Cultural Dynamics in Cultural Dynamics in African Management African Management

PracticePracticeLeadership and Leadership and

MotivationMotivation

Osarumwense Iguisi, PhDOsarumwense Iguisi, PhD

Executive DirectorExecutive Director

Osarumwense Iguisi, PhDOsarumwense Iguisi, PhD

Euro-African Management Research CentreEuro-African Management Research Centre

Cultural Dynamics in Cultural Dynamics in African Management PracticeAfrican Management Practice

IntroductionIntroduction

The importance of culture for effective management in Africa has The importance of culture for effective management in Africa has become increasingly obvious in recent years as many of the become increasingly obvious in recent years as many of the expectations of African organizations and institutions created and expectations of African organizations and institutions created and managed along lines of Western textbooks and models have failed to managed along lines of Western textbooks and models have failed to achieve expected results of economic growth and sustainable achieve expected results of economic growth and sustainable development. In most projections of economic development, Sub-development. In most projections of economic development, Sub-Saharan African countries score poorly. Saharan African countries score poorly. Thus, while western type Thus, while western type organizations have no doubt, contributed somehow to the development organizations have no doubt, contributed somehow to the development and progress of Africa, I am of the opinion that the economic and progress of Africa, I am of the opinion that the economic performances of these countries since decolonization have not been performances of these countries since decolonization have not been able to meet up with expected economic development compared to the able to meet up with expected economic development compared to the economic achievements of other developing countries like Asia. economic achievements of other developing countries like Asia.   

Africa’s Socioeconomic Africa’s Socioeconomic Problems in the Streams of Problems in the Streams of

Management DiscourseManagement DiscourseBackgroundBackground

Modern Africa suffers from a number of unfortunate influences, such Modern Africa suffers from a number of unfortunate influences, such as tribal warfare, despotism, starvation, AIDS and compounded with as tribal warfare, despotism, starvation, AIDS and compounded with economic decline. According to World Bank Development (2007) economic decline. According to World Bank Development (2007) Report, Africa figures as the poor relative in the world family of Report, Africa figures as the poor relative in the world family of nations and seems to be condemned to remain so for the nations and seems to be condemned to remain so for the foreseeable future. In official statistical data, African countries nearly foreseeable future. In official statistical data, African countries nearly always show up at the negative end. always show up at the negative end. Among several reasons for this Among several reasons for this dramatic situation, a lack of appropriate indigenous management takes dramatic situation, a lack of appropriate indigenous management takes a prominent position. a prominent position. The noticeable lack of success of many African The noticeable lack of success of many African organisations created and managed along lines of Western theories organisations created and managed along lines of Western theories and models can be attributed to this fact. Projects more or less and models can be attributed to this fact. Projects more or less function so long as foreign experts manage them, but they flounder function so long as foreign experts manage them, but they flounder after having been transferred to locals.after having been transferred to locals.  

Africa’s Socioeconomic Africa’s Socioeconomic Problems in the Streams of Problems in the Streams of

Management DiscourseManagement Discourse  Clearly, Africa is not the nearest in culture to the Western world, yet the Clearly, Africa is not the nearest in culture to the Western world, yet the

continent has been experiencing perhaps the fastest pace of continent has been experiencing perhaps the fastest pace of Westernisation this century of anywhere in the non-Western world. The Westernisation this century of anywhere in the non-Western world. The colonial era in most of Africa has been one of the shortest in world colonial era in most of Africa has been one of the shortest in world history. Most countries of Africa below the Sahara were exposed to history. Most countries of Africa below the Sahara were exposed to Western colonial powers for less than a century before reverting to Western colonial powers for less than a century before reverting to independence in the second half of the twentieth century. Before the independence in the second half of the twentieth century. Before the colonialists came, Africa had functioning political, economic and colonialists came, Africa had functioning political, economic and administrative infrastructures and ways of organising their world of work. administrative infrastructures and ways of organising their world of work. Neither the institutions nor the political borders imposed by the Neither the institutions nor the political borders imposed by the colonisers have respected these infrastructures. However, unlike in colonisers have respected these infrastructures. However, unlike in Europe and most part of Asia, the attempted Westernisation has Europe and most part of Asia, the attempted Westernisation has completely neglected the native cultural values and traditions and completely neglected the native cultural values and traditions and transplanted ready-made Western management theories to African soil. transplanted ready-made Western management theories to African soil. The results of these transformations, in most cases, have been failures.The results of these transformations, in most cases, have been failures.

