N AV I N K U M A R

A E S T H E T I C M E TA - M O M E N T S

1

2

AESTHETIC META-MOMENTSBY TARUN KUMAR JAIN

N AV I N K U M A RNEW YORK, 2020

Curated and written by Dr. Tarun Kumar JainCopyright © 2020 by Navin Kumar, Inc. All Rights Reserved

N AV I N K U M A R G A L L E R Y

900 Park Avenue, Suite 4E

New York, NY, 10075

Tel: +1 (646) 708 1530

Viewing by Appointment Only

tarun@navinkumar.com

www.navinkumar.com

INTRODUCTION 5

REFLEXIVITY AND REPRESENTATION 7

I FromReflexivitytoMeta-Moments 8

II Meta-MomentsinLearningandinArt 9

IIIFrom"as-ness"to"is-ness" 10

IVFromRepresentationtoSelf-Representation 11

V Physics,Ontology,andInformation 12

VIBeyondClassicalLogic 14

WORKS OF ART 17

EldersVajrīputraandBhadra 18

Vajrasattva 22

Kālacakra 24

Buddhakapala 26

DechenGyalmo 28

Hayagrīva 30

Hayagrīva,LiberatorfromArrogantOnes 32

Vajrapāṇi 42

MañjuśrīandLifeStoryof SakyaPaṇḍita 44

Yama 48

DualMaṇḍalaof Vajrabhairava 50

KṛṣṇaYamari 54

Maṇḍalaof MañjuvajraGuhyasamāja 56

AkṣobhyavajraGuhyasamāja 62

TABLE OF CONTENTS

5

6

INTRODUCTION

Thisexhibitionhasbeenorganizedaroundtheconceptof Aesthetic Meta-Moments.Itbeginswithatheoreticalandexperientialdescriptionof whatmeta-momentsareandhowtheyrelatetoart.Justasexceptionalworksof artshouldspeaktopeopleof alllevelsof knowledge,sotooshouldexceptionalcurationshouldatonceexposeaccessiblethemeswhilechallengingviewerstopersonallygrowalongsidetheexhibition.Onwalkingthroughtheexhibition,onewillfindthreadsthatlinkthepaintingstogether,allowingittobeappreciatedasalargerunit.Andontheconceptuallevel,thethematicorganizationaroundmeta-momentsisareminderthattheculminationof artliesinthemomentof reflexivesignificationthatitinducesintheviewer.

AsTantricsubjectshavealwaysbeenknowntohaveasignificantandlastingimpactonviewers,theyarehighlysuitedsubstratesforanexhibitiononmeta-moments.Thisexhibitionthereforecontainsalargenumberof Tantricworksof art,withanemphasisondeitiesbelongingtothehighestclassof Tantras,suchasKālacakra,Guhyasamāja,Vajrabhairava,andBuddhakapala.

Inthemiddleof lastyear,IwasaskedwhatdirectionfutureresearchinTibetanArtmighttake.Thisisnotaneasyquestiongiventhematurityof scholarshipinthefield.Ithasprogressedagreatdealsincemyfather,NavinKumar,startedcollectingTibetanartinthe1960s.Manyworksof arthavenowbeendatedbasedoninscriptions,andprovidesolidanchorpointsforfurtherinterpretationof arthistory.Andanevenlargersetof workscanbedatedtowithinacoupleof decadesbycross-correlatingdepictedlineageswithtextualsources.Yet,instarkcontrasttotheseanchoringcases,onefindsanincrediblepersistenceof stylisticmotifsacrossthecenturies,andthatisinadditiontoiconographicinvarianceof mostsubjects.Thisfacthighlightsthemarvelsof ourcapacitytodevelopasensitivityof periodandprovenancethroughhighlysubtlevariationsinstyle,aswellasthechallengesforthefieldmovingahead.

Asahypothesis,onewayinwhichnewinsightscanbegleanedfromaTibetanworksof artistostartlookingatthestatisticalsignificanceof groupingsof iconographicandstylisticmotifsacrosscarefullyconstructeddatasets.Thewrite-upsfortheVajrabhairavamaṇḍalaandtheHayagrīvamaṇḍalainparticularcontainexamplesof whatsuchaprocessmightlooklike.

