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ChemicalBasis of Life
2.3August 13, 2012
AgendaGeneral
HousekeepingReview
TerminologyQuiz
2.3
Chapter 2 Assignments Stations
Reading BuildingMolecules
Review• What is the significance of the valence shell of
an atom?
• Compare the properties of ionic, covalent, andhydrogen bonds
• How do catalysts affect activation energy?
2.3 Chemical Constituents of Cells• Objectives
– List the major groups of inorganic chemicalscommon in cells
– Describe the functions of various types oforganic chemicals in cells
Inorganic Compounds• Inorganic compounds are structurally simple
molecules that usually lack carbon - like thesalt potassium chloride (KCl)
Water• Water is the most important
and abundant inorganiccompound in all living systems
• Water’s most importantproperty is polarity, theuneven sharing of valenceelectrons that enablesreactants to collide to formproducts
• Sodium and Chloride ions dissolve in thepolar water molecules
Water as a Solvent• In a solution, the solvent dissolves the solute
• Substances which contain polar covalent bondsand dissolve in water are hydrophilic, whilesubstances which contain non-polar covalentbonds are hydrophobic
• The polarity of water and its bent shape allow it tointeract with several neighboring ions or molecules
• Water’s role as a solvent makes it essential forhealth and survival
Properties of Water• Water has a high heat capacity, meaning it can
absorb or release a relatively large amount of heatwith only a modest change in its own temperature
– This property is due to the large number ofhydrogen ions in water
– Heat of vaporization (amount of heat needed tochange from a liquid to a gas) is also high
– Evaporation of water from the skin removeslarge amounts of heat
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• Water serves as the medium for most chemicalreactions in the body– May participate as a reactant or product in some
reactions– Hydrolysis involves the addition of water to
break large molecules down into smallermolecules
– In Dehydration Synthesis, water is produced assmaller molecules join to form a larger molecule
• Water is a major component of mucus and otherlubricating fluids
Oxygen• Oxygen (O2) enters the body via the
respiratory organs and are transportedthroughout the body by blood
–Red blood cells bind and carry oxygen
• Cellular organelles use oxygen to releaseenergy from glucose and other nutrients
–Drives metabolic activities
Carbon Dioxide• Carbon dioxide (CO2) is produced as a waste
product when certain metabolic processes releaseenergy, and it is exhaled from the lungs
Salts• Is a compound composed of oppositely charged
ions
• Abundant in tissue and fluids
• Important in metabolic processes, includingtransport of substances into and out of cells,muscle contraction, and nerve impulse conduction
Organic Compounds• Organic compounds always contain
carbon and are usually large, complexmolecules
– Usually contain hydrogen
– Always have covalent bonds
• The chain of carbon atoms in an organicmolecule is called a carbon skeleton
• Hydrocarbons are carbons bonding tohydrogen
• Functional groups attach to the carbonskeleton
Macromolecules• Very large molecules are called macromolecules
– “Polymers” if all the monomer subunits aresimilar)
• Isomers have the same molecular formulas butdifferent structures
– Glucose & galactose are both C6H12O6
Carbohydrates• Carbohydrates provide most of the energy needed
for life and include sugars, starches, glycogen, andcellulose
• Some carbohydrates are converted to othersubstances which are used to build structures and togenerate ATP
• Other carbohydrates function as food reserves• Carbohydrates are divided into three major groups
based on their size: monosaccharides, disaccharides,and polysaccharides
• Monosaccharides are thesimplest sugars
– 5 carbon sugars areused in nucleic acids
– 6 carbon sugars are themost easily recognizablein our diet
• Disaccharides are made by combining 2monosaccharides by removing a watermolecule (dehydration synthesis):- Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose- Glucose + Galactose = Lactose
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• Polysaccharides are the largestcarbohydrates and may contain hundredsof monosaccharides
• The principal polysaccharide in the humanbody is glycogen, which is stored in theliver or skeletal muscles– When blood sugar level drops, the liver
hydrolyzes glycogen to yield glucosewhich is released from the liver into theblood
• Starches are polysaccharides formed fromglucose by plants
• Cellulose is a polysaccharide formed fromglucose by plants that cannot be digestedby humans
Lipids• Like carbohydrates, they contain carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen
• Unlike carbohydrates, they do not have a 2:1 ratioof hydrogen to oxygen
• They have few polar covalent bonds, which makesthem hydrophobic and mostly insoluble in water
• They combine with proteins (lipoproteins) fortransport in blood
• The simplest lipids are the fatty acids
– Used to synthesize triglycerides and phospholipids, andcan be catabolized to generate ATP
– Consists of a carboxyl group and a hydrocarbon chain– Saturated fatty acids contain only single covalent bonds
(saturated with H atoms)– Unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double
covalent bonds and has a kink/bend at the site of thedouble bond
• Triglycerides are the most plentiful lipids in thebody and provide protection, insulation, andenergy (both immediate and stored)
• At room temperature, triglycerides may be eithersolid (fats) or liquid (oils)
• Triglyceride storage is virtually unlimited
• Excess dietary carbohydrates, proteins, fats, andoils are deposited in adipose tissue as triglycerides
• Triglycerides provide more than twice as muchenergy per gram as either carbohydrates orproteins
• Consists of a glycerol molecule and threefatty acid molecules
• Fat is a triglyceride that is a solid at roomtemperature
– Mostly saturated because the fatty acids lackdouble bonds in their hydrocarbon chains
• Oil is a triglyceride that is a liquid at roomtemperature
– Mostly unsaturated and can be eithermonounsaturated or polyunsaturated
• Phospholipids are important membranecomponents
• Both polar and nonpolar regions make themsoluble in both water and fats– This is called amphipathic, they are both
