By: Melissa de Ryk, Jamie Dullinger, Alexis Ferrari, Emily Gregory

Aging Theories- adulthood through

elderly

Programmed Theories● Programmed Theories assert that the human body is designed to age and

there is a certain biological timeline that our bodies follow. This theory is based upon evolution, and the idea that the human body is programmed to age and die as a necessary part of genetics. (https://www.verywell.com/why-we-age-theories-and-effects-of-aging-2223922, 2016)

● The human species has a predetermined life expectancy controlled by the division of cells. (http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/programmed+aging+theory, 2009)

● Subcategories of this theory include:○ Programmed longevity○ Endocrine○ Immunological

Programmed Theory: Programmed Longevity● Definition: The aging of the

human body is controlled by the switching on and off of genes over time. (Stibich, 2016)

● Example: The “Hayflick Limit” explains that cells taken from a 70 year old individual only multiply 20-30 times before they reach their limit. However, fetal cells multiple over 100 times. (VickyRN, 2009)

Programmed Theory: Endocrine● Definition: The constantly changing

hormones in the human body play an important part in the aging process. (Stibich, 2016)

● Example: The changes in the endocrine glands causes a change in the functional capacity throughout the body. For example, the thinning of the bones in women after menopause. (VickyRN, 2009)

Programmed Theory: Immunological● Definition: The immune system is

designed to age and therefore, decline over time. This causes older individuals to be more susceptible to disease. (Stibich, 2016)

● Example: The decline in the immune system causes an increase in autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis. (VickyRN, 2009)

Error Theories● Error theories are biological theories that explain any form of aging as a

result of biological challenges and negative environmental impacts. Ultimately this results in overall death of the host. (http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/error+theory+of+aging, 2009).

● The most common sub theories used to further describe cellular aging within error theories are:○ 1: Free Radical○ 2: Wear & Tear○ 3: Somatic Mutation○ 4: Rate-of-Living○ 5: Cross Linkage

Error Theory: Free Radical● Definition: Free radicals (or highly reactive

molecules) cause aging by breaking down cells of the body until that part of the body can no longer function and death results. Typically, free radicals are created due to lack of oxygen.

● History: Originally coined by Dr. Gerschan in 1954 and further developed by Dr. Dehnham Harman. This is one of the more popular theories to describe aging at the molecular level. (Jin, 2010).

● Shortcomings: Some theorists have provided evidence that oxygen free radical formation is normal and does not directly influence aging (Bonder & Bello-Haas, 2009)

Error Theory: Wear & Tear● Definition: Cells of tissues and organs break

down over time due to excessive use which eventually results in cell death and death of the person. (Jin, 2010).

○ This can be seen in weakening of bones over time.

● History: Believed to have originated in Germany by Dr. August Weismann in 1882 (Jin, 2010).

● Shortcomings: This theory does not directly address the ability for the body to repair damage. Instead it assumes that cells are constantly breaking down over time (Stibich, 2016).

Error Theory: Somatic Mutation● Definition: Somatic mutation is cellular death as a result of

functional failure.○ Often times this is displayed as an over creation of cells in a host

such as in cancer.

○ These mutations are not inheritable but will be displayed during the individual's lifetime when the mutation occurs (Himme, 2016).

● History: This theory evolved after World War II as scientists researched damage on subjects as a result of radiation exposure (Bonder & Bello-Haas, 2009).

● Shortcomings: This theory does not explain normal age related cell death, but instead addresses cell death as a result of exposure to manufactured chemicals or otherwise dangerous environmental factors.

Error Theory: Rate-of-Living● Definition: The faster a person or organisms metabolism,

the shorter they will live. The belief is that all people are born with a set amount of energy and if it’s used quickly the lifespan will be shorter.

● History: Coined by Max Rubner in 1908 who made a correlation between metabolic rate, body size (bigger animals lived longer), and the length of an organism's life. (Beale, 2005).