Africa’s Socioeconomic Africa’s Socioeconomic Problems in the Streams of Problems in the Streams of

Management DiscourseManagement Discourse

Because of the failure of westernised African managers to identify Because of the failure of westernised African managers to identify and take advantage of the ‘growth-positive’ cultural value factors and take advantage of the ‘growth-positive’ cultural value factors of their society for effective management practice, the relevancy of their society for effective management practice, the relevancy of Western management theories and models utilised in training of Western management theories and models utilised in training managers in universities and business schools for managing managers in universities and business schools for managing organisations in Africa comes into question. A basic assumption to organisations in Africa comes into question. A basic assumption to be made here is that suitable African management theories and be made here is that suitable African management theories and models can only be developed by Africans themselves, or at least models can only be developed by Africans themselves, or at least in close collaboration with African practitioners and western in close collaboration with African practitioners and western suppliers of technology (Jackson 2004; Iguisi 2009).suppliers of technology (Jackson 2004; Iguisi 2009).

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CultureCulture

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What is Culture?What is Culture?

Hofstede (2005, p. 9) defines culture as the collective programming Hofstede (2005, p. 9) defines culture as the collective programming “software” of the mind, which distinguishes the members of one “software” of the mind, which distinguishes the members of one social group or category of people from another. It includes the social group or category of people from another. It includes the society’s institutions, legal system, method of government, family society’s institutions, legal system, method of government, family patterns, social conventions-all those activities interactions and patterns, social conventions-all those activities interactions and transactions, which define the particular flavour of a society.transactions, which define the particular flavour of a society.

Iguisi (2009) defined culture as the pool of rules, beliefs, and values Iguisi (2009) defined culture as the pool of rules, beliefs, and values by which individual or group members conceptually order the by which individual or group members conceptually order the objects and events in their lives in order to operate in a manner that objects and events in their lives in order to operate in a manner that is acceptable to people identifying with them and people that are is acceptable to people identifying with them and people that are negotiating with them in the course of their interaction. negotiating with them in the course of their interaction.

Culture consists of the patterns of thinking that parents Culture consists of the patterns of thinking that parents transfer to their children, teachers to their students, friends to transfer to their children, teachers to their students, friends to their friends, leaders to their followers, and followers to their their friends, leaders to their followers, and followers to their leaders.leaders.

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Sources of Our CultureSources of Our Culture

Levels of cultureLevels of culture Place of socializationPlace of socialization

NationalNational Family FamilyReligionReligion Society Society

EthnicEthnic ValuesValues GenerationGeneration

ProfessionalProfessional School SchoolBusinessBusiness

PracticesPracticesOrganizationOrganization Workplace Workplace

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The Manifestation of Culture The Manifestation of Culture ‘onion diagram’ ‘onion diagram’

PracticesRituals

Heroes

Symbols

Values

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Values in CultureValues in Culture

The core of culture is formed by values.The core of culture is formed by values. Values are broad Values are broad tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others. The tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others. The values and traditions of a culture are generally the best values and traditions of a culture are generally the best instruments available for dealing with the degree of instruments available for dealing with the degree of uncertainties, ambiguities and anxieties experienced in the uncertainties, ambiguities and anxieties experienced in the workplace and the wider society. workplace and the wider society. Values are learned in early life Values are learned in early life and often unconscious and not discussableand often unconscious and not discussable..

Values as Attributions of:Values as Attributions of: Good Good – – EvilEvil Clean Clean – – DirtyDirty BeautifulBeautiful – – UglyUgly Rational Rational – – IrrationalIrrational Natural Natural – – UnnaturalUnnatural Normal Normal – – AbnormalAbnormal Logical Logical – – ParadoxicalParadoxical

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Operationalizing Some Culture Value FactorsOperationalizing Some Culture Value Factors1. Ethnicity

2. Family orientations

3. Friendship

Ethnicity. The works of Martin (1992; 2001), Koot, (1997; 2002), Tennekes (1995) led this study to argue that African managerial history is replete with ethnic politics, whereby ethnic groupings tend to help each other rather than those who do not belong. This ethnicity is defined as traditional (extrinsic) to management and rooted in the employees’ cultures.

Family orientations. Family is conceptualised as one’s immediate family. In Africa, it is assumed that a person’s family is often a factor that greatly influences an employee’s attitude to work and consequently his motivational state of mind in the workplace.

Friendship. Is conceptualised as intimate relationship between senior management and one seeking to be employed or one already employed in the organisation. Friendship is perceived as both a Western (intrinsic) and traditional (extrinsic) factor.

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Operationalizing Some Culture Value FactorsOperationalizing Some Culture Value Factors4. Past experience

5. Formal education

6. Indigenous language

Past experience. In this cultural context, past experience is viewed as a Western (intrinsic) and traditional (extrinsic) management requirement.

Formal education. Do African managers view formal education as important in their attitudes to leadership, motivation, recruitment and promotion? Formal education is a modern work value and a managerial requirement. It is intrinsic to work and motivation in management.

Indigenous language. Iwuji (1992) stated that understanding the language of an area facilitates one’s recruitment to work in that area. He also stated that being able to speak the local language of the man at the top is an asset to rapid promotion within the organisation in Africa, even when the candidate is not from the manager’s own ethnic group or qualified for the new position.

