agricultural wastes

1439 Water Environment Research, Volume 83, Number 10—Copyright © 2011 Water Environment Federation

Agricultural Wastes

Jiaming Liang1, Qingye Lu1,2, Robert Lerner1, Xiaohui Sun1, Hongbo Zeng2, Yang Liu1*

ABSTRACT: Literature related to agricultural wastes

and published in 2010 was summarized in this review.

The review is divided into the following sections: reuse

and recycle, waste treatment, waste characterization,

waste management and pollution minimization.

KEYWORDS: reuse, recycle, waste treatment, waste

management, characterization

doi: 10.2175/106143011X13075599869614

Reuse and recycle as sorbents

Dye adsorption. Bello-Huitle et al. (2010)

investigated the adsorption capacity of methylene blue

(MB) and phenol by granulated activated carbon made

from castile and pecan nutshells. They found that a

phosphoric acid activation ratio of 2 maximized the

adsorption capacity of granulated activated carbon.

———————— 1Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering,

Markin/CNRL Natural Resources Engineering Facility,

University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2W2, Canada; *Corresponding author phone: 780-492-5515; Fax.

780-492-0249; E-mail: 2Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering,

University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2V4, Canada.

[email protected]

Nasuha et al. (2010) studied the adsorption of MB from

aqueous solutions using a low-cost adsorbent, rejected

tea, by the batch adsorption technique. The equilibrium

adsorption was best described by the Langmuir isotherm

model with maximum monolayer adsorption capacities

that were found to be 147, 154 and 156 mg/g at 30, 40

and 50°C, respectively.The adsorption of copper ions

and MB onto the citric acid modified wheat straw (MWS)

was studied by batch techniques. It was observed that the

maximal adsorbed quantity of Cu2+ and MB on MWS at

293 K was 39.17 and 396.9 mg/g, respectively (Han et

al., 2010). The removal of tartrazine by coconut husks

was examined by Gupta, Jain, et al. (2010). Their results

indicated that the use of coconut husks for tartrazine

removal was effective and can be used as a viable

alternative to the activated carbon.

Sharma (2010) reported that activated carbon

can be prepared by pyrolyzing all agro-waste, rice husks,

in the presence of ZnCl2. The activated carbon displayed

both a microporous and mesoporous nature with a

significant surface area of 180.50 m2/g. The adsorption

of MB from its aqueous solutions by this activated

carbon was found to increase with the adsorbent dose

and temperature. Franca, Oliveira and Nunes (2010)

evaluated the removal efficiency of malachite green (MG)

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from aqueous solutions by the adsorbent obtained

through the microwave activation of defective coffee

press cake. The results showed that the produced

adsorbent presents potential as an inexpensive and easily

available alternative for the removal of cationic dyes in

wastewater treatments. Franca, Oliveira, Saldanha et al.

(2010) studied the removal of MG using mango seed

husks. The results showed that mango seed husk is a

suitable candidate for use as a biosorbent in the removal

of cationic dyes.

Iqbal et al. (2010) compared the Congo red dye

removal abilities of melon, water melon and musk melon

seeds in batch reactors. A pH of 2, a temperature of

20-30°C and a 100-200 rpm stirring speed were found to

be the optimal removal conditions for all three

substances, with best to worst adsorption reported for

melon seed (23.10 mg/g), musk melon seed (21.23 mg/g),

and finally water melon seed (3.08 mg/g). The sorption

of Congo red dye onto cashew nut shells (CNS) was

studied by Kumar et al. (2010). Their results indicated

that CNS could be employed as a low cost alternative

compared to other commercial adsorbents in the removal

of dyes from wastewater. Kumar (2010) developed a

carbon adsorbent from neem sawdust that was effective

for Congo red removal, with the removal efficiency

decreasing with increased pH. Adsorption was found to

be optimal at pH values of less than 3, and the kinetics

were suitably described by a pseudo-second order model.

Mittal, Jain et al. (2010) investigated the

potential use of coconut husk, for the removal of

Quinoline Yellow dye from wastewater and its efficiency

in dye sorption was compared with activated carbon. It

proved that coconut husk was an excellent low-cost

adsorbent. Also, they (Mittal, Mittal et al., 2010) tested

the adsorption ability of two wastes to remove light

yellow SF (Yellowish) dye from wastewaters, one was

an agricultural industry waste, deoiled soya, and the

other was a waste of thermal power plants, bottom ash.

The deoiled soya was found to have the percentage

adsorption of 89.65% with a percentage recovery of

99.08%, while the bottom ash was 88.74% and 99.82%

respectively.

Biosorption of Reactive Red 195 from

solutions using cone biomass of Pinus sylvestris Linneo

was shown to be effective (Aksakal and Ucun, 2010). An

alternative methodology for the removal of dyestuff,

Rhodamine 6G (R6G), from aqueous solutions by using

a new biosorbent, almond shell (Prunus dulcis) was

presented (Senturk et al., 2010). The monolayer

biosorption capacity of almond shell was found to be

32.6 mg/g by using Langmuir model equations.

Thermodynamic parameters indicated that the

biosorption of R6G onto almond shell was feasible,

spontaneous and endothermic in the temperature range of

0-40°C.

Ibrahim, Fatimah et al. (2010) prepared barley

straw to be an adsorbent of the anionic dyes acid blue 40

and reactive blue 4 through modification with NaOH and

cationic surfactant hexadecylpyridinium chloride

monohydrate (CPC) under varying conditions. The

results indicated that increasing the contact time

increased dye removal, and adsorption was higher at an


acidic pH. The maximum adsorption capacity

determined from the Langmuir isotherm at 25°C was

51.95 and 31.5 mg/g for acid blue 40 and reactive blue 4,

respectively.

Srinivas et al. (2010) used guava leaf powder

as an adsorbent to remove the neutral violet dye stuff. It

was observed that 91.3% neutral violet dye was removed

using the adsorbant guava leaf powder. Investigations

were done on the removal of methyl violet (MV) using

dead leaves by Cengiz and Cavas (2010). The maximum

adsorption capacity of the biomass was found to be

119.05 mg/g at 45°C. The results implied that dead

leaves were identified to be a significant and low-cost

adsorbent to remove MV, which is especially beneficial

to the Mediterranean Sea areas.