● Shortcomings: This theory cannot explain aging independently because variation between species is clear and does not support the theory. Additionally, organisms are able to repair damage in their cells and thus will respond to their environmental challenges to maintain life rather than simply allow the cells to perish (Beale, 2005).

Error Theory: Cross Linkage

● Definition: As we age, proteins, DNA, and structural molecules attach or create cross-links between each other. These links reduce mobility and elasticity. Thus, proteins cannot function and are damaged. For example, cross-linking of the collagen in the skin causes wrinkles (“Theories of aging”, 2011).

● Commonly seen in: (“Theories of aging”, 2011).

○ hardening of the arteries as well○ stiffness in tissue○ rigidity in blood vessels○ tightness in ligaments and tendons○ cataracts

● History: By Dr. Johan Bjorksten in 1942. ● Shortcomings: This theory, though thorough, does not

address how the cells may ultimately perish but rather the physical effects of aging on the organism as a whole (“Theories of aging”, 2011).

Developmental Theories● Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human

growth, development, and learning. ● Several theories were developed to better understand human development

such as:○ Psychoanalytic theories○ Learning theories○ Cognitive theories

● Developmental theories focus on human development from childhood through adulthood

(Cherry, 2016).

https://www.verywell.com/theories-of-development-2795092

Developmental Theory: Formal Operations ● Definition: In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical

use of symbols related to abstract concepts (Huitt & Hummel, 2003).

● History: Jean Piaget developed four stages of development with formal operations being the final stage. Only 35% of high school graduates in industrialized countries reach this stage (Huitt & Hummel, 2003).

● Example: Completing an abstract math problem

Developmental Theory: Erikson’s Psychosocial StagesPsychosocial Developmental Theory Overview:

● Erik Erikson’s theory has eight stages of which a “crisis” occurs during each stage of development

● The completion of each stage indicates a healthy personality

● Failure to successfully complete the stage results in an unhealthy personality and sense of self

(McLeod, 2008). http://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html

Developmental Theory: Erikson’s Stage 7

Generativity vs. Stagnation

● Age: During middle adulthood (ages 40 - 65 years)● Background: During this time, adults have established a career and started

families, developing a sense of being part of a larger picture. ● Conflict: Giving back to society through raising children, work productivity,

and community involvement vs. failing to reach these objectives, resulting in becoming stagnant and unproductive

● Success in this stage results in the virtue of CARE

(McLeod, 2008).

http://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html

Developmental Theory: Erikson’s Stage 8Ego Integrity vs. Despair

● Age: Senior citizens (ages 65+ years)● Background: Individuals tend to slow

productivity and enjoy retirement● Conflict: When reflecting on life, individuals may

feel unproductive and guilty and dissatisfied about the past, resulting in despair vs. contemplating accomplishments, leading to integrity and a successful life

● Success in this stage results in the virtue of WISDOM and can accept death without fear (McLeod, 2008).

Developmental Theory: Theory of Moral Development● Definition: Individuals go through a series of six stages to develop morality

(what is considered to be right or wrong) ● Background: The Theory of Moral Development was created by Lawrence

Kolhberg as a modification and expansion upon Piaget’s theory about moral reasoning (Kolhberg, 1973).

● Occurs throughout the lifespan

(Cherry, 2016).

https://www.verywell.com/kohlbergs-theory-of-moral-developmet-2795071

Developmental Theory: Theory of Moral Development● Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment

○ Obey rules to avoid punishment

● Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange○ Obeying reciproprocity

● Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships○ Conforming to norms, being “nice”

● Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order○ Following rules and laws, respecting authority

(Cherry, 2016).