Andwiththat,let'sdivestraightintothediscussionof meta-moments,reflexivityandrepresentation!

7

REFLEXIVITY AND REPRESENTATION

I F r o m r e F l e x I v I t y t o m e ta -m o m e n t s

Theprecursorstometa-momentsarereflexivemoments.Reflexivemomentsaremomentswhenonefeelstheirpresencewithinmoment-to-momentexperience.Itisrecognizablyreflexive,withanon-trivialfeelingof beingwitnesstothemoment.Asimpleexampleistocomparethenon-reflexivemomentof "feelingsunlight"tothereflexivemomentof "Iamfeelingsunlight".

Implicitinthesimplefeelingof sunlightisthevantagepointfromwhichthatfeelingtakesplace:theperspectiveof theobserverorexperiencer.Areflexivemomentimpliesthatsomeaspectof whatitmeanstobeanobserverorexperiencerisrepresentedwithinthemoment-to-momentobservation.Itisakindof recognitionof one'sparticipationandpresenceinamoment.Reflexivemomentscontainakindof self-reference.

Ameta-momentoccurswhenareflexivemomentisdescribed.Thisdescription,orrepresentation,isnotlimitedtodescriptionthroughlanguage.If youintentionallyrepresentareflexivemomentthroughdrawing,movement,orsound,itinducestheexperienceof ameta-moment.Whenanobjectisseenfromanewangle,andyoufeelawareof theinvarianceof theobjectdespitethevariationinperspective,itisameta-moment.Thereflexivemomentitself becomesanobjectof experiencethatischaracterized.Meta-momentsarethusaninstanceof recursionoriterationonareflexivemoment.Embeddedinthisdiscussionaretheseedsfordescribingameta-logicforexperiencethatembracesself-reference,witheverydescriptionof experienceitself apartof experience.

Butwe'refacedimmediatelywithaconundrum:weshouldbeexperiencingmeta-momentsallthetime,withoutevernoticingit!Indeed,thesemeta-momentshappenspontaneouslyandfrequently.Asmoments,theyarebydefinitionmomentaryandephemeral.Thoughif theyaretootransienttonoticeinourownlives,itsoundslikesomethingof academicinterest.Butthisisnotthecase…somemeta-momentshavesufficienttemporalcoherenceandresonancetoberecognizable.Thisresonanceiscreatedthroughdepthof recursionof areflexiveexperience:asimple,short-livedmeta-momentasapartof experiencebecomesthesubstrateforrepresentationandanothershort-livedmeta-moment.

Whenyousaysomethinglikesaying"I'mawarethatI'maware"andreflectontheexperiencerepresentedbytheidea,theechoof thisself-referencefacilitatescoherenceinmeta-moments.Similarly,when,intheprocessperformingatask,youbecomeawarethatyouarepayingattentiontoadetailinitsbroadercontext,andyouthenrecognizethequalityof theattentionyouaregivingtothetask,thatisameta-momentwithnoticeabledepth!Whenwecontemplatethequalityof theattentionwithwhichweperformatask,itisclearthatmeta-momentsareimmanentlyaccessibletous.Didweperformataskwithcare,diligence,appreciation,gratitude,focus?Itissurprisinghowrarelyweengagewithsuchquestions,eventhoughtheyareof obviousutilityinlivedexperience.

10

I I m e ta -m o m e n t s I n l e a r n I n g a n d I n a rt

Reflexivemomentsseemintrinsicallysubjective,andtosomepeople,subjectivitymayappeartolimitwhatwecancometoknow.Yetintheconstructionof meta-moments,onemaystarttoseehintsof howthatsubjectivityitself mayplayavitalroleinconstructingapathtoinsight.Forthroughtherecursionof meta-moments,onecanunderstandone'sownroleinthatwhichisexperienced.Asisusuallythecase,whatisresponsibleforthisapparentparadoxisaflawintheviewitself.Eveninanon-reflexivemoment,theobservationdependsonthenatureof theobserver.Itthenisobviousthatanyinsightintonatureof experiencewouldrequirerecursiveactiontouncoveritsstructure.Thethingswecanrecognize,comprehend,learnfrom,andgrowwith,arethethingsthataremostintimatetous!That'spreciselywhymeta-momentsareuseful:theyexposethekindsof newopportunitiesandpossibilitiesforknowledgeandactionthatwewouldbemostconcernedwith.