The removal of basic yellow 21 dye using flax

shives was investigated by Hassanein and Koumanova

(2010). An adsorption capacity of 76.92 mg/g was

observed, and it was found that the second-order kinetic

model best described the reaction kinetics. Ozdes et al.

(2010) evaluated the potential usage of almond shell (P.

dulcis) in the removal of malachite green from aqueous

solutions. They reported that almond shell could be

employed as a low cost and easily available adsorbent

for the removal of malachite green in wastewater

treatment processes. The monolayer adsorption capacity

of almond shell was found to be 29.0 mg/g.

Ong et al. (2010) reported their studies using a

biodegradable and low cost sorbent for various basic

dyes in both single and binary dye solutions. The

agricultural by-product has shown its potential to remove

Basic Blue 3 (BB3), MB and Basic Yellow 11 (BY11) in

both systems. Maximum sorption capacities were 23.64

mg/g, 28.25 mg/g and 67.11 mg/g for BB3, MB and

BY11, respectively, in the single dye system. However, a

decrease in the maximum sorption capacity was

observed in the binary systems and this might result from

competition between the same binding sites.

Chemical (other than dye) adsorption.

Activated bamboo charcoal was used as a novel low-cost

adsorbent to remove 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) from

aqueous solutions (Ma, Wang et al., 2010). It was found

that about 90% 2,4-DCP was removed from the solution

within the first 5 minutes. Shaarani and Hameed (2010)

investigated the potential feasibility of activated carbon

derived from oil palm empty fruit bunch for the removal

of 2,4-DCP from an aqueous solution. The activated

carbon was prepared via chemical activation with

phosphoric acid and it was shown to be a promising

material for adsorption of 2,4-DCP from aqueous

solutions, with a maximum monolayer adsorption

capacity of 232.56 mg/g at 30°C.

Batch adsorption of phenol from real

wastewater and a synthetically prepared solution was

tested using date-pit activated carbon (El-Naas et al.,

2010). Besides, they found that using ethanol to

regenerate the saturated activated carbon was possible,,

with an 86% efficiency after four cycles. The adsorption

of phenol on highly porous novel corn grain-based

activated carbons (CG-ACs) (>2000 m2/g) was assessed

in a batch mode (Park et al., 2010). It was found that the


influences of physical properties and energetic

heterogeneity nature of CG-ACs on phenol adsorption

efficiency were significant. Specifically, the increase in

the phenol adsorption capacity was observed when

increasing the fraction of microporosity, which was

likely due to the micropore filling.

The adsorption of 4-nitrophenol by acid

activated jute stick char in the batch mode was

investigated by Ahmaruzzaman and Gayatri (2010) at

three different temperatures. The authors found that

increasing temperature decreased the adsorption

efficiency. Activated carbon was prepared by apricot

stones for the removal of phenol and p-nitrophenol

(Petrova et al., 2010). It was found that the adsorption

capacity of the produced activated carbon was 152 mg/g

for phenol and 179 mg/g for nitrophenol.

Coir pith, a waste biomass from coconut coir

industry, was used to prepare activated carbon with

ZnCl2 for the removal of 2-chlorophenol from aqueous

solutions (Subha and Namasivayam, 2010). The

Langmuir adsorption capacity was found to be 149.3

mg/g, which indicated that zinc chloride-activated coir

pith carbon is economically more effective compared to

commercial activated carbon.

The use of sugarcane bagasse was found to be

very efficient for the removal of gasoline and n-heptane

from 5% aqueous solutions (Brandao et al., 2010). Using

CPC modified barley straw, Ibrahim, Wang et al. (2010)

investigated the removal of emulsified canola oil from

wastewater. The study showed that the maximum

adsorption capacity was at a neutral pH and the

temperature did not impact the adsorption efficiency.

Activated carbons, produced by physical steam

activation of olive kernel, corn cobs, rapeseed stalks, and

soya stalks were tested for bromopropylate removal from

water. It was found that corn cobs had the best

adsorption capacity, and that biomass derived activated

carbons could achieve equal bromopropylate removals

when compared to commercial activated carbons

(Ioannidou et al., 2010). Mahramanlioglu et al. (2010)

studied the adsorption of pyridine on acid treated spent

bleaching earth. The Lagergren first order rate equation

was used to describe the adsorption rate of pyridine and

maximum adsorption was found to occur at pH 6.5.

Activated carbons were produced from

agricultural waste corncobs using a variety of different

activation strategies and activators for hydrogen

adsorption (Sun and Webley, 2010). The microporous

carbon with the largest BET specific surface area

showed H2 adsorption capacities up to 2.0 wt% at 77K

under 1 atm pressure and 0.44 wt% at 298 K at 5 MPa.

The removal of ammonium from aqueous solutions using

zeolite NaY prepared from rice husk ash waste was

investigated (Yusof et al., 2010). The cation exchange

capacities of the zeolites were measured as 3.15, 1.46

and 1.34 meq/g for zeolite Y, powdered mordenite and

granular mordenite, respectively. The monolayer

adsorption capacity for zeolite Y (42.37 mg/g) was found

to be higher than that of powdered mordenite (15.13

mg/g) and granular mordenite (14.56 mg/g).

Metal ion adsorption. Activated guava seed


carbon (AGSC) and modified guava seed (MGS) were

used to adsorb Ni (II). The results suggested that the

maximum adsorption capacities of AGSC and MGS

were 18.05 and 32.05 mg/g at the pH of 6 respectively

(Zewail and El-Garf, 2010). Coconut oilcake activated

carbon showed more adsorption efficiency than neem

oilcake activated carbon (thermally activated at 800°C)

for the removal of nickel (II) from wastewater (Hema

and Srinivasan, 2010). Adsorption of both activated

carbons was best described by pseudo-second order

kinetics and Tempkin isotherms.

Gupta, Nadeem et al. (2010) measured the

removal of Pb (II) using rice bran adsorption, as a

function of pH, temperature, contact time and the initial

metal concentration. Results indicated that a pH range of

3.5-4.5 was effective, the optimal temperature was 25°C

and the removal was best fit by Langmuir isotherms. The

ability of modified soda lignin, extracted from oil palm

empty fruit bunches, to remove Pb(II) under varying

conditions was investigated by Ibrahim, Ngah et al.