Research MethodsResearch Methods

Four Methods for Operationalizing Research Constructs Four Methods for Operationalizing Research Constructs

1 * projective tests1 * projective tests 3 3 * content analysis* content analysis * questionnaires* questionnaires of speechesof speeches

WordsWords * interviews (structured) * interviews (structured) * documents * documents * discussions* discussions

2 * experiments2 * experiments 4 4 * direct observation* direct observationDeedsDeeds * laboratory * laboratory * use of available* use of available

* field experiments* field experiments descriptive methodsdescriptive methods (o-e interviews)(o-e interviews)

ProvokedProvoked NaturalNatural

Source: (Hofstede, 1980; expanded by Iguisi, 2008)Source: (Hofstede, 1980; expanded by Iguisi, 2008)

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Demographic DataDemographic Data

FranceFrance Italy Italy GB GB NetherlandsNetherlands Nigeria Nigeria

Sample sizeSample size No. 51 No. 51 No. 105 No. 81No. 105 No. 81 No. 146No. 146 No. 314No. 314

  

ManagersManagers 58 %58 % 48 % 48 % 65 %65 % 44 %44 % 64 %64 %

Non managersNon managers 42 % 52 % 42 % 52 % 35 %35 % 56 %56 % 34 %34 %

Total:Total: 100 %100 % 100 % 100 % 100 %100 % 100 % 100 % 100 %100 %

  

Education: (>13 yrs)Education: (>13 yrs)

Managers Managers 73 %73 % 86 % 86 % 88 %88 % 68 %68 % 80 %80 %

Non managersNon managers 54 % 62 % 54 % 62 % 65 %65 % 80 %80 % 64 %64 %

Age over 39Age over 39

ManagersManagers 45 %45 % 67 % 67 % 56 %56 % 75 %75 % 60 % 60 %

Non managersNon managers 54 % 42 % 35 %54 % 42 % 35 % 70 %70 % 54 %54 %

Family size (>4)Family size (>4)

Managers Managers 17 % 26 % 17 % 26 % 33 %33 % 10 %10 % 71 %71 %

Non managersNon managers 07 % 00 % 07 % 00 % 20 %20 % 09 %09 % 50 %50 %

Dependents (>4)Dependents (>4)

Managers Managers 09 % 26 % 15 %09 % 26 % 15 % 21 %21 % 85 %85 %

Non managersNon managers 07 % 07 % 01 % 16 %01 % 16 % 09 %09 % 50 %50 %   

Hofstede’s Dimensions of CultureHofstede’s Dimensions of Culture

Hofstede’s versus Iguisi’s ScoresHofstede’s versus Iguisi’s Scores

•Power DistancePower Distance

•Individualism/CollectivismIndividualism/Collectivism

•Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance

•Masculinity/FemininityMasculinity/Femininity

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Hofstede’s Dimensions of CultureHofstede’s Dimensions of Culture

Scores:Scores:

DimensionsDimensions France Italy Scotland (GB)* Netherlands Nigeria (WAF)**France Italy Scotland (GB)* Netherlands Nigeria (WAF)**

Power DistancePower Distance Hofstede (2001) Hofstede (2001) 50 6850 68 35 38 35 38 7777 IguisiIguisi (2009) (2009) 70 62 69 70 62 69 65 65 100100 IndividualismIndividualism Hofstede (2001)Hofstede (2001) 71 7671 76 89 80 89 80 2020 IguisiIguisi (2009) (2009) 48 46 5848 46 58 63 63 4646 Uncertainty AvoidUncertainty Avoid Hofstede (2001)Hofstede (2001) 86 7586 75 35 53 35 53 5454 IguisiIguisi (2009) (2009) 57 62 3457 62 34 69 69 3838 MasculinityMasculinity Hofstede (2001)Hofstede (2001) 43 7043 70 66 14 66 14 4646 IguisiIguisi (2009) (2009) 27 33 2727 33 27 22 22 3939

** (GB) = England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland(GB) = England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland**** (WAF) = Ghana, Nigeria, Liberia and Sierra Leone(WAF) = Ghana, Nigeria, Liberia and Sierra Leone

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Dimensions of CulturesDimensions of Cultures

This study compare the present scores with Hofstede’s IBM scores This study compare the present scores with Hofstede’s IBM scores with some Western countries that have great influence on with some Western countries that have great influence on management education, training and practicemanagement education, training and practice in Africa. in Africa.