Developmental Theory: Theory of Moral Development● Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights

○ Individuals offer different values, ideas, and beliefs○ Important to follow the laws but members of society should agree upon established laws

● Stage 6: Universal Principles○ Universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning○ Follow internal principles of justice even if it doesn’t follow the law

(Cherry, 2016).

https://www.verywell.com/personality-development-2795425

Psychological Theories→ a focus on social and psychological aspects leading to successful aging

● Continuity● Disengagement● Activity

Psychological Theories - Continuity → individuals who age successfully continue habits, preferences, lifestyles, and relationships throughout midlife and later→ older adults maintain the same activities, behaviors, personalities, and relationships of the past

-People who are doing well in midlife should carry over these habits

-Does not consider people with unhealthy habits→ those carry over as well

Ex. Still having close friends from middle school or high schoolEx. Going to dance class every week

(Boundless, March 2016)

Psychological Theories - Disengagement → elderly people begin to disengage from their previous social roles as they realize that they will die in the near future

-society responds to the elder's disengagement with a sort of mutual recognition that the elder will soon pass

→ therefore society must prepare to function in their absence→ the theory argues that it is natural and acceptable for older adults to withdraw from society

→ decreased interaction between aging people and others in the social system they belong toEx. Older adults in nursing homes who do not leave their rooms

(Boundless, 2015)

Psychological Theories - Activity → Staying mentally and physically active preserves older adults happiness

-Response to the disengagement theory

-Happiest when maintain social interactions → positive relationship between activity and life satisfaction

Ex. Staying client centered and helping aging adults continue to do things they love, even if in a new role

Ex. Going to scrabble and bingo weekly with friends

(Boundless, April 2016)

Overview● Aging is a compilation of theories that can have social and environmental

impacts.● The main theories are:

○ Programmed: The body is genetically programmed to age and die.

■ Programmed Longevity: Genes switch on and off over time and some have more life cycles than others.

■ Endocrine: Changes in hormones result in aging over time.

■ Immunological: The immune system is designed to decline over time, causing increase likelihood of illness.

○ Error:■ Free Radical: Free, reactive molecules break down cells of the body.■ Wear & Tear: Cells break down over time due to excessive use.■ Somatic Mutation: Cell death due to mutation. Only affects the host.

■ Rates of Living: All people have a set amount of energy and if used quickly their lifespan will be shorter

■ Cross Linkage: Cells link over time that could prevent elasticity and mobility thus displaying the characteristics of aging.

Overview Continued○ Developmental

■ Formal Operational by Piaget: The ability to think hypothetically and using abstract symbols to support intelligence

■ Stage 7 & 8 Erikson: Psychosocial stages where a crisis occurs during ages 40+ years old and if successful, the virtue of care and wisdom are rewarded

■ Kohlberg: Moral development that occurs in six stages which results in the last stage where the individual follows their morals even if it doesn’t agree with laws and rules

○ Psychological

■ Continuity: older adults continue to participate the same activities, behaviors, personalities, and relationships of the past

■ Disengagement: elderly people systematically disengage from social roles due to their inevitability of death

■ Activity: staying mentally and physically active will increase happiness among older adults

Questions● Which theory explains that the human species has a predetermined life expectancy controlled by

the division of cells?A: Psychological theoryB: Programmed theoryC: Developmental theoryD: Error theory

● Aging and death are a result of wear and tear on the body and therefore, not inherent in the organism. A: TrueB: False

Questions● What is free radical theory?

A: Free radicals created by decreased oxygen break down cells which causes aging.B: Cells are freed from their host through biological means of excretion (sweat/urination) resulting in fewer cells over time and thus aging.C: Abuse of the body using chemicals which kills cells and causes aging.