Thearchetypaldescriptionof ameta-momentisderivedfrommeta-momentsthatwecanrecognizeanddescribe.Itisthefeelingviewingoneself andtheworldatthesametime.Theshiftintheperspectivalcenterof gravitymakesitfeellikeoneislookingatoneself fromtheoutside.Certainkindsof transformationinperspectiveallowustoseebeyondlimitationsthatwerehonestlyfelt,butonlyexistedasmentalappearances.Ameta-momentrepresentsatransformationinperspectivethatitself guidesfurtherdevelopmentof perspectivalshifts.Thereisakindof beautytothis.Asonetakesastepback,thepicturegetsbiggerwithourworldexpanding,andcoincidentwiththis,itappearsasif thedetailedinnerstructureof thingsbeginstounfoldandmakesense.Thatmeta-momentsappeartoprovideapanoramicviewandactasaconduitforinsightisamostwondrousphenomenon.

Someworksof arthaveaninternalstructurethatrelatesvariousfacetsof theworktoeachother.Assuch,paralleltoitssurfaceinspace-time,thefacetsof aworkweaveaconceptualandaestheticspaceforplayandexploration.Goodartbeginswithanimmediateandrareaestheticresponsetotheworkof artasawhole.Fromthisbasesubstrate,thedriverof depthinanaestheticexperienceisasustainedengagementwithinthatplay-space.

SonowfortheexperimentcalledAestheticMeta-Moments.Eachtimeyouviewaworkof arthere,firstnoticethespacebetweenyouandtheartwork,andthenyourpresenceviewingthework.Thenengagewiththevisualstimuliasyouletyoureyewanderthroughthedetailsinthework.Whenyouencounteranevocationthatrelatestolifeconcepts,throughsymbolismorassociation,returntothefeelingof yourpresenceviewingthework,returntothesimplicityof theaestheticevocation,andmarvelathowthesetwoaspectsanchorandgroundthereflectiononlife.Thereisnoobjectiveorlessonbeyondlearningabouthowyouengagewithyourself andyourownworld-view.

Theworksinthisexhibitionhavebeenchosenduetotheevocativenessof theirforms,therichnessof detail,andthepresenceof symbolismthatcanconnectyouwiththemessuchastime,history,bliss,arrogance,death,andwisdom.Foreachartwork,atthebottomof thepage,youwillfindthenameof aconceptthatmightguideanevocationduringtheviewingof theworkof art.

11

I I I F r o m " a s - n e s s " t o " I s - n e s s "

Anythingthatisavailableforustoobserve,whetheritissensoryperception,thought,emotion,motionormemory,isanappearance.Wemayintuitivelyappreciatethattheappearanceisnotequivalentwiththethingitrepresents.Forexample,thefluxof photonsonourretinaisarepresentationof somecollectionof objects,nottheobjectsthemselves.Therepresentationisanencodingof informationthatisgeneratedthroughsomeprocess.Intheactof representation,theappearanceof objectsemergesfromaneffervescentfluxof information.Whenrecognizingthattheworldaroundusisseenthroughtransientdynamics,theappearanceof aworldfilledwithobjectsof tangiblequalityfeelslikemagic.

Insteadof seeinganappearanceasmerelyanalogoustoaconceivedobject,theappearanceisoftentakenasequivalenttotheobject.Asasimpleexample,insteadof seeingtheappearanceof anelevatedheart-rateastheappearanceof frustration,wedirectlyseefrustration.Thatsameappearancecouldhave,inslightlydifferentcircumstances,beeninterpretedasfearorarousal.Butoncetheappearanceparticipatesintheprocessof becoming,muchof theinformationopeningthepotentialforalternativeinterpretationsisdiscarded.

