile), followed by the River Nile and

the Irrigation Canals. As the drains in the Delta

discharge to the Northern Lakes and the

Mediterranean Sea, the coastal area inevitably gets its

grim share of water pollution.

Some of these industries, especially in the Greater

Cairo area and the Nile Delta, dispose of their waste

by injection wells or basins, acting as point sources of

pollution for the groundwater [29].

Table 8: Geographic Distribution of Different Types of Industry (EEAA Database)

Category Alexandria &

Canal Delta

Cairo North

Area(1)

Cairo South

Area(2)

Upper

Egypt

Cement 1 3

Chemical 10 3 14 7 1

Electrical 3 1

Engineering 2 26 5

Fertilizers 2 2 2

Food 25 16 6 7 7

Metal 4 1 4 4 2

Mining 14 1 2

Oil & Soap 13 14 4 2 2

Pesticides 1

Power Generation 4 3 3 2 2

Pulp & Paper 5 1 4 1

Refractory 3 5 3 1

Sugar 2 2 9

Tanneries 1

Textile 19 24 20 2 7

Wood 1 2 1 1

Total 105 66 91 36 37

1) Greater Cairo, except Helwan / Tibeen and southern Giza area (Dokki and Lower)

2) Helwan / Tibeen and southern Giza area

It is noted that most of heavy industrial facilities

are discharging their treated or partially/non-treated

wastewater effluent into River Nile, agricultural

drains, canals and sewerage system. At present

industrial use of water is estimated at 5.9 BCM/year

out of which 550 MCM/year is discharged untreated

into the River Nile.125 major industrial plants are

located in the Nile valley which represents about 18%

of the existing industries and discharging 15% of the

heavy metal loads.250 industrial plants are located in

Greater Cairo which represents 35% and contributing

about 40% of the total metal discharges.

The Delta excluding Alexandria has some 150

industries which contribute about 25% of the heavy

metals discharging to drains. Alexandria is a major

heavy industrial center with some 175 industries,

about 25% of the total in Egypt. Growing

industrialization is taking place resulting in an

increase in the volume of effluents and toxic wastes

and in the variety of toxic contaminants discharged

into waterways that are recycled in the food chain

creating health hazards [8].

4. WASTEWATER POLLUTION IN THE NILE

DELTA

Human wastewater is largely comprised of pathogens,

nutrients, oxygen demanding compounds, and

suspended solids [27]. Diseases and parasites are

common in such wastewater. Finding ways to treat

municipal wastewater is a pressing challenge. While

social programs are being set up in many districts

along the Nile to increase their capacity for water

treatment, as population in the area continues to raise

even these facilities will be unable to meet the

demand.

167

Table 9: Wastewater Treatment Coverage Year Population (Million) People Serves(Million) People Not Served(Million)

1997 60 18 42

2017 83 39 44 Source: EcoConServ, „Study on Status of the Environment and Relevant Policies/Measures in Egypt‟, Feb. 2005

In the rural areas accommodating about half of the

population (45 million), 75% of the people have no

access to sewerage systems or wastewater treatment

facilities. Septic tanks are the common disposal

facility where a limited amount of water can be

collected for biological digestion. The digested

excreta leach into the soil surrounding the tank and

hence shallow groundwater are subjected to

contamination. As sanitary waste in such areas will be

disposed of in another way, this situation makes

domestic waste water a widespread non-point source

of contamination of not only agricultural drains, but

also of fresh water bodies like the Nile and the

irrigation canals.

Most of the existing wastewater treatment plants in

Egypt operate according to the activated sludge

process (conventional activated sludge; extended

aeration; oxidation ditch), a smaller part are fixed film

reactors (trickling filter) and stabilization ponds

(oxidation ponds and aerated oxidation ponds) Table

10. The last sub-type, aerated oxidation ponds are,

because of their algae activity, not considered to be

secondary treatment.

Especially in the Greater Cairo area, high levels of

toxic substances in sewage are reported [29].As those

toxic substances (heavy metals, toxic organic

substances) will be mainly attached to suspended

materials, most of it will be removed by appropriate

secondary treatment. Nevertheless, the remaining

toxic substances may still contaminate surface waters.

Moreover there is no national program in Egypt for

sludge disposal. Improper sludge disposal may lead

again to contamination of surface and groundwater.

5. HEALTH IMPACTS OF WATER

POLLUTION

It is a well-known fact that clean water is absolutely

essential for healthy living. The main source of

freshwater pollution can be attributed to discharge of

untreated waste, dumping of industrial effluent, and

run-off from agricultural fields. Industrial growth,

urbanization and the increasing use of synthetic

organic substances have serious and adverse impacts

on freshwater bodies. It is a generally accepted fact

that the developed countries suffer from problems of

chemical discharge into the water sources mainly

groundwater, while developing countries face

problems of agricultural run-off in water sources.