  

Table : Table : Compared Iguisi’s scores for Nigeria with Hofstede’ Compared Iguisi’s scores for Nigeria with Hofstede’ for WAF, UK and USA for WAF, UK and USA

  

CountryCountry PDIPDI IDVIDV MAS MASUAIUAI

   Nigeria – IguisiNigeria – Iguisi 100100 4646 39 39 3838 Nigeria (WAF) - HofstedeNigeria (WAF) - Hofstede 7777 2020 46 46 5454 United Kingdom-HofstedeUnited Kingdom-Hofstede 3535 8989 66 66 3535 USA - HofstedeUSA - Hofstede 4040 9191 62 62 4646

LeadershipLeadership

Leadership Leadership Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. It is a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. It is a collective or group process which is inherently value-based collective or group process which is inherently value-based (Iguisi, O, 2002).(Iguisi, O, 2002).

Leadership StylesLeadership StylesAutocraticAutocratic A leader who centralizes authority, dictates work methods,

makes unilateral decisions, and limits employee participation

PaternalisticPaternalistic Leader acts as a ‘father figure’ makes decision but may consult and believes in the need to support staff

ConsultativeConsultative leader seeks input and hears the concerns and issues of employees but makes the final decision him or herself

Participative Participative leader who involves employees in decision making, delegates authority, encourages participation in deciding work methods and goals, and uses feedback to coach employees

2020

Table :Table : Leadership Styles Across-CulturesLeadership Styles Across-Cultures

   FranceFrance ItalyItaly GB GB Netherlands NigeriaNetherlands Nigeria

Leadership Leadership P A R P A R P A R P A R P A R P A R P A R P A RP A R P A R

StylesStyles % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %

  Autocratic Autocratic 0 35 76 5 28 66 10 35 52 0 12 71 7 31 60 0 35 76 5 28 66 10 35 52 0 12 71 7 31 60

Paternalistic Paternalistic 24 20 6 30 34 1 27 31 4 24 36 0 40 39 324 20 6 30 34 1 27 31 4 24 36 0 40 39 3

Consultative Consultative 49 20 6 48 32 11 52 25 6 58 39 0 35 15 18 49 20 6 48 32 11 52 25 6 58 39 0 35 15 18

Participative Participative 27 16 12 17 6 22 11 9 38 18 9 29 18 14 1927 16 12 17 6 22 11 9 38 18 9 29 18 14 19

P = PreferredP = Preferred

A = ActualA = Actual

R = RejectedR = Rejected

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Leadership Styles and Levels of Leadership Styles and Levels of SatisfactionSatisfaction

Table :Table : Nigerian-African Managers + Professional Non-Manager sNigerian-African Managers + Professional Non-Manager s   

QuestionsQuestions AutocraticAutocratic PaternalisticPaternalistic Consultative DemocraticConsultative Democratic

  

Security of employmentSecurity of employment

SatisfiedSatisfied 60 %60 % 78 %78 % 49 %49 % 18 %18 %

DissatisfiedDissatisfied 38 %38 % 20 %20 % 51 %51 % 73%73%

Challenging tasksChallenging tasks

SatisfiedSatisfied 33 %33 % 30 %30 % 69 %69 % 63 %63 %

DissatisfiedDissatisfied 65 %65 % 70 %70 % 28 %28 % 37 %37 %

CooperationCooperation

SatisfiedSatisfied 70 %70 % 75 %75 % 20 %20 % 58 %58 %

DissatisfiedDissatisfied 30 %30 % 25 %25 % 80 %80 % 42 %42 %

Clear job descriptionClear job description

SatisfiedSatisfied 80 %80 % 35 %35 % 50 %50 % 68 %68 %

DissatisfiedDissatisfied 20 %20 % 65 %65 % 50 %50 % 31 %31 %

  

MotivationMotivation

MotivationMotivation

•Motivation– The intensity of a person’s desire to engage in an

activity.

•The Law of Individual Differences– A psychological term representing the fact that people

differ in their personalities, abilities, self-concept, values, and needs.

•Three main approaches to motivation– Need-based approach – Process-based approach– Learning/reinforcement-based approach.

Motivation Theories in Needs HierarchyMotivation Theories in Needs Hierarchy WesternWestern Management TheoriesManagement Theories Nigerian Managers and Non-ManagersNigerian Managers and Non-Managers

Ranked Order of ImportanceRanked Order of Importance

High – Self Actualisation and Esteem Needs: High – Self Actualisation and Esteem Needs:High – Self Actualisation and Esteem Needs: High – Self Actualisation and Esteem Needs:

Challenge Challenge 11 Contribution Contribution 11StressStress 22 Challenge Challenge 22FreedomFreedom 33 SecuritySecurity 33Variety and AdventureVariety and Adventure 44 Opport. for higher level jobs Opport. for higher level jobs 44Living areaLiving area 55 CooperationCooperation 55

Middle – Social needs:Middle – Social needs: Middle – Social needsMiddle – Social needs

CooperationCooperation 66 Relationships with boss Relationships with boss 66Relationships with bossRelationships with boss 77 EarningsEarnings 77Opport for helping others Opport for helping others 88 Serve your countryServe your country 88Successful organisationSuccessful organisation 99 FreedomFreedom 99Serve your countryServe your country 1010 Variety and AdventureVariety and Adventure 1010