(2010). Modified soda lignin was found to be an

effective adsorbent with a monolayer adsorption capacity

of 46.72 mg/g at 47°C.

Pb(II) ions were tested for removal by rubber

leaf powder, treated with potassium permanganate and

sodium carbonate (Kamal et al., 2010). The results

indicated that the maximum adsorption capacity of lead

was 95.3 mg/g. Li, Zheng et al. (2010) studied the

removal of Pb2+ in modified areca waste from aqueous

solutions with the Fenton reagent. The monolayer

adsorption capacity was found to be 3.37 mg/g at pH 6.6

and 323 K.

A new kind of orange peel (OP) biosorbent

containing the extractant Cyanex 272 was developed to

remove Pb(II) from aqueous solutions (Lu et al., 2010).

The maximum adsorption capacity was improved, with

the order of the adsorption capacities being 272SCO

(1.30 mol/kg) > SCO (1.26 mol/kg) > 272CO (1.20

mol/kg) > 27200 (1.02 mol/kg) > CO (0.62 mol/kg).

Mohammadi et al. (2010) prepared activated carbon

from Sea-buckthorn stones to remove Pb(II) ions from

aqueous solutions. It was proposed that the produced

activated carbons from the Amygdalus scoparia shell

were an alternative low-cost adsorbent for the adsorption

of Pb(II). Cao and Harris (2010) produced biochar by

heating dairy manures at temperatures below 500°C.

They found that the biochar was capable of adsorbing Pb

(up to 100%) and atrazine (up to 77%).

Ofomaja et al. (2010a) studied the sorption of

lead(II) onto pine cone powder (PCP). The effect of

NaOH treatment on the kinetics of lead(II) uptake was

also evaluated. Their results revealed that NaOH

treatment changed the pattern of the biosorption kinetics.

Activated carbon prepared from Bombax ceiba sawdust

(SDC) was applied to remove of Pb(II) ions from

aqueous solutions (Sakthi et al., 2010). The maximum

adsorption of Pb(II) occurred at pH 5 and the maximum

sorption capacity was 209 mg/g. Thermodynamic

parameters and the Tempkin constant showed that the

sorption process of Pb(II) onto SDC was feasible,

spontaneous and endothermic under the studied

conditions.


Optimization of operating conditions for Cr(IV)

adsorption onto sulfuric acid treated sunflower head and

stem waste was explored by Jain et al. (2010). Under

the optimized condition, 75.7% and 85.4% removals

were obtained for the head and the stem waste,

respectively. Karaoglu et al. (2010) explored the

application of vineyard pruning wastes on the adsorption

of Cr(III). The results indicated that the at the optimized

pH (4.2) and temperature (303K) conditions, an uptake

capacity of 12.453 mg/g can be achieved.

Two studies about pistachio hull waste were

carried out by Moussavi and Barikbin, (2010) as well as

Moussavi and Khosravi, (2010). In the first work,

pistachio hull powder (PHP) was tested for the removal

of Cr(VI) from wastewater. The maximum Langmuir

adsorption capacity was found to be 116.3 mg/g. In the

second work, the pistachio hull waste was introduced as

an efficient and low-cost adsorbent for the removal of

different concentrations of cyanide from water and

wastewater. They achieved a maximum adsorption

capacity of 156.2 mg/g.

Rice bran carbon (RBC), prepared from rice

bran (an agricultural waste), was successfully utilized for

the removal of Cr(VI) from an aqueous solution (Ranjan

and Hasan, 2010). The maximum uptake of the total

chromium obtained by applying the Langmuir isotherm

model was 138.88 mg/g for RBC, which was comparable

to that obtained by utilizing commercial activated carbon

(116.28 mg/g) at 40°C. Rao and Rehman (2010) used the

fruits of Ficus glomerata as an adsorbent for the

adsorption of Cr(VI). The thermodynamic parameters

indicated the spontaneous, endothermic and increased

randomness nature of the Cr(VI) adsorption.

Shen et al. (2010) investigated the removal

mechanism of Cr(VI) from water by coconut coir. The

results showed that, upon reaction with coconut coir at

pH 3, Cr(VI) was reduced to Cr(III), which was either

bound to the coconut coir or released back into the

solution.

The removal of cadmium using melon peel

agricultural wastes as a sorbent was investigated

(Hamdaoui et al., 2010). Results showed that cadmium

removal by melon peels was very effective, with a

maximum monolayer sorption capacity of 81.97 mg/g.

Rao et al. (2010a) and Rao et al. (2010b) used two kinds

of abundantly available waste biosorbents, Tectona

grandis L.f. leaf powder and Psidium guvajava L leaf

powder for the removal of cadmium(II) from aqueous

solutions. The maximum adsorption of the two leaf

powders was 29.94 mg/g and 31.15 mg/g respectively.

Wang, Wang et al. (2010) studied the adsorption of Cd(II)

ions from aqueous solutions by bamboo charcoal. The

results showed that a higher pH was favourable for Cd(II)

ion removal, and that a higher initial Cd concentration

lead to lower removal percentages but higher adsorption

capacity. The equilibrium adsorption time was 6 h with a

maximum adsorption capacity of 12.08 mg/g.

Pereira et al. (2010) prepared chemically

modified wood sawdust (ES) and sugarcane bagasse (EB)

to remove Zn2+ from aqueous solutions and

electroplating wastewater. The adsorption capacities

were 80 mg/g and 105 mg/g in aqueous single metal


solutions, and 47 mg/g and 45 mg/g in the real

electroplating waste water, for ES and EB respectively.

The decreased adsorption efficiency in the wastewater

was due to the competition between other cations and/or

interference of other ions.

Ma, Chen et al. (2010) prepared an aminated

bagasse (AB) with a high-adsorption capacity for

mercury ions by grafting a copolymerization of

acrylonitrile onto sugarcane bagasse, followed by

aminating with the chelating molecule

diethylenetriamine. The results showed that AB was

effective for the removal of mercury over a wide range

of pH > 5, with a maximum adsorption capacity of 917.4

mg/g.

Seven kinds of agriculture wastes were studied

as a biosorbent to copper by Hansen et al. (2010).