Polluted water like chemicals in drinking water causes

problem to health and leads to water-borne diseases

which can be prevented by taking measures that can

be taken even at the household level.

5.1. Chemicals in drinking water

Chemicals in water can be both naturally occurring or

introduced by human interference and can have

serious health effects. The chemicals in drinking water

may come from:

Fluoride. Fluoride in the water is essential for

protection against dental caries and weakening of the

bones, but higher levels can have an adverse effect on

health.

Arsenic. Arsenic occurs naturally or is possibly

aggravated by over powering aquifers and by

phosphorus from fertilizers. High concentrations of

arsenic in water can have an adverse effect on health.

Recreational use of water. Untreated sewage,

industrial effluents, and agricultural waste are often

discharged into the water bodies such as the lakes,

coastal areas and rivers endangering their use for

recreational purposes such as swimming and

canoeing.

Petrochemicals. Petrochemicals contaminate the

groundwater from underground petroleum storage

tanks.

Other heavy metals. These contaminants come from

mining waste and tailings, landfills, or hazardous

waste dumps.

Chlorinated solvents. Metal and plastic effluents,

fabric cleaning, electronic and aircraft manufacturing

are often discharged and contaminate groundwater

[33].

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Table 11: Summary of Monthly Report on Wastewater Treatment Plants in Greater Cairo Organization of Sanitary Drainage for Greater Cairo

Parameter

El-Berka Zenin Helwan 2004 Abou Rawash Shoubra El-Khima 2004(Balqas)

March

2004

Nov.2

004

March

2004

Nov.

2004

December

2004 March Nov.

March

2004 Nov. 2004

March

2004

Nov.

2004

December

2004

Designe Capacity

(103 m3 / day) 400 400 600 600 600 350 350 400 400 600 600 600

Average (Monthly) Treated

Waste (103 m3 / day) 800 800 484 473 478 400 400 800 800 484 473 478

BOD Inlet (mg/I)

307 316 221 237 231 247 270 307 316 221 237 231

BOD Outlet (mg/I)

106 106 148 75 12 27 35 106 106 148 75 12

Maximam BOD

Removal (%)

63 68.4 46 - - 92 90 63 68.4 46 - -

Minimum BOD

Removal (%)

69.3 61.8 1.9 - - 86 86 69.3 61.8 1.9 - -

COD Inlet. (mg/l)

- - 478 - - - - - - 478 - -

COD Outlet (mg/l)

- - 267 - - - - - - 267 - -

SS Inlet (mg/l)

351 356 212 268 220 623 810 351 356 212 268 220

SS Outlet (mg/l)

101 76 94 24 11 32 40 101 76 94 24 11

Maximum SS Removal

(%) 70.9 79.1 75 - - 97 95 70.9 79.1 75 - -

Minimum SS Removal

(% ) 67.1 79.1 36 - - 92 93 67.1 79.1 36 - -

Average of Sludge Produced

m3/day

- - 2831 3553 3484 2000 2000 - - 2831 3553 3484

Debris on Screens m3/month - -

74

ton/month

72

ton/

month

69 ton/month 12 15 - - 74

ton/month

72

ton/m

onth

69 ton/month

169

Table 11: Causes of water –borne Disease Cause Water-borne diseases

Bacterial infections Typhoid

Cholera

Paratyphoid fever

Bacillary dysentery

Viral infections Infectious Hepatitis (jaundice)

Poliomyelitis

Protozoal infections Amoebic dysentery

6. EGYPTIAN LEGISLATIVE ASPECTS

6.1. Law 93 /1962

The first comprehensive environmental legislation

controlling disposal of wastewater in the Nile and

canals is Law 93 which put into force in 1962.

However, the regulations and standards set were not

applied to the public sector of industries.

6.2. Law 48/1982 and Decree 8/1983

Law 48 of 1982 specifically deals with discharges to

water bodies. This law prohibits discharge to the River

Nile, irrigation canals, drains, lakes and groundwater

without a license issued by the MWRI. Licenses can

be issued as long as the effluents meet the standards of

the laws. The license includes both the quantity and

quality that is permitted to be discharged. Discharging

without a license can result in a fine. Licenses may be

withdrawn in case of failure to immediately reduce

discharge, in case of pollution danger, or failure to

install appropriate treatment within a period of three

months.