Low – Security and Physiological Needs:Low – Security and Physiological Needs: Low – Security and Physiological Needs:Low – Security and Physiological Needs:

SecuritySecurity 1111 Living areaLiving area 1111EarningsEarnings 1212 Physical conditionsPhysical conditions 1212Opport for higher level jobsOpport for higher level jobs 1313 Opportunity for helping others Opportunity for helping others 1313Physical conditionsPhysical conditions 1414 Successful organisationSuccessful organisation 1414ContributionContribution 1515 StressStress 1515

The factors presented in the table shows how the Nigerian-African employees think motivation patterns ought to be based. The factors presented in the table shows how the Nigerian-African employees think motivation patterns ought to be based.

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Cultural Value Factors in Motivation Cultural Value Factors in Motivation Across CulturesAcross Cultures

Question: Question: "How important are the following cultural value motivation factors in your "How important are the following cultural value motivation factors in your work life at the present time?"work life at the present time?"

Table :Table : Rank Order of Importance Among ManagersRank Order of Importance Among Managers

  

FranceFrance ItalyItaly Scotland - GBScotland - GB NetherlandsNetherlands NigeriaNigeria

  

1 Family1 Family 1 family1 family 1 family1 family 1 family1 family 1 family1 family

2 work2 work 2 work2 work 2 friends2 friends 2 leisure2 leisure 2 work2 work

3 Friends3 Friends 3 friends3 friends 3 work3 work 3 work3 work 3 friends3 friends

4 leisure4 leisure 4 leisure4 leisure 4 leisure4 leisure 4 friends4 friends 4 religion4 religion

5 wealth 5 wealth 5 wealth5 wealth 5 wealth5 wealth 5 wealth5 wealth 5 wealth5 wealth

6 community 6 religion 6 community 6 religion 6 community 6 community6 community 6 community 6 6 community community

7 Religion7 Religion 7 community 7 community 7 religion7 religion 7 religion7 religion 7 leisure7 leisure

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Table :Table : Family Size Across-CulturesFamily Size Across-Cultures

Question: Question: ““Your family is considered to be you, your wife and children. How many are Your family is considered to be you, your wife and children. How many are you in your family?”you in your family?”

   FranceFrance ItalyItaly Scotland Scotland Netherlands NigeriaNetherlands Nigeria

No. ofNo. of no. %no. % no. %no. % no. no. %% no. % no. %no. % no. %

PeoplePeople

1‑21‑2 22 43.1%22 43.1% 39 37.2% 32 39.5%39 37.2% 32 39.5% 85 59% 78 28%85 59% 78 28%

  

3‑43‑4 19 37.3%19 37.3% 53 50.5% 36 44.5%53 50.5% 36 44.5% 58 41% 75 27%58 41% 75 27%

  

5‑65‑6 8 15.7%8 15.7% 12 11.4% 10 12.3%12 11.4% 10 12.3% 0 0% 116 42% 0 0% 116 42%

  

> 6> 6 2 3.9% 2 3.9% 1 1.0% 3 3.7% 1 1.0% 3 3.7% 0 0% 10 3% 0 0% 10 3%

  

TotalTotal 51 100 % 105 100 % 51 100 % 105 100 % 81 100 % 143 100% 279 100% 81 100 % 143 100% 279 100%

  

MeanMean 2.612.61 2.532.53 2.632.63 3.213.21 5.19 5.19

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Table :Table : Number of Persons Dependent on Salary Number of Persons Dependent on Salary Across-CulturesAcross-Cultures

Question: Question: “How many people are regularly dependent on your salary for their support including you?”“How many people are regularly dependent on your salary for their support including you?”

   FranceFrance ItalyItaly Scotland Scotland Netherlands NigeriaNetherlands Nigeria

No. ofNo. of no. %no. % no. %no. % no. no. %% no. % no. %no. % no. %

PeoplePeople

  

1‑21‑2 30 58.8%30 58.8% 70 67.3% 44 54.4%70 67.3% 44 54.4% 84 61%84 61% 27 10% 27 10%

  

3‑43‑4 13 25.5%13 25.5% 23 22.1% 27 33.3%23 22.1% 27 33.3% 51 37%51 37% 28 10% 28 10%

  

5‑65‑6 7 13.7% 7 13.7% 7 6.7% 10 12.3% 7 6.7% 10 12.3% 2 1% 2 1% 108 39% 108 39%

  

> 6> 6 1 2.0% 1 2.0% 4 3.9% 4 3.9% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 2 2% 2 2% 117 41%117 41%

TotalTotal 51 100 % 51 100 % 105 100 % 81 100 % 105 100 % 81 100 % 143 100% 280 100%143 100% 280 100%

MeanMean 2.292.29 2.102.10 2.372.37 3.133.13 7.31 7.31

ConclusionsConclusions

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ConclusionsConclusionsThis study cast serious doubts on the validity of the dominant This study cast serious doubts on the validity of the dominant Western universal perspectives in management practice “Leadership Western universal perspectives in management practice “Leadership and Motivation” in African organizations. It has been shown that both and Motivation” in African organizations. It has been shown that both perspectives – modern and traditional values – suggest that elements perspectives – modern and traditional values – suggest that elements of African cultural values pose serious challenges to African of African cultural values pose serious challenges to African managers’ ability to adopt practices that can improve the managers’ ability to adopt practices that can improve the effectiveness of management in their organizations and societies. effectiveness of management in their organizations and societies.