Biosorption capacity and kinetics were investigated

which indicated that peach stones and pine sawdust were

good biosorbent with high sorption capacity (around

10-15 mg/g) at acidic pH. Ofomaja et al. (2010b)

investigated the NaOH solution modified PCP for the

removal of copper(II) from aqueous solutions. A higher

copper(II) adsorption capacity was obtained in the PCP

treated with a higher concentration of NaOH.

Ozcimen and Ersoy-Mericboyu (2010) studied

the activated carbons prepared from hazelnut shells and

apricot stones as adsorbents for the removal of copper(II)

ions from an aqueous solution. Increased temperature

and pH were found to lead to an increase in the

adsorption capacity of both adsorbents. Sulaiman et al.

(2010) used oil palm leaf powders as new,

non-conventional and low-cost adsorbents for the

removal of copper (II) ions from aqueous solutions. The

monolayer sorption capacity of OPLP for copper (II)

ions was found to be 11.22 mg/g at 30°C.

Rice straw ash, created after co-firing with

0.15 to 0.3 liters of methanol per kg of straw, was shown

to be suitable for uranium immobilization due to its

porous texture, especially in the presence of phosphorus

or vanadium (Bishay, 2010).

The chemically activated carbon, prepared

from Syzygium jambolanum nut, was successfully used

to remove mercury(II) and chromium(VI) in batch

studies by the adsorption process (Muthukumaran and

Beulan, 2010). Reddy et al. (2010) studied the

biosorption of Pb2+ from aqueous solutions by biomass

prepared from Moringa oleifera bark. The adsorption

capacity calculated from the Langmuir isotherm was

34.6 mg/g at an initial pH of 5.0. This biosorbent was

effective in removing lead in the presence of common

metal ions like Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ present in water.

Rice husk activated carbon was evaluated for

its adsorptive capacity (Awwad et al., 2010). Their

results indicated that the rice husk activated carbon was

efficient in the removal of La(III) and Er(III) ions from

aqueous solutions, with the monolayer capacity at 175.4

mg/g for La(III) and 250 mg/g for Er(III). Agricultural

waste products of rice straw and wheat straw, when

combined with a Salvinia biomass, were shown by Dhir

and Kumar (2010) to be effective for heavy metal (Cr, Ni,

and Cd) removal from wastewaters.

Guo et al. (2010) found that poultry


litter-based activated carbon can be effectively used for

heavy metal (Cu2+, Pb2+, Zn2+, and Cd2+) removal from

wastewaters. Hu et al. (2010) examined the effects of

reacting saponified pineapple peel fiber and succinic

anhydride in refluxed pyridine and dimethyl sulfoxide at

different pH values and temperatures for the purpose of

creating novel ionic metal adsorbents. The results

showed that modified pineapple peel fiber has a high

adsorption capacity. Onwu and Ogah (2010) carried out

a study to investigate the potential of applying the

African white star apple in scavenging heavy metal ions

from aqueous solutions. The adsorption process was

found to be highly pH-dependent and the results

indicated that the optimum pH for the sorption of Cd(II)

and Ni(II) was 6.0 while Pb(II) was 7.0.

van Lienden et al. (2010) examined the

adsorption of zinc and copper on 12 granular activated

carbons, of which six were obtained commercially and

six were produced through the thermal activation of

agricultural byproducts in the laboratory. The granular

activated carbon produced from nutshells was less

effective than that produced from rice materials (straw

and hulls). Vassileva and Detcheva (2010) studied the

adsorption of transition metal ions from aqueous

solutions via a novel porous material obtained from

Bulgarian lignite (Chukurovo deposit) and its oxidized

modifications. It was found that the adsorption process

was affected significantly by the pH value of the aqueous

solution.

Solids. Rizwan et al. (2010) used wastes of the

Saccharum officinarum, Moringa oleifera, Triticum

aestivcum and Oryza saliva in their raw forms as well

as after converting them into ash and activated carbon

as biosorbents for the treatment of brackish water. A

significant improvement has been observed in the

quality control parameters of the water after treatment.

A substantial decrease in conductivity, TDS, TH,

concentrations of cations and anions was observed in

the samples of brackish water after treatment with

different biosorbents.

Characterization. Sharma et al. (2010)

investigated the characteristics of activated carbon

prepared from coconut coir. The BET surface area of the

synthesized activated carbon was found to be 205.27

m2/g. After activation, both micropores and a small

volume of mesopores were formed in the product.

Reuse and recycle (excluding sorbents)

Enzyme Production. The ability of various

bacteria isolated from Nigerian agricultural wastes to

produce beta-amylase and amyloglucosidase was

examined by Adeniran et al. (2010). Results showed that

Aspergillus. niger produced the greatest amount of

beta-amylase (33.2 EU) using plantain peels as the

medium via the static cultivation method and produced

the greatest amount of amyloglucosidase (29.8 EU)

using yam peels as the substrate under the solid-state

cultivation regimen. Chapla et al. (2010) investigated the

production of xylanase using Aspergillus foetidus MTCC

4898, wheat bran and anaerobically treated distillery


spent wash under solid state fermentation. Xylanase

activity of 8450 U/g was measured and subsequently

used for enzymatic saccharification of agro residues such

as wheat straw, rice straw and corncobs. It was found

that NaOH and ammonia pretreatments enhanced the

enzymatic hydrolysis of all three compounds.

The use of various ratios of coba husk and corn

steep liquor to produce low molecular weight xylanase

was statistically modeled (Fang et al., 2010). It was

found that by applying optimal compositions a 227%

increase in xylanase activity compared with the original

design can be achieved. Using DeMeo’s fractional

factorial design, Geetha and Gunasekaran (2010) studied

the optimization of a nutrient solution containing

agricultural wastes for xylanase production by Bacillus

pumilus B20. A 3.4-fold increase in xylanase production

(313.3 U/mL) was achieved. Honorato and Rodrigues

(2010) tested the stability of dextransucrase produced by

fermentation using cashew apple juice as the substrate

and found that the crude enzyme was stable at 30°C for

30 h with a pH range of 4.5 to 5.5, and the partially

purified enzyme was also stable in non-fermented

cashew apple juice at a pH 5.0 for 96 h at 30°C,

indicating that enzyme purification was not necessary.