Perhapswecansaythattheas-nessof experienceissubstitutedforis-ness.Is-nessbeingthecertaintywithwhichappearancesarebestowedwithdefiniteidentity.Itisnodoubtausefulapproximationthatenablesustomakesubsequentinterpretivemoves.Thisprocessisroutineandnatural.Theprocessof learningisaprocessinwhichwelearnabasissetof representationsthataremutuallyconsistentandself-reinforcing.Inotherwords,wetendtolearnaprocessof representationthatquicklyandefficientlymovestowardstheappearanceof ontologicalcertainty.

Existenceandontologyinourconceptualapparatusarelinkedtotheideaof space.Evennoumenaareconceivedasthatwhichexistintheirownspace,thoughitisnotthesameasthephenomenalspaceinwhichphysicstakesplace.Thisspaceisarepresentationof similarityanddistancebetweenthingsforwhichrepresentationalcapacityexistsinthesystem.

Duringmeta-moments,inseeinginterconnectednessandinrecognizinghowthingsdependoneachother,thefixationontheconcretenessof individualobjectsisloosened.Throughanappreciationof connectivity,distancepromotesrecognizingtheas-nessof amomentaryappearance.Thisreturntoseeingthingsasappearancescanopenupnewpossibilitiesthatwereclosed-offbythelimitationsof ourownpreconceivedcertaintiesabouttheworld.Onekindof experiencewecanplaywithistheexperienceof simplyrestingintheseeingthingsasappearancesinsteadof flowingwiththeinterpretivearcsof is-ness.

12

Iv F r o m r e p r e s e n ta t I o n t o s e l F -r e p r e s e n ta t I o n

Attheintersectionof reflexivityandrepresentation,isthequestionof howasystemcanhaverepresentationalcapacityforitself (i.e.representaspectsof itself).Thisphrasinghasbeencarefullychosenforitspotentialcompatibilitywithbothmathematics/physicsandthephenomenologyof experience.Ihopeinfuturethesimpleconceptsherecanbeexploredrigorouslyinmathematics,physics,andcomputerscience.

Let'sstartwiththeexampleof somesystemthatclassifiesitsinputs,i.e.hasrepresentationalcapacitywithregardstothesetof possibleoutputsitproduces.Intheactionof classifyinginputs,theas-nessof theinputbecomestheis-nessof theoutput.Theoutputof thesystemcannotbeseenindependentof thenatureof thesystemperformingtheactionof classification.Therefore,howevermaskedorincompleteitmaybe,embeddedinasystem'soutputissomeencodingof itsownnature.

Asystemmaybeabletodeveloprepresentationalcapacityforsomeaspectof itself if itisabletoclosetheloop.Bythis,itismeantthattheoutputof thesystem(itsrepresentations)themselvesbecomesubsequentinputs(objectsforfurtherrepresentation).Beingalreadyasystemwithrepresentationalcapacity,thesystemhassomeinternalstructurethroughwhichitcanlearnsomeinvariantstructurefromtheinformationitispresentedwith.Onemightevenwonderwhatdegreesof loopclosureexistwithcurrentmachinelearningalgorithms,foritmaybethatevenlearningrepresentationalcapacityrequiresloopclosure.Thedistinctionbetweenself-representationandrepresentationthensimplybecomeswhatpartof theloopasystemlearns.

Discursivereasoningisverymuchlikeplayingagameof chesswithoneself.Whenwehaveathoughtorcreatealinguisticproposition,itisarepresentationof internalstate.Yetthereissanasymmetrybetweenthe'set'of internalstatesthatwouldgenerateathoughtorpropositionandthe'set'of internalstatesthatareevokedonwitnessingthethoughtorparsingtheproposition.Theinformationalasymmetryisthatnotallinformationusedtocreateapropositionisavailableforitsparsing.Asrepresentationislikeamany-to-onefunction,thereisambiguitywhenparsinginferstheco-domainof therepresentationalfunctionusedforgeneration.Thisasymmetrybetweengenerationandparsingdrivesakindof internalrecursionthatmaybeimportantforself-representation.Thus,evenwhenoneisthesourceof theirownthoughts,weinsomesensehavetoinferwhywehadthethoughtinthefirstplace!If wetaketheperspectiveof theexperience,wecanseehowtheexperiencegivesrisetotheproposition.Andif wetaketheperspectiveof theproposition,wecanseewhatthepropositionsaysaboutexperience.