The debate today is whether cultural values can become the The debate today is whether cultural values can become the foundational myth of modern and effective management in Africa. Or foundational myth of modern and effective management in Africa. Or on the other hand whether modern management theory is only on the other hand whether modern management theory is only possible once the African cultural values are no longer as important possible once the African cultural values are no longer as important to westernized African managers and elites as it is construed in most to westernized African managers and elites as it is construed in most organisational settings in Africaorganisational settings in Africa

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Conclusions (Cont)Conclusions (Cont)

It is argued, based on the empirical evidence of this research It is argued, based on the empirical evidence of this research results, that the generally accepted Western (most especially results, that the generally accepted Western (most especially USA) leadership and motivation theories like Maslow, Herzberg, USA) leadership and motivation theories like Maslow, Herzberg, Vroom, Likert may not or partially apply in African culturesVroom, Likert may not or partially apply in African cultures

"Western" models, such as "participative management", may not "Western" models, such as "participative management", may not be very appropriate for managing indigenous organizations in be very appropriate for managing indigenous organizations in Africa, but the problem is that there are hardly any alternative role Africa, but the problem is that there are hardly any alternative role models available yet of the African manager of the future, who models available yet of the African manager of the future, who would proudly retain the inheritance of his/her cultural values but would proudly retain the inheritance of his/her cultural values but at the same time is able to function in an effective organization on at the same time is able to function in an effective organization on a competitive market. If one follows the news, this problem seems a competitive market. If one follows the news, this problem seems to exist in politics as much as in industry.to exist in politics as much as in industry.

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Conclusions (cont)Conclusions (cont) However, in developing theories and building models of management However, in developing theories and building models of management

in Africa, it is unlikely to pay Africa to throw away all that the West in Africa, it is unlikely to pay Africa to throw away all that the West has to offer. Rather, the process of appropriate management has to offer. Rather, the process of appropriate management development should be to reflect on the cultures and assumptions of development should be to reflect on the cultures and assumptions of Western management theories, compare Western assumptions about Western management theories, compare Western assumptions about social and cultural values with African cultural value concepts. Before social and cultural values with African cultural value concepts. Before the coming of colonial administration, the old African villages and the coming of colonial administration, the old African villages and towns had effective public administrative mechanism, which the towns had effective public administrative mechanism, which the village and town heads, chiefs and kings administered.village and town heads, chiefs and kings administered.

   This study introduces fresh perspective and methodology into the This study introduces fresh perspective and methodology into the

study of management in Africa and therefore invite academics, study of management in Africa and therefore invite academics, management and organizational developers, researchers, and management and organizational developers, researchers, and anthropologists to rethink the premise of their cultural values, anthropologists to rethink the premise of their cultural values, management discourse and research concepts.management discourse and research concepts.

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THANK YOU FOR BEING PART OF THIS PRESENTATIONTHANK YOU FOR BEING PART OF THIS PRESENTATION

Comments To:Comments To:

Osarumwense Iguisi, PhDOsarumwense Iguisi, PhD

Chair, Cross-Cultural Management Chair, Cross-Cultural Management

Euro-African Management Research CentreEuro-African Management Research Centre

57 Great Cullings57 Great Cullings

Romford, UKRomford, UK

RM7 0YJRM7 0YJ

Tel: +447981990263Tel: +447981990263Emails:Emails: e-amac@cuci.nl

iguisi@culturecount.eu

iguisi2001@yahoo.com

  

Hofstede’s Dimensions of CultureHofstede’s Dimensions of Culture

ImplicationsImplications

Socialization Emphasis and Some Consequences for the:Socialization Emphasis and Some Consequences for the:

FamilyFamily

SchoolSchool

WorkplaceWorkplace

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Power DistancePower Distance

““TThe extent to which less powerful members of institutions and he extent to which less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally”. In high power distance cultures, people are distributed unequally”. In high power distance cultures, people are expected to display respect for those of higher status. It also refers to expected to display respect for those of higher status. It also refers to the extent to which power, prestige, and wealth are distributed within the extent to which power, prestige, and wealth are distributed within a culture. Cultures with high power distance have power and influence a culture. Cultures with high power distance have power and influence concentrated in the hands of a few rather than distributed throughout concentrated in the hands of a few rather than distributed throughout the population. the population.

