agricultural extension in developing nations. agricultural extension in the u. s: a review its...
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AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
IN DEVELOPING NATIONS
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN THE U. S:
A REVIEW • ITS IMPORTANCE:
* U.S. farmers produce enough food to feed 134 people & themselves.
* U.S. farmers are world leaders in soybean, corn, wheat, rice, cotton, & red meat production.
U.S. Agricultural Education System
• Morrill Land-Grant Act, 1862 - 139 years ago.
• Hatch Act, 1887 - 116 years ago.
• Smith-Lever Act, 1914 - 89 years ago.
• Smith-Hughes Act, 1917 - 86 years ago.
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION IN THE U.S.
• AGRICULTURE
• FAMILY & CONSUMER SCIENCES
• 4-H & YOUTH DEVELOPMENT
• RURAL DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION OF COOP EXTENSION IN THE U.S.
• Federal level - USDA
• State level - Land-Grant Colleges
• Local level - County Commissioners
ADMINISTRATION INTERNATIONALLY
• Ministry of Agriculture • Ministry of Education • Private Firms• Websites * http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/chiefs/chiefs-
toc-view.html
INTERNATIONAL EXTENSION EMPHASIS
• FOOD PRODUCTION
• PRESERVATION & STORAGE
• PROCESSING
• DISTRIBUTION
AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION
• A direct linkage to an effective agricultural education system - The U.S. Model.
* Land-Grant Universities * State Ag Experiment Stations * Cooperative Extension
MISSION OF EXTENSION
• EDUCATION
* Extension transfers (disseminates) research-based information to clientele/cooperators/public.
EXTENSION LINKAGES
RESEARCH›EXTENSION›FARMERS
* Depicts the flow of technology/information to farmers from research stations through Extension.
HAVELOCK’S MODEL
• Research, Development, & Diffusion * Basic Research
* Applied Research
* Development
* Diffusion
Linkages Supporting the Family Farm
• Education• Extension• Farm Credit • Marketing• Agricultural Inputs • Processing • Research• Ag Policy
Problems in International Extension
• Qualified staff• Reliable funding • Transportation & travel funds • Communications• Understanding of Extension concepts • Frequent transfer of Extension personnel • Unfavorable farmer/Extension staff ratio
PROGRAM and POLICY PROBLEMS
• Ill defined Extension objectives
• No annual Extension plan
• Program & personnel evaluation
• Policy/Guidelines
• Suitable information for in-service
• Research-based information
• Extension development plan
Program & Policy Problems (continued)
• Little communication between Research and Extension
• Trained Extension Supervisors
• Supporting Services
PRODUCTION AGRICULTURE PROBLEMS
• Credit
• Market Access• Poor Distribution of
Agricultural Inputs
ROLE OF EXTENSION FIELD STAFF
• Change agents.
• Source of information & practice.
• The farmers’ link to the outside world.
• Train farmers as adopters, leaders, & cooperators.
ELEMENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION • National policy embodied in
legislation establishing the educational role of Extension.
• A philosophy of Extension education embodying the concept of human resource development.
ELEMENTS OF AG
EXTENSION (continued) • Sources of technical information required to
solve problems for rural people. • A source of trained field staff. • Adequate support services. • Political climate conducive to agriculture and
rural development. • Incentives for production and land tenure.
ORGANIZATION OF EXTENSION IN
DEVELOPING NATIONS • Education arm of the Ministry of
Agriculture ?
• Extension administrator part of the policy making staff in the Ministry of
Agriculture?
ORGANIZATION & STRUCTURE OF EXTENSION (continued)
• Extension’s role - provide opportunities to develop effective working relationships with research and other supporting agricultural agencies/organizations?
LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS
• Only 15 of 52 low and middle income developing countries surveyed in a recent study indicated having laws which provided Extension with an operating budget.
Recommendations for Establishing Extension
• Educational programs for the whole family.• Separate education from regulatory functions.• Freedom from political involvement. • Provide a direct linkage to Agricultural
Experiment Stations. • Financial support provided by law.
Recommendations (continued)
• Organize Extension by region to serve the best interest of farmers.
• Include the input of advisory and planning groups in program development.
• Provide incentives and encouragement for local participation.
EXTENSION NEEDS• Trained & dedicated personnel.
• Supplies, equipment, facilities, & transportation.
• Research-based information easily adaptable to agriculture & rural development.
• Financial resources.
• Administrative & political support.
SELECTING EFFECTIVE TEACHING METHODS • Number of clientele you are
attempting to serve.
• Size of local support staff available.• Availability of communications -
mail, telephone, fax, radio, news paper, television, internet, etc.
• Level of formal education
Teaching Methods Adapted to Extension Education
• Demonstration:1) Method demonstration
2) Result demonstration
3) Type demonstration
Method Demonstration
* Explain the need for the practice.
* Show operation/procedure step by step.
* Emphasize key points.
* Invite the group to participate.
* Invite questions & discussion.
Result Demonstration• Yield
• Quality
Type Demonstration• Sets a Standard
• Defines a model
DemonstrationKnapp - “What a man hears he
may doubt, what he sees he may possibly doubt, but what he does he can not doubt.”
The Adoption ProcessKipling - “A man will remember what he learns from an equal long after his masters words are forgotten.”
DEMONSTRATION (continued)
DELIVERY METHODS • Personal contact/on-farm visits • Field days• Publications • Office meetings• Workshops• Short courses • Telephone
TRAINING VOLUNTEERS
• Purpose: To inform. 1) Modified Lecture
* be enthusiastic about your subject.
* visualize audience & needs
* prepare adequate information
* arrange facts in logical order
TRAINING (continued)
* use clear visuals & familiar words
* use round numbers.
* concentrate on main ideas & end with short conclusion.
TRAINING SESSIONS FOR VOLUNTEERS (continued)
2) Conferences & discussion meetings (updating)
3) Tours
4) Short courses
5) Committee meetings
6) Mass media
PRINT MEDIA• PUBLICATIONS
• BULLETINS
• FACT SHEETS
• NEWS LETTERS
• BROCHURES
• NEWS PAPERS
BROADCAST MEDIA
• RADIO
• VIDEO TAPE
• TV
• INTERNET
WHY PUBLICATIONS ?• Confidence in the written word.
• Accurate detailed information.
• Substitutes for personal letters.
• Creates interest/desire for additional information.
• Subject matter from a bulletin may be used in a news article.
• Printed materials filed for future reference.