Thenotionthatlinguisticreferentsarenoumenalisaconvictioncreatedfromrepresentation.Whenoneencountersanunknownpatternof symbolsforthefirsttime,onecouldsuspendjudgmentregardingitsmeaning.Yetthepresuppositionthatithasmeaningiswhatfacilitatesresolutionof uncertaintyandallowsapreliminaryinferenceof somemeaningbasedoncontextandourpre-existingrepresentationalbasis.Thispresuppositionof priormeaning,requiredforinference,providestheappearancethatitexistedpriortoourknowingit,andhence,theappearanceof noumenallinguisticreferents.Thismaynotbetheonlyexplanation,butwhatithintsatisthattheappearancethatlinguisticreferentsexistindependentof ourrepresentationof thewordshouldnotbetakenliterally.As-nessneednotbeconfusedwithis-ness.

13

v p h y s I c s , o n t o l o g y , a n d I n F o r m a t I o n

Oneof themotivationsforphysicistsistouncoverabasissetof primitiveswithwell-definedandself-consistentbehavior,fromwhichallphenomenacanbederived.Asaconvenientshort-hand,thegoalof creatingameta-logicisarticulatedhereas"everythingismatter".Theexactformof thisstatementdependsonwhichphysicaltheoryisusedfortheunderlyingstructureof reality.Insomevariations,space-timeitself isnotaphysicalprimitive,butisemergentfromsomethingmorefundamental.Instringtheory,forexample,onecouldlooselysay"everythingismadeof strings".Commonacrossphysicaltheoriesisthatthebehaviorof allobservablephenomenonshouldemergefromthefundamentalnature/behaviorof itsphysicalprimitives.Thenearuniversalityof itscoveragemakesitsimilartothemeta-logicalpropositionhintedatinearlierdiscussions,that"everythingisexperience".

Physicalandexperientialdescriptionsarecomplementary:physicsisalinguisticformof experienceintheexperientialdescription,andexperiencesbecomephenomenontobedescribedinphysicaldescription.Modernneuroscienceisthecontextthroughwhichphysicsattemptstodescribeexperience.Thelanguageof physicshassignificantlyenhancedtheaccuracywithwhichwecanrepresentphenomenathatoccurinnature.Accuracyof representationcanalwaysbeachievedbycreatingamorerefinedlanguageforrepresentation.Thisrefinement,however,effectivelycreateshierarchy.Startingfromanappearanceorobservation,onehastotranslatethedescriptionof thatappearancedowntoalevelcompatiblewiththemostfundamentallevelof thehierarchy,andthentranslatetheimplicationsbackuptothelevelof appearancestocheckforself-consistency.Onthelevelof appearances,similarityandequivalencerelatetoaccuracy.Butwhatof thelevelof thedeepestlayerof thehierarchy:isitself-validatingoristheresomethingmissingthatcannotbecapturedbythetrendtowardshigheraccuracy?

Aphysicaltheoryisasetof equations(mathematicalpropositions)thatexpressrelationshipsbetweenthephysicalprimitivesandpropertiesthattheseprimitivescanhave.Forexample,thepropertiesof particles,suchastheirposition,mass,andcharge,standinrelationtothepropertiesof otherparticles.Thesuccessof anequationindescribingobservablebehaviorisnotthequestion.Rather,thequestionishowaparticlecanknowexactly,orwithanincredibleprecision,itsownpropertiesandthepropertiesof otherparticles.Inprinciple,aparticlefeelsforces,howeverminute,fromallotherparticlesintheuniverse!Similarly,forapartialdifferentialequationdescribingafield,onecanaskhowisitthatcertainaspectsof thefield(suchasitsspatialderivatives)canhaveknowledgeof otheraspectsof thatfield(suchasderivativesintimeoranotherspatialcoordinate)andbehaveaccordingtothisknowledge.Whenwethinkof itlikethat,itishardnottomarvelatitsgreatmystery!Soononehand,thesystemof physicsprovidesexplanationforhigherordersof thehierarchy,butatitsrootencodesthecapacityforrepresentationintothenatureof thephysicalprimitivesitself.