● In cross-linkage theory which of the following creates a cross-link that causes stiffening or build up and ultimately displays signs of aging:A: ProteinB: DNAC: Structural moleculesD: All of the Above

● Cell death as a result of functional failure (such as in cancer) is which theory?A: Wear & TearB: Somatic MutationC: Rate-of-LivingD: Cross Linkage

Questions● What is an example of Piaget’s formal operational stage?

a. Experiencing separation anxiety?b. Being egocentricc. Adding and subtractingd. Thinking in hypothetical terms

● If a 46 year old mother is feeling depressed, dislikes her career, and refuses to be active within the community and in her children’s lives, what might she be experiencing according to Erikson’s psychosocial theory?

a. Empty nest syndromeb. Stagnationc. Punishment d. Failure of stage 8

● According to stage five of the Theory of Moral Development, it is important to follow the laws but members of society should agree upon established laws

a. Trueb. False

Questions ● Which is an example of Disengagement Theory?

a. Eating dinner in the dining roomb. Eating all meals in your own room c. Playing Bingo with other residentsd. Going to the mall

● Continuing to garden and go to dance class after 30 years are examples of Activity Theory.a. Trueb. False

ReferencesBeale, N. (2005). What is the rate-of-living theory?. Retrieved May 17, 2016.

https://courses.cit.cornell.edu/psych527_nbb420-720/student2005/nrb26/Page_2.htm

Bengtson, V. L., & Bonder, B.R.. (2009). Theories of aging: A multidisciplinary review for occupational and physical therapists. In Bonder, B. R.,

& Bello-Haas, V. D. (Eds 3), Functional performance in older adults (pp. 28-44). Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis Company.

Boundless. (2015, July 21). Disengagement theory. Retrieved May 16, 2016.

https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/aging-18/the-functionalist-perspective-on-aging-128/disen

gagement-theory-721-9147/

Boundless. (2016, March 17). Continuity theory. Retrieved May 16, 2016.

https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/aging-18/the-functionalist-perspective-on-aging-128/conti

nuity-theory-723-3593/

Boundless. (2016, April 13). Activity theory. Retrieved May 16, 2016.

https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/aging-18/the-functionalist-perspective-on-aging-128/activity-theory-72

2-9146/

References continuedCherry, K. (2016). Kholberg’s Theory of Moral Development. Retrived from https://www.verywell.com/personality-development-27954

Error theory of aging. (n.d.) Mosby's Medical Dictionary, 8th edition. (2009). Retrieved May 13 2016 from

http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/error+theory+of+aging

Himme, B. (2016). Gamatic vs. somatic mutations. Retrieved May 13 2016 from

https://www.pathwayz.org/Tree/Plain/GAMETIC+VS.+SOMATIC+MUTATIONS

Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State

University.

Jin, K. (2010). Modern biological theories of aging. Aging Dis. 2010;1(2):72–74.

Programmed aging theory. (n.d.) Mosby’s Medical Dictionary, 9th edition. (2009). Retrieved May 14 2016 from

http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/programmed+aging+theory

Kohlberg, L. (1973). The Claim to Moral Adequacy of a Highest Stage of Moral Judgment. Journal of Philosophy, 70(18), 630–646.

https://www.verywell.com/personality-development-2795425

References continuedMcLeod, S. (2008). Erik erikson. Retrieved May 18 2016 from http://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html.

McAdams, D. P. (2001). The psychology of life stories. Review of General Psychology, 5(2), 100.

Stibich, M. (2016). Programmed theory of aging: Why humans don’t live forever. Retrieved May 14 2016 from

https://www.verywell.com/programmed-theories-of-aging-2224226

Stibich, M. (2016). The wear and tear theory of aging. Retrieved May 13 2016 from

https://www.verywell.com/wear-and-tear-theory-of-aging-2224235

Stibich, M. (2016). Why we age: Theories and effects of aging. Retrieved May 14 2016 from

https://www.verywell.com/why-we-age-theories-and-effects-of-aging-2223922

Theories of aging: An introduction to aging science brought to you by the American Federation for Aging Research (2011). Retrieved from

http://www.afar.org/docs/migrated/111121_INFOAGING_GUIDE_THEORIES_OF_AGINGFR.pdf

VickyRN. (2009). Theories of aging (part 2) - The programmed theories of aging. Retrieved May 14 2016 from

http://allnurses-breakroom.com/geriatrics-aging-elderly/theories-of-aging-410985.html