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Socialization Emphasis According to Socialization Emphasis According to Power Distance Societies Power Distance Societies

Small Power Distance Small Power Distance Large Power DistanceLarge Power Distance

In the family In the family Children encouraged to have a will of their own Children encouraged to have a will of their own Parents teach children obedience Parents teach children obedience Parents treated as equalsParents treated as equals Older people are both respected and Older people are both respected and

fearedfeared Older people are neither respected nor fearedOlder people are neither respected nor feared

Student-centered education (initiative) Student-centered education (initiative) Teacher-centered education (order)Teacher-centered education (order)At schoolAt school Learning represents impersonal “truth” Learning represents impersonal “truth” Learning represents personal “wisdom” from Learning represents personal “wisdom” from

teacher (guru)teacher (guru)

Young is beautifulYoung is beautiful Age is a resource of status Age is a resource of status

Management by Objectives may work Management by Objectives may work Management by Objectives may work Management by Objectives may work

At the workplace At the workplace Subordinates expects to be consulted Subordinates expects to be consulted Subordinates expect to be told what to doSubordinates expect to be told what to do

Other leadership training packages may work Other leadership training packages may work Existing leadership training packages are Existing leadership training packages are largely irrelevant largely irrelevant

Corruption rare; scandals end political careers Corruption rare; scandals end political careers Corruption frequent; scandals are covered Corruption frequent; scandals are covered upup

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Individualism versus CollectivismIndividualism versus Collectivism

IndividualismIndividualism

Individualism refers to how people define themselves and their Individualism refers to how people define themselves and their relationships with others. In an individualist culture, the interest of the relationships with others. In an individualist culture, the interest of the individual prevails over the interests of the group. Ties between individual prevails over the interests of the group. Ties between individuals are loose. People look after themselves and their individuals are loose. People look after themselves and their immediate families. Individualist cultures are loosely integrated. immediate families. Individualist cultures are loosely integrated.

CollectivismCollectivism

Collectivism refers to a society where relationships between people in Collectivism refers to a society where relationships between people in a society are expected to stress ‘be thy brother’s keeper”. People are a society are expected to stress ‘be thy brother’s keeper”. People are born into collectivities or in-groups, which may be their extended born into collectivities or in-groups, which may be their extended family (including grandparents, uncles, and aunts and so on), their family (including grandparents, uncles, and aunts and so on), their tribe, or their village. Everybody is supposed to look after the interest tribe, or their village. Everybody is supposed to look after the interest of his or her in-group and to have no other opinion and beliefs than of his or her in-group and to have no other opinion and beliefs than the opinions and beliefs of their in-group. The in-group or collective is, the opinions and beliefs of their in-group. The in-group or collective is, also, expected to protect its members - individualsalso, expected to protect its members - individuals. .

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Socialization Emphasis According to Socialization Emphasis According to Collectivist versus Individualist Societies Collectivist versus Individualist Societies

CollectivistCollectivist IndividualistIndividualist

In the family In the family People are born into extended families orPeople are born into extended families or Everyone grows up to look after Everyone grows up to look after other ingroups which continue to protect them other ingroups which continue to protect them him/herself and his/her immediate him/herself and his/her immediate in exchange for loyaltyin exchange for loyalty (nuclear) family only(nuclear) family only

Identity is based on social network to which oneIdentity is based on social network to which one Identity is based in the individualIdentity is based in the individualbelongsbelongsChildren learn to think in terms of ‘we’Children learn to think in terms of ‘we’ Children learn to think in terms of ‘I’Children learn to think in terms of ‘I’

Purpose of education is learning how to do Purpose of education is learningPurpose of education is learning how to do Purpose of education is learningAt schoolAt school how to learnhow to learn

Diplomas provide entry to higher status Diplomas provide entry to higher status Diplomas increase economic worth Diplomas increase economic worth and/or self respectand/or self respect

High-context communication High-context communication Low-context communicationLow-context communication Relationship employer-employee is perceived Relations employer-employee is aRelationship employer-employee is perceived Relations employer-employee is a

At the workplace At the workplace in moral terms, like a family link in moral terms, like a family link contract supposed to be based on contract supposed to be based on mutual advantage mutual advantage

Hiring and promotion decisions take Hiring and promotion decisions take Hiring and promotion decisions areHiring and promotion decisions areemployees’ in-group into accountemployees’ in-group into account supposed to be based on skills and supposed to be based on skills and

rules onlyrules onlyManagement is management of groupsManagement is management of groups Management is management of Management is management of

individualsindividualsRelationships prevails over taskRelationships prevails over task Task prevails over relationshipTask prevails over relationshipBad performance no socially acceptable reasonBad performance no socially acceptable reason Bad performance socially accepted Bad performance socially accepted for dismissalfor dismissal for dismissal for dismissal

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Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty Avoidance is not the same as risk avoidance; it deals with a Uncertainty Avoidance is not the same as risk avoidance; it deals with a society's tolerance for ambiguity. It indicates to what extent a culture society's tolerance for ambiguity. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict behavioral codes, laws and minimize the possibility of such situations by strict behavioral codes, laws and rules, disapproval of deviant opinions, and a belief in absolute Truth; 'there rules, disapproval of deviant opinions, and a belief in absolute Truth; 'there can only be one Truth and we have it'. can only be one Truth and we have it'.