Fromthestandpointof anequation,aphysicalprimitiveismerelyaconvenientplaceholderfortheappearanceof abehavioralpatterninthecapacitytosynthesizeandrepresentinformation.Inotherwords,theonlyconcretenessthephysicalprimitivehasisindistinguishablefromitscapacitytopresentandrepresentinformationconsistentwiththerelationshipsdescribedinanequation.

Therecouldbecountlessotherways–unimaginabletousnow–withwhichwecouldhavedescribedphysicalphenomenonwithabasissetof equations.Thephysicalprimitivesthatappearintheseversions

14

wouldbedifferentthantheonesweseeintheoriestoday.Yet,theymightallbeequivalentinhowtheystitchtogetherafabricof phenomenathatappeartousinexperience.Onecanlearn,study,andadvancethecauseof sciencewithoutconflatingastatementaboutepistemologywithastatementaboutontology.

Thisparticularaspectwaschosenfordiscussionfortworeasons.Thefirstisthattheideasareresonantwiththeearlierdiscussionsof representationandtheconversionof as-nesstois-ness.Thesecondreasonisthatthereisanimplicationthattheremaybeaninvariantpropertyof anysystemof logic,notevenlimitedtophysicsorscience.Thetruthof anypropositionisascertainedbyanagentthatrepresentstheobjectsof thepropositionandvalidatestheirrelationship.Forthepropositiontobeuniversallytrue,independentof theagent,theobjectsof thepropositionsmusthavethecapacitytopresentthemselvestothoseobjectsthattheystandinrelationto,havethecapacitytorepresenttheinformationthattheyreceivefromotherobjects.Refiningourlanguageimprovestheaccuracyof representation,butcanneverremovetheneedforthepresumptionthatsomethingssimply"know"asthefundamentalnatureof theirbeing.Invisiblefromthevantagepointof themeta-logicalsystemisthepresumptionof anawareness.Thisawarenessistheconditionof possibilityforinformationtoberepresentedandpresentedwithinthemeta-logicalsystem.

Soanysystemof ontology,andanymeta-logicaltheoryimpliesasafixedpointarootawareness.Thisrootisbydefinitionaqualitycannotbecapturedbythepre-existingrepresentationalbasis.Increatinganewrepresentationalbasistodescribewhatitmeansforthepreviousprimitivestosynthesizeinformation,wemerelyshiftthesamequestiontoadeeperlevelof representation.Sothis"rootawareness"iskindof afixed-pointandinvariant,andinsomesenseencapsulatestheessenceof being.Thisfixed-pointisthemissingingredientthatmayenableatheorytobecomeself-validating.Yettheinabilitytodescribeitwithabasisof representationmaynotprecludeanappreciationof it.Forexample,weareabletointuittheexistenceof somethingthatcannotbedescribedthroughahandfulof pagesof self-referentialanalysis.Perhapsonemodalityof appreciationof thisfixedpointistoanalyzeinvarianceinself-referentialstructures.Anothermodalityof appreciationmaybeimaginingtheconditionof possibilityforsystemsof representation:thisprocessopensupthemindratherthannarrowingitwithbehavioraldescriptions.Relatedtothismodalityispayingattentiontotheprocessof successivelyrefiningrepresentations,andimaginingtheessenceof therepeatediterationof thatprocess.Thethirdmodalityrelatestothelogicalstructureof thelanguagerequiredtoseethisrootawareness.Thestatementsinthisparagraphmayappearparadoxicalif oneoperatesinasystemof "classicallogic",i.e.containanumberof propertiessuchashavinganexcludedmiddle,satisfyingdoublenegationandnon-contradiction.