Biofertilizers, Cultivation Materials and Soil

Amendments. Chang et al. (2010) showed that the

exclusive use of pea and rice hull compost based

fertilizers could meet the nutrient requirements of

Anthurium andreanum. However cow cattle dung with

tea leaf residue compost based fertilizer could not meet

the requirements, likely due to the decreased supply of

nitrogen and presence of manganese toxicity. Hazelnut

husk, maize straw and poultry manure agricultural

wastes, in combination with other materials, were

checked for their suitability as growing media for the

ornamental plants ligustrum (Ligustrum lucidum) and

cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa) (Dede et al., 2010).

Results showed that these waste mixtures could

successfully replace peat and soil. The most suitable

one for ligustrum was the mixture containing poultry

manure, whereas for cypress was bio-solid, regardless of

the main components.

To reduce the pollution from agricultural waste,

such as sago waste (SW) and unbalanced and excessive

use of chemical fertilizers, organic fertilizers, K- and

ammonium-based humic substances, were produced

from composted SW (Petrus et al., 2010). The results

show that mixing soil with humin produced from

composted SW before the application of the fertilizers

significantly increased maize dry matter production and

the efficient use of nutrience. The value of a mixture of

dried vegetable waste powder and oil cake mixture as an

agricultural feed was enhanced through solid-state

fermentation using Aspergillus niger S(1)4 and NCIM

616 (Rajesh et al., 2010). Significant increase in crude

protein and amino acids, significant reduction in the

crude fat and crude fibre content were obtained. Van

Zwieten et al. (2010) studied agricultural soil

remediation using biochars. Their results indicated that

the performance of remediation was dependent on

different types of biochars and soil types.


General Biogass Production. A

methane-production unit was set up in the department of

Loiret by farmers, Messrs Beets, working in co-operation

to create renewable energy which may be applicable to

farms (Lejars, 2010). It has a capacity of 150 kW-hour

and the electricity generated could be resold at 0.136

euros per kW-hour. The main source of raw materials

was farm effluents (farmyard manure, slurry),

complemented by agricultural products and waste.

Hydrogen produced from the mixture of cow

manure and food wastes was measured (Yokoyama et al.,

2010). It was found that the production of hydrogen was

dependent on the concentration of carbohydrate other

than protein or fat. A model was developed to illustrate

the process of hydrogen production from agricultural

wastes (Parker et al., 2010). It was illustrated that the

cost of hydrogen production from agricultural wastes

was similar to that of producing from natural gas.

Ethanol Production. The potential for the

production of bioethanol from waste rice straw was

discussed by Dominguez-Escriba and Porcar (2010) in

terms of both energy production and agricultural waste

disposal. Advances in research with regards to the

conversion of lignocelluloses into the fermentable sugars

that are needed for bioethanol production were also

discussed, with a focus on straw pre-treatment,

hydrolysis and fermentation. Ko et al. (2010) explored

kinetic model parameters for rice straw feedstock used

for cellulose saccharification using real experimental

data, and showed that this model could be combined

with a high ethanol and glucose concentration

fermentation model to form a simultaneous

saccharification and fermentation model. Tran et al.

(2010) studied the potential use of a high amylase

producing Bacillus subtilis in a co-culture with

Clostridium butylicum TISTR 1032 to enhance

acetone-butanol-ethanol production from starch. The

mixed culture increased amylase activity and ABE

production, compared to those of produced from

Clostridium pure culture.

Energy Production. Gomez et al. (2010)

assessed the potential of using wastes from olive-oil

mills, rice mills, wineries, dairy plants, breweries and

wood, meat and nut processing plants to produce energy

via grate firing followed by steam turbine, co-firing in

coal power plants and anaerobic digestion plus internal

combustion engine. A reduction by 50% of the

investment costs of grate firing could increase profitable

power to 1102 MWe (and production to 7.70 TWh).

High quality biodiesel production, using waste soybean

oil, was investigated by Hossain and Mazen (2010).

Results showed that the highest biodiesel yield (68.5%)

was obtained with process conditions of 3: 1

oil-to-methanol molar ratio, 0.5% NaOH catalyst, a

temperature of 55°C and a 250 rpm stirring speed.

Munir et al. (2010a) investigated the

coutilization of agricultural residues in existing coal fired

power plants which can help in producing clean energy,

disposing of waste, and increasing the income of the


rural population It was concluded that the agricultural

residues can be used as a potential substitute fuel which

can help to control the emission of NOx and SO2. Shea

meal and cotton stalk were selected and co-fired with

coal to produce energy (Munir et al., 2010b). The results

indicated that the addition of biomass coupled with air

and fuel-staging techniques not only reduced-NOx and

SO2 simultaneously but also improved the char burnout

efficiency. Poschl et al. (2010) evaluated the energy

efficiency of different biogas systems, including single

and co-digestion of multiple feedstock, different biogas

utilization pathways, and waste-stream management

strategies. Results showed that the energy balance

evaluated as Primary Energy Input to Output (PEIO)

ratio, was dependent on biogas yield, the utilization

efficiency, and energy value of intended fossil fuel

substitution.

Production/Recovery of Other Materials.

The actions of two different endoxylanase were

examined on the autohydrolysis liquors of wheat straw

and sunflower stalk for the production of

xylooligosaccharides and the resulting antioxidant

activity (Akpinar et al., 2010). The results suggested that

autohydrolysis-treated wheat straw and sunflower stalk

can be used as prebiotics and antioxidants.

Amiri et al. (2010) investigated single and

biphasic systems using a dilute acid hydrolysis process

to convert rice straw into furans, and found that the use

of solvents improved the production of

5-Hydroxymethylfurfural and tetrahydrofuran.

Ashori and Nourbakhsh (2010) studied the use

of various agricultural waste residues as an alternative to

wood fibers as a thermoplastic support. They found

that samples treated with coupling agents exhibited

improved tensile, flexural and impact properties as

compared to untreated samples, and that the use of the

G-3216 coupling agent gave superior results when

compared with G-3003.

Ionic liquids 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium

chloride (AmimCl) and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium

acetate (Emi-mAc) were used to regenerate corn husk

cellulose into densely structured cellulose (II) (Cao et al.,

2010). The solvents were found to be recyclable and the

mechanical properties of the regenerated cellulose were

superior for those made from the AmimCl solvent. The

cellulose extracted from agricultural wastes was studied

and were characterized (Ibrahim, Agblevor et al., 2010).