Cultures strong in uncertainty avoidance are active, aggressive, emotional, Cultures strong in uncertainty avoidance are active, aggressive, emotional, compulsive, security seeking, and intolerant; cultures weak in uncertainty compulsive, security seeking, and intolerant; cultures weak in uncertainty avoidance are contemplative, less aggressive, unemotional, relaxed, avoidance are contemplative, less aggressive, unemotional, relaxed, accepting of personal risks, and relatively tolerant.accepting of personal risks, and relatively tolerant.

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Socialization Emphasis According to Socialization Emphasis According to Uncertainty Avoidance Societies Uncertainty Avoidance Societies

Weak Uncertainty Avoidance Weak Uncertainty Avoidance Strong Uncertainty Strong Uncertainty AvoidanceAvoidance

In the family What is different, is ridiculous or curious What is different, is dangerous In the family What is different, is ridiculous or curious What is different, is dangerous Ease, indolence, low stressEase, indolence, low stress Higher anxiety and stress Higher anxiety and stress Aggression and emotions not shownAggression and emotions not shown Showing aggression and emotions Showing aggression and emotions

Student comfortable with Student comfortable with Students comfortable with Students comfortable withAt schoolAt school * Unstructured learning situations * Unstructured learning situations * Structured learning situations * Structured learning situations

* Vague objectives * Vague objectives * Precise objectives * Precise objectives * Broad assignments* Broad assignments * Detailed assignments * Detailed assignments * No timetables* No timetables * Strict timetables * Strict timetables Teachers may say “I don’t know”Teachers may say “I don’t know” Teachers supposed to have all the Teachers supposed to have all the

answers answers

At the workplace Dislike of rules-written or unwrittenAt the workplace Dislike of rules-written or unwritten Emotional need for rules-written Emotional need for rules-written or unwritten or unwritten

Less formalization and standardizationLess formalization and standardization More formalization and More formalization and At the workplace At the workplace standardization standardization

Acceptance of risks, familiar and unfamiliar Acceptance of familiar risks, Acceptance of risks, familiar and unfamiliar Acceptance of familiar risks, avoidance of unfamiliar risks avoidance of unfamiliar risks

Showing of emotion by managers is taboo Shouting and table-pounding Showing of emotion by managers is taboo Shouting and table-pounding represent acceptable manager represent acceptable manager behaviour behaviour

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Masculinity versus FemininityMasculinity versus Femininity

MasculinityMasculinity

Sharply differentiated social sex roles: masculine roles implies Sharply differentiated social sex roles: masculine roles implies achievement, assertiveness, sympathy for the strong, and material achievement, assertiveness, sympathy for the strong, and material successsuccess

FemininityFemininity

Overlapping social sex roles; both imply warm relationships, Overlapping social sex roles; both imply warm relationships, modesty, care for the week, and quality of lifemodesty, care for the week, and quality of life

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Socialization Emphasis According to Socialization Emphasis According to Masculinity versus Femininity Societies Masculinity versus Femininity Societies

Feminine Societies Feminine Societies Masculine Societies Masculine Societies

In the family In the family Stress on relationshipsStress on relationships Stress on achievement Stress on achievement SolidaritySolidarity CompetitionCompetition Resolution of conflicts by compromise Resolution of conflicts by compromise Resolution of conflicts byResolution of conflicts by

and negotiationsand negotiations fighting it outfighting it out

Average student is norm Average student is norm Best students are normBest students are normAt schoolAt school System rewards students’ social adaptation System rewards students’ social adaptation System rewards students’ System rewards students’

academic performanceacademic performance Students’ failure at school is relatively minor Students’ failure at school is relatively minor Students’ failure at school is Students’ failure at school is

accidentaccident disaster- may lead to suicidedisaster- may lead to suicide

Assertiveness ridiculedAssertiveness ridiculed Assertiveness appreciatedAssertiveness appreciated Undersell yourselfUndersell yourself Oversell yourselfOversell yourself

At the workplace At the workplace Stress on life qualityStress on life quality Stress on careers Stress on careers Resolution of conflicts by compromise Resolution of conflicts by compromise Resolution of conflictsResolution of conflicts

and negotiationand negotiation by fighting them outby fighting them out Motivation by quality ofMotivation by quality of Motivation by opportunity Motivation by opportunity

forfor interpersonal relationshipsinterpersonal relationships advancementadvancement