hydrophilic and lipophilic– They have a polar head formed from a
phosphate group (PO4-3) and a glycerol
molecule (forms H-bonds with water), and 2nonpolar fatty acid tails that interact only withlipids
• Phospholipids have a polar head and 2non-polar tails
• Steroids are lipids molecules that have fourrings of carbon atoms– Sex hormones
– Bile salts
– Some vitamins
– Cholesterol, which serves as an importantcomponent of cell membranes and asstarting material for synthesizing othersteroids
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• Steroids are based onthe lipid cholesterolmolecule
– They include themolecules used assex hormones, aswell as otherhormones used incoping with stress(cortisol)
Proteins• Proteins are large
molecules that containcarbon, hydrogen, oxygen,and nitrogen
• The normal adult body is12-18% protein
• Proteins areconstructed fromcombinations ofdifferent amino acids
• 20 human amino acids
– All amino acids (a.a.)have the same basicstructure - only the“R” group changes
• Dipeptides are formed from 2 amino acidsjoined by a covalent bond called a peptidebond
– This process involves dehydration synthesis
• Polypeptide chains contain 10 to 2000 aminoacids
• There are 4 levels at whichproteins are structurallyorganized :– Primary (10)– Secondary (20)– Tertiary (30)– Quaternary (40)
• The resulting shape of theprotein greatly influences itsability to recognize and bindto other molecules
• Primary Structure is the unique sequence of a.a.that are linked by covalent peptide binds to forma polypeptide chain
• Secondary Structure is the repeated twisting orfolding of neighboring a.a. in the polypeptide chain
• Tertiary Structure is the 3-D shape of apolypeptide chain and determines how it willfunction
• Quarternary Structure is the arrangement ofindividual polypeptide chains relative to oneanother
• Fibrous proteins are insoluble in water and theirpolypeptide strands form long strands that areparallel to each other
– Structural function
• Globular proteins are more or less soluble inwater and their polypeptide chains are spherical inshape
– Metabolic functions
• Denaturation (loss of protein structure) by ahostile environment causes loss of itscharacteristic shape and function– An egg white turning solid white when
exposed to high temperatures is an exampleof protein denaturation
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Enzymes• Enzymes are special proteins that catalyze (speed
up) metabolic reaction in all living cells
• Some enzymes consist of two parts
– An apoenzyme protein portion
– A non-protein portion called a cofactor
•Metal ions or coenzymes
• The substrate is the substance upon which anenzyme has its effect
– In this regard, enzymes are highly specific
• Enzymes are subject to a variety of cellularcontrols
• Enzymes speed up chemical reactions byincreasing frequency of collisions, loweringactivation energy, and properly orienting collidingmolecules
Nucleic Acids• Nucleic acids are huge organic molecules composed
of monomeric nucleotides
– They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,and phosphorus, and form the principlemolecules that contain our genetic code
•DNA and RNA
• Nucleic acids are universal inliving things
– These molecules carry geneticinformation asdeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• By controlling the formation ofproteins, the genetic coderegulates most of the activitiesthat take place in our cellsthroughout a lifetime
• DNA molecules remain inside the nucleus ofcells and are the “master” template of ourgenetic code
• RNA is a slightly different nucleic acidmacromolecule that relays instructions fromthe nucleus to guide assembly of amino acidsinto proteins in the cytoplasm
• The basic units of nucleic acids arenucleotides, composed of a nitrogenousbase, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate
• The nucleotides ofDNA and RNA arejoined to a “sugar-phosphate” backboneto make a long chain
• There are 2 sugar-phosphate strands ofDNA, joined in themiddle by hydrogenbonds from onenucleotide to another
• RNA structure differs from DNAin that it is single stranded (insteadof double stranded), ribosereplaces the sugar deoxyribose,and uracil is the nitrogenous basethat replaces thymine
• There are 3 types of RNA withinthe cell, each with a specificfunction:
– Messenger RNA
– Ribosomal RNA
– Transfer RNA
• Nucleic acids are also used in making a veryimportant energy-carrying molecule in the bodycalled adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
• ATP is used as a temporary storage of energythat is being transferred from exergoniccatabolic reactions to cellular activities
Clinical Connections• Fatty Acids in Health and Disease
– Essential Fatty Acis (EFAs) cannot be made by the humanbody and must be obtained from foods or supplements
– Omega-3 fatty acids, omega-6 fatty acids, and cis-fatty acids
– Omega-3 and omega-6 are polyunsaturated fatty acids thatare believed to work together to promote health
• Lowers total cholesterol, raises HDL, lowers LDL,decreases bone loss by increasing calcium utilization,promotes wound healing, improves mental function
• Omega-3: flaxseed, fish oils, walnuts
• Omega-6: cereal, bread, white rice, eggs, liver
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– Cis-fatty acids are used by the body to produce hormone-like regulators and cell membranes• However, when hydrogenated, they are changed to
unhealthy trans-fatty acids• The H atoms are on opposite sides of the double bond
in an unsaturated fat• Hydrogenation is used to make vegetable oils solid at
room temperature and less likely to turn rancid• Found in commercially baked goods, some margarines,
and fried foods• Increases total cholesterol, decreases HDL, increases
LDL, increases triglycerides, increases the risk of heartdisease and other cardiovascular diseases
• Artificial Sweeteners
– Aspartame (NutraSweet and Equal)– Saccharin (Sweet ‘N Low)
– Sucralose (Splenda)
– 100’s of times sweeter than sucrose
– Zero calories because they pass through thebody without being metabolized
– Does not cause tooth decay
Assignments• Finish Chapter 2 Review WS (due next class)
• Read Sections 3.1 - 3.2• Rank your top five choices for your Research
Paper
• Mid-Term Assessment #1 in one week!– On Chapters 1 & 2