15

vI B e y o n d c l a s s I c a l l o g I c

Inthehistoryof philosophy,self-referentialstatementshavebeenamajorsourceof logicalparadox.Inthe20thcentury,modernmathematicshashadtoconfronttheissueof self-referencedirectly,withGödel'sincompletenesstheoremandself-containingsetsbeingprimeexamples.Questionsattheintersectionof quantummechanicsandself-referencehavetobetreatedcarefully,thoughitseemsthatthereareanumberof openquestionsregardingwhatlogicalsystemquantummechanicsmapsto.Theideathataninvestigationof thedeepernatureof realityrequiresgoingbeyondclassicallogicisnotnew:itisatthecoreof severalancientphilosophies,includingMahāyānaTetralemma,JainaAnekāntavāda,andtheConfucianDoctrineof Means.Itisonlyinthelastcenturyorsothatwehavecreatedmathematicaltoolstohandlethisstepbeyondclassicallogic,asevidencedbythedevelopmentof modalandintuitionisticlogics.

Intheprecedingsections,variousquestionsrelatedtoself-reference(reflexivity)andrepresentationwereconsidered.Asageneralheuristic,onemightgivethoughttothefollowingsimplestatement:whenevertherearelimitsonrepresentationinasystem,violationsof classicallogiccan,andoftendo,follow.Forexample,inquantummechanics,theuncertaintyprincipleencapsulatesalimitationwithwhichtheontologicalentitiescanrepresentthemselvesinthequantifiablebasesthatweusefortheirrepresentation.

Theopenquestionthatweconcludeoniswhetheritispossibletofindaself-validatingmeta-logicforexperiencethatprovidesclosureunderself-reference.Toreachsuchadestination,wemayneedtoletgoof manypreconceivedexpectations!Whendealingwithself-reference,therearetimeswhenonegetslostincyclicality,andtimeswhenonegetsstuckbecauseof contradictions.Whencontradictionsarise,itissuggestiveof theneedtostandingoutsideof one'sexistingcontextandpresumptionsandexpandingone'shorizons.Dealingwithcyclicalityisharder,andthechallengeisoftenkeepingtrackof whatpropositionsreferto.Inbothlogicandmathematics,deftuseof hierarchyhasoftenprovidedinvaluableassistance.Thefutureisajourneyof discoveringthedepthandfullnessof self-reference,reality,beauty,andtruth.

Thefuturewillrequireustothinkmoredeeplyonmanyissues:questionsof politicalnetworks,economicsandtheabstractionof humanactivity,theprogressindeeplearningandquantumcomputation,theobjectificationof mentalactivitybyadvancesinneuroscience,thedevelopmentof virtualhumaninterfacesthatobscurehowappearancesconnecttorepresentationaltheories,andimportantlyhowwestandinrelationtootherspecies,life-forms,andtheplanet.Thiswillrequireadvancesinmathematics,physics,andlogic,andcreativeuseof algorithmsandvisualizationtechniquestofacilitatethelearningprocess.Progressnow,morethanever,requireskeepinganopenmind,seeingbeyondappearances.Seeingbeyondapparentcontradictions.Andwhilethisseemstechnical,itistoosoftaskilltofallinthedomainof scienceandtechnology!Thesecuesareinfactthebuildingblocksforadeeper,moremeaningful,andsustainedengagementwithallthosethingstowhichweareconnectedinourdailylives!

16

17

18

WORKS OF ART

19

ELDERS VAJRĪPUTRA AND BHADRA

4thquarterof the17thCentury,CentralTibetDistemperoncloth59.7h×40wcm

Provenance: Privatecollection,1970sAcquiredin2017

AccordingtotheNandimitrāvadāna,anearlyMahāyānatext,thesixteenEldersareagroupof teacherstowhomŚākyamuniBuddhaentrustedhisteachingsuponhisdeath.Theritualfunctionof