Under the law, the Ministry of Interior has police

power while the Ministry of Health and Population is

the organization responsible to give binding advice on

water quality standards and to monitor

effluents/discharges. Law 48 does not cover ambient

quality monitoring of receiving water bodies although

some standards are given.

Law 48 recognizes three categories of water body

function:

* Fresh water bodies for the Nile River and irrigation

canals;

* Non-fresh or brackish water bodies for drains, lakes

and ponds;

* Groundwater aquifers.

6.3. Law 4/1994

Law 4/ 1994 for the Environment places an emphasis

on the protection of the coastal waters and the marine

environment, complementing Law 48/ 1982 for the

protection of the River Nile.

Through Law 4 of 1994 the EEAA is the authority

responsible for preparing legislation and decrees to

protect the environment in Egypt. The agency also has

the responsibility for setting standards and for

carrying out compliance monitoring. It should

participate in the preparation and implementation of

the national programme for environmental monitoring

and utilization of data (including water quality). The

agency is also charged with establishing an

“Environmental Protection Fund” which would

include water quality monitoring. With respect to the

pollution of the water environment, the law states that

all provisions of Law 48/1982 are not affected and

further, Law 4 only covers coastal and seawater

aspects.

The MWRI remains the responsible authority for

water quality and water pollution issues, although the

definition of “discharge” in Law 4 specifically

includes discharges to the Nile River waterways.

EEAA is responsible for coordinating the pollution

monitoring networks.

7. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1. Conclusion

Major sources of pollution at Rosetta Branch are

El-Rahawy drain in the southern part and industrial

pollution at Kafr El-Zayat.

Damietta Branch is receiving and adversely

affected by industrial wastewater from Talkha

fertilizer factory.

The Nile River water quality does not exhibit high

pollution levels to create health risks, except in some

locations that showed pollution by heavy metals.

Fecal coliform presence at all monitoring points is an

indication of human and/or animal wastes discharge.

Many agencies, under different ministries have

monitoring activities within their working program

However; most of these monitoring activities are not

conducted on regular bases.

There is no available detailed study on the self-

purification processes in the River Nile. The fate of

pollutants that discharge from the main drains and

industries that represent sources of pollution in Upper

Egypt (Khor El-Sail Aswan, El-Berba, Etsa drains,

Sugar factories and oil & soap factories) should be

170

deeply studied and finding the suitable treatment

technology for industrial wastes before discharging on

River Nile should to be our main target.

There is a lack of intra- and inter-ministerial

cooperation and data sharing.

Awareness programmes should be focused on

protection of our water resources from pollution

NGO‟s programmes on River Nile protection should

be encouraged and supported.

Although many of trace elements are essential for

plant growth, excessive quantities will cause

undesirable accumulation in plant tissues and growth

reduction. Heavy metals can pose significant health

hazards to humans and animals and affecting irrigated

crops.

Most of the available studies assumed that organic

loads received by drains are from domestic and

industrial sources while the effect of diffuse

agricultural discharges from the irrigated fields has

been neglected.

Generally, treatment of pollution sources before

draining into water ways is not only important but

vital process. Finding simple and low cost treatment is

the role of scientific research or technology transfer

process.

7.2. Recommendations

Sewerage system should be expand, extend,

developed and updated in order to have the capacity to

receive the wastes from factories.

The costs for inspection and monitoring should be

lowered; certified centers for inspection should be

prepared with the suitable equipment's and staff

members for every industrial area. The factories can

contract with them for sampling and analysis with

economic costs.

Awareness through meetings, conferences and

workshops is necessary to explain the importance and

how to have an environmental record to be ready

continuously at any time.

Evaluation for the wastewater treatment plants

that exist in factories should be carried out in order to

define how far it possible to have outlet complying

with the law.

Funding the factories to have the wastewater

treatment facilities should be studied.

Industrial waste should not be mixed with sewage

in order to limit the problems in wastewater treatment

plants.

Monitoring water quality two to four times/year

are not sufficient, continuous monitoring program

through fixed stations by using monitoring probes is

recommended.

Working with the Nile Basin Countries to

minimize waste and increase river expenditure for the

benefit of the basin countries.

It is noted that the use of animal manure, dredged

sediments from drains and sludge as fertilizers is

practiced in Egypt. Leaching of part of these bio-

fertilizers, which contains high concentrations of

pathogens, heavy metals, organic compounds and

nutrients is a major source of pollution. This is

confirmed by the low water quality of the drains in

spite of the high dilution factor. Data about this source

of pollution is scarce and should be studied.

Desalination of sea water and wastewater as this is

a promising water source especially in distant areas

where touristic and industrial projects are increasing.

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