It was found that the isolation of cellulose was affected

by treatment conditions and thermal stabilities of the

cellulose samples varied corresponding agricultural

waste types.

Leao et al. (2010) studied the utilization of

agro-based biocomposites, pineapple (Ananas comosus)

and banana (Musa indica) for industrial applications.

This residual waste was found to be one of the single

largest sources of cellulose fibers available at almost no

cost. Mandels et al. (2010) studied the enzymatic

hydrolysis of waste cellulose by enzyme, Trichoderma

viride, which can be produced with submerged

fermentation using newspaper as a growth substrate. The

saccharification of 5% slurries after 48 hrs ranged from


2-92%. The rate and extent of the hydrolysis was

controlled by the degree of crystallinity, particle size,

and the presence of impurities.

Rice husk ash, modified with maleic anhydride,

was shown to be a suitable filler for the use with

polyvinylchloride, with an optimal strength and

tribological properties occurring with ash concentrations

of 10% by weight (Chand et al., 2010).

Espindola-Gonzalez et al. (2010) synthesized silica oxide

nanoparticles using rice husk, sugar cane bagasse and

coffee husk through vermicompost with annelids

(Eisenia foetida). It was demonstrated to be a novel

synthesis method.

The recovery and antioxidant capacity of

phenol from olive mill wastewater was investigated for

the effects of pretreatment with temperature and an

ethanol addition (Galanakis et al., 2010). Results showed

that the extraction time was not a governing factor, while

pretreatment with 20% ethanol decreased the recovery of

phenol. Preheating at either 50-60°C or 80°C decreased

both the recovery and antioxidant strength of phenol.

Gontero et al. (2010) developed a procedure

for producing crystallized fruit from watermelon rind by

removing the outer peel, slicing it into 7mm cubes,

blanching for 5 minutes, treating it with a 10% sodium

chloride solution, treating it with sucrose solutions, and

then drying it at 60°C.

Ja'afaru and Onilude (2010) compared the

hydrolysis of alkali-treated agricultural wastes with

xylanase isolated from Trichoderma viride Fd18 and

Aspergillus ustus Fd12. The results showed that

alkali-treated wheat bran, using both xylanases, showed

the highest hydrolysis, and reached optimal performance

under the conditions of pH 4.0-4.5 and a temperature of

35°C.

Khan and Perveen (2010) introduced

hardwood sawdust, softwood sawdust, banana stems and

banana peels to cells of Trichoderma viride to determine

their transformability into fermentable sugar for ethanol

production. Results showed that banana stems were the

best substrate.

Mutlu (2010) produced furfural from hazelnut

shells using two steps reactions with o-nitrotolene

extraction method. Optimum conditions for the

maximum furfural production rates (0.3079 g furfural /

h-g xylose) were found to be 177.7°C and at 4.00 %

(g/100 mL) sulphuric acid concentration. The maximum

furfural conversion yield of hazelnut pentosans was

60%.

Sodium carboxymethylcellulose was produced

from date palm rachis (Khiari et al., 2010). It was found

that the synthesized sodium carboxymethylcellulose

exhibited 10% greater performance than a commercial

anionic flocculent (A(100)PWG: polyacrylamide).

Succinic acid was successfully produced from

the waste orange peel and the wheat straw by a one-step

consolidated bioprocessing which combines cellulose

hydrolysis and sugar fermentation by a cellulolytic

bacterium, Fibrobacter succinogenes S85 (Li, Siles et al.,

2010). The greatest succinate titres were found to be 1.9

and 2.0 g/L for pre-treated orange peel and wheat straw,

respectively.


Manso et al. (2010) reported a method that

uses carob pulp aqueous extracts as the carbon source for

the production of the biocontrol agent Pantoea

agglomerans PBC-1. Optimal sugar extraction was

achieved at a solid/liquid ratio of 1:10 (w/v), at 25°C, for

1 h. The initial sugar concentration of 5 g/L allowed the

rapid growth (0.16/h) and the high biomass productivity

(0.28 g/l•h).

The first fully biomass-based poly(butylene

succinate) (PBS) was synthesized from furfural derived

from inedible agricultural cellulosic waste by Tachibana

et al. (2010). Results showed that biomass-based PBS

monomers 1,4-butanediol, succinic acid, and dimethyl

succinate were synthesized from furfural in polymer

grade purity and polymerized to PBS with arbitrary

biomass carbon ratios.

Orthogonal experimental design (Wang, Zou et

al., 2010) was adopted to investigate the optimum

conditions for cellulase production from corn straws.

Cellulase was further used to produce lactic acid through

the simultaneous saccharification and fermentation

process. Their result indicated that the utilization of corn

straws as substrate to produce cellulase and lactic acid

was applicable and could reduce pollution.

An alternative culture medium, based on

agricultural waste products (e. g., apple pomace) was

optimized to replace the current SYY medium for the

production of antimicrobial metabolites by strain

Hhs.015(T) (Wang, Huang et al., 2010). The alternative

medium contained 15 g apple pomace, 4 g rapeseed meal,

0.1 g KH2PO4, and 0.6 g MgSO4·7H2O in 1 L distilled

water, which reduced the material costs by 91.5%

compared to the SSY medium.

Yang et al. (2010) investigated the suitability

of using Acanthopanax koreanum fruit waste (AFW), as

a source of anti-inflammatory agents. AFW extracts

inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced production of nitric

oxide and prostaglandin E-2 in RAW 264.7 macrophages

by 79.6% and 39.7%, respectively and can be considered

as a potential anti-inflammatory candidate.

Cattle manure wastes can be converted to

biooil by using hydrothermal conversion technology. Yin

et al. (2010) indicated that the conversion efficiency was

mainly affected by the operational temperature and the

process gases used, whereas, the pressure, retention time

and mass ratios were not beneficial to the conversion of

cattle manure wastes. The mean high heating value of

biooil from hydrothermal conversion of cattle manure

was 37.0 MJ/kg.

Others. The effects of the addition of pig

slurry and green waste composts on the heavy metal

exchange capacity of different soils were investigated by

Doelsch et al. (2010). Results showed that the addition

did not increase heavy metal exchange capacity, and in

fact decreased the Cu exchange capacity.

Lee and Lee (2010) carried out a study to

assess the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of both

the individual and combined phenolics in olive leaf

extract. Both the individual and combined phenolics

exhibited good radical scavenging abilities. It was

revealed that the superoxide dismutase (SOD)-like


activity and the antimicrobial effect were significantly

higher for combined phenolics compared to the

individual ones.

Studies on the application of common reed to

improve the quality of surface water and to produce

energy were conducted in Netherlands (Meerburg et al.,

2010). They found that reed was capable to reduce the

total amount of nitrogen in the water with average

efficiencies from 32 to 47% and the total amount of

phosphorous with 27-45%. The results showed that reed

in the wetland had the capacity to sanitize the surface

water and could also be used as a green energy source.

Treatment

Anaerobic Treatment. A case study on the

effect of temperature and hydraulic retention time (HRT)

on anaerobic treatment of cattle manure and agricultural

wastes were studied (Alkaya et al., 2010). The results

showed that higher temperature could lead to more

biogas production while the HRT had no significant

effects on the production of biogas. The methane

production yield and dry matter reduction efficiencies

were comparable to the studies performed on anaerobic

digestion of cattle manure. Corn silage, beet pulp silage

and carrot residues were used as materials of the

anaerobic digestion process to demonstrate the efficiency

of the process (Kacprzak et al., 2010). It was found that

the highest efficiency could be obtained when using

these three materials together.

Thermal Treatment. A laboratory-scale

research on thermal treatment of olive solid wastes

(OSW) and residue char based on gaseous emissions was

conducted by Chouchene, Jeguirim, Khiari, Trouve et al.

(2010). They suggested that the setup of staged oxidation

or catalytic treatment may be a promising issue for

setting an environmentally friendly process. The effect

of particle sizes of OSW and O2 concentrations on

thermal treatment of olive solid waste was studied by

Chouchene, Jeguirim, Khiari, Zagrouba et al. (2010). The

results showed that small particle size was beneficial to

the thermal degradation. O2 concentrations affected the

activation energy but not the reaction order.

The effects of reaction conditions on rice husk

pyrolyzate were investigated by Heo et al. (2010). They

found that temperature was the most important factor

affecting the production rate. A new gasification method

to convert biomass to energy was developed using coffee

husks under high temperatures (Wilson et al., 2010). It

was found that higher temperature with the presence of

O2 was beneficial to the conversion reaction, which

followed zero order model and the activation energy was

estimated to be 161 kJ/mol. A fixed-bed fire-tube heating

reactor was applied in the pyrolyzate of sugarcane

bagasse and the effect of different factors was measured

(Islam et al., 2010). The results indicated that it was a

good way to use the fixed-bed fire-tube heating reactor

to mitigate agricultural wastes and produce bio-oils.

Adsorption Treatment. The removal of

pesticides through adding pesticide-primed materials to


an on-farm biopurification system (BPS) was

investigated (De Wilde et al., 2010). The results

presented that the addition of pesticide-primed materials

could improve the efficiency of BPS. Endosulfan

metabolities was used to be an adsorbent to remove

pesticides from water (El Bakouri et al., 2010). Results

showed that the thermo chemical treatment was

beneficial to the adsorption efficiency. Biochar was used

as a sorbent to remove pesticides (Zheng et al., 2010).

The results showed that the sorption of the biochar for

both pesticides was favored at low pH conditions.

Composting. An in-vessel aerobic composting

technique was employed to recycle urban primary sludge

(Rihani et al., 2010). The results showed that pathogens

could be removed dramatically while the heavy metal

removal was low. Studies on the agricultural waste

composting to determine the effects of inoculation time

on the enzyme activities were conducted by Zeng et al.

(2010). The results showed that the inoculation was able

to improve the efficiency of the second fermentation

phase more than that of the first phase.

Bioreactor. A methanogenic bioreactor with

carbon fiber textiles (CFT) was first applied to treat

agricultural wastes by Sasaki et al. (2010). The results

presented that the use of CFT increased the degradation

efficiency of agricultural wastes. A study on nitrogen

removal from agricultural runoff in bioretention systems

was developed and various conditions were applied to

demonstrate the nitrogen removal efficiency (Ergas et al.,

2010). The results indicated that more than 88% nitrogen

removal was reached in this pilot-scale study. An

agricultural wastes treatment method was developed

using pilot-scale photobioreactors (Kastanek et al., 2010).

The results indicated that the treatment could achieve the

criteria in EU and that flue gases could be applied to

photobioreactors.

Wetland Treatment. The treatment

performance of agricultural wastes in a constructed

wetland system was investigated in seven years (Son et

al., 2010). The study tested the contaminants removal

and kinetics and found that low rate constant would not

affect the BOD removal. The removal of organic matter

and NH4+-N from agricultural wastewater was studied

through a modified wetland in China (Du et al., 2010).

The results revealed that the treatment efficiency was

higher than the conventional wetland in regards to the

BOD and NH4+-N removal.

Other Technologies. In order to avoid biogas

discharging into the atmosphere, a cover was adopted to

an anaerobic piggery pond in New Zealand (Heubeck

and Craggs, 2010). The results revealed that the cover

was beneficial to capture biogas and reduce odour

greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Fu et al. (2010)

demonstrated that agricultural and forestry waste

products could be converted to small molecule chiral

ligands through acid depolymerization. The produced

chiral ligands could be used for sustainable asymmetric

catalysis.


An aerobic thermophilic treatment method was

applied to treat wastewater from potato production

(Lasik et al., 2010). It was found that the repeated-batch

operation could achieve the highest COD and TOC

removal rate. Immobilized titania nanophotocatalysis

was applied to treat agricultural organic wastes

(Mahmoodi and Arami, 2010). The results demonstrated

that immobilized titania nanophotocatalysis was an

environmental friendly way to treat agricultural wastes.

A full-scale treatment process was conducted to treat

dairy farming wastes in France (Merlin and Gaillot,

2010). The process was later improved with an aeration

process which improved in the contaminant removal

rate.

The anodic Fenton treatment was adopted to

treat sulfonamide which was an agricultural antibiotic

(Neafsey et al., 2010). It was found that the bacteriostatic

properties of sulfamethazine and sulfadiazine were

removed during degradation. The treatment of water

polluted with agricultural pesticide was studied by the

electrochemical process (Samet et al., 2010). The results

obtained revealed that increasing the apparent current

density and temperature and decreasing the initial

pollutant concentrations improved the COD removal

rates.

Waste Characterization

Nutrients. The bioavailability of phosphorus

(P) in biosolids and poultry litter was examined by

sequential fractionation coupled with enzymatic

hydrolysis (He et al., 2010). The results showed that the

litter/biosolids mixing granulated products could serve

well as a slow-release fertilizer. The amount of N and P

discharged produced from agriculture fields in the

Mekong Delta, South Vietnam was determined by De

Silva et al. (2010). The results indicated that N

discharged was in the similar level to feeds and that P

discharged levels were much lower than feed levels.

A case study on phosphorus discharge was

conducted in Hefei city, China by using the substance

flow analysis (SFA) method (Li, Yuan et al., 2010).

Their results presented that agricultural activities were

the main source of phosphorus discharge. Approximately

33% of the total phosphorus input left the area, and

nearly 20% of that amount was discharged to surface

water. A research on nitrate discharge from pig effluent

wastes was conducted using the isotope analysis method

to evaluate the effects of agricultural waste on drinking

water (Payet et al., 2010). The results presented that the

nitrate pollution was mainly contributed by the

agricultural effluent.

Gaseous Emission. Ozone produced from the

wastes and emissions of four kinds of agricultural

animals (beef cattle, dairy cattle, swine and poultry)

were measured (Howard et al., 2010). The results

presented that the ozone formation potential from poultry

wastes was twice of that from light duty gasoline

vehicles while other three kinds of animal wastes

produced less ozone than light duty gasoline vehicles.

Air pollution caused by combustion of agricultural

wastes was tested and analyzed (Musialik-Piotrowska et


al., 2010). It was found that the wooden pellet produced

less CO, nevertheless, it produced the most toxic

formaldehyde and benzene. In addition, wheat straw

pellets generated the most CO and VOCs. Direct and

indirect GHG emissions from a vertical flow constructed

wetland (CW) planted with forage rice were monitored

(Riya et al., 2010). Their results suggested that the

percentage of indirect N2O-N emissions (86.7%) was

much greater than that of CH4-C emissions (2.9%).

Therefore, it was necessary to address the issues of

indirect N2O-N emissions.

Microorganisms. A study on protozoan

infections due to agricultural animal wastes in the U.S.

elderly was conducted to assess the relationship between

the cattle density and the human infection risk (Jagai et

al., 2010). The results showed that higher cattle density

could lead to higher risk of protozoan infections and that

the risk presented a seasonal pattern. Molecular biology

techniques were performed to analyze microbial

communities in bovine slurry (Murayama et al., 2010).

The results showed that there were different kinds of

microorganisms present in bovine slurry and that most of

these microorganisms had no potential to affect human

health. Hormones fraction in the swine manure were

determined using the solid-phase extraction and gas

chromatography-mass spectrometry techniques

(Combalbert et al., 2010). The results showed that the

ways used to store samples affected hormone

concentrations. It was also found that estrone and

alpha-estradiol were the main constituents in the

samples.

Particles. Ram et al. (2010) studied

carbonaceous aerosols. They found that the fractional

mass of carbonaceous aerosols contributed to PM10 mass

varied in different seasons and that the agricultural

wastes burning was the main source of carbonaceous

aerosols.

Environmental Impact. The impacts of

pesticides presented in the Llobregat river basin on

benthic biological communities were examined (Ricart et

al., 2010). They revealed a potential relationship

between triazine-type herbicides and the distribution of

the diatom community. Effects of organophosphates and

phenylureas in both structural and functional aspects of

the biofilm community were also observed. The

agricultural impact on fish species and amounts in three

rivers in Nepal was studied by Jha et al. (2010). It was

found that agricultural wastes and misuse of agricultural

products mainly contaminated the downstream of the

rivers. Agricultural pollution was studied through a case

study in Eskipazar (Karabuk, Turkey) (Keskin, 2010). It

was found that the main nitrate and heavy metal

pollution in this area was caused by agricultural

activities.

Waste management and pollution minimization

General Management. Rashid et al. (2010)

discussed the benefit of applying food processing and

serving industry cooking oil waste (OFW) to recycle soil


nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N). They demonstrated that the

amount of N fertilizer application and the emissions of

GHG could be largely reduced. An Integrated Swine

Manure Management (ISMM) program was developed

for animal waste management (Karmakar et al., 2010).

The results indicated the program was feasible.

An assessment of agricultural wastes was

conducted based on situations in Almeria, Spain

(Callejon et al., 2010). It was found that it was more

beneficial to reuse the agricultural wastes directly. The

situation of straw wastes utilization in Vojvodina, Serbia

was discussed (Dodic et al., 2010). It was indicated that

the utilization efficiency was very low. It was suggested

that farms should apply basic principles of the cleaner

manufacturing for the sustainable development.

Gaseous Emission Control. The GHG

emissions and energy consuming in agricultural biogas

plants were calculated by Bachmaier et al. (2010). It was

found that agricultural biogas plants were able to save

more energy and produce less GHG compared to other

fossil resources. Decision making models for agricultural

practices based on Atanassov's Intuitionistic Fuzzy Sets

were studied (Hernandez and Uddameri, 2010). Its

application in agricultural practices was also presented

through a case study in South Texas. It concluded that

this approach was particularly suitable for prioritizing

and ranking agricultural best management practices.

GHG emissions from the land used for

agricultural was measured in Zimbabwe, Africa

(Mapanda et al., 2010). It was found that deforestation

and cultivation would increase the GHG emissions while

plantations would decrease GHG emissions. The

generation of superoxide in water was studied (Furman

et al., 2010). It was found that superoxide could be

applied to the removal of highly halogenated organic

compounds generated in the production of pesticides and

herbicides.

Others. The potential of applying constructed

and restored wetlands to reduce the contamination from

agricultural wastes was studied (O'Geen et al., 2010). It

was found that wetlands had high potential of reducing

the contamination of pollutants from agricultural runoff.

The adverse effect of wetlands was also discussed and

proper measurements to reduce the adverse effects were

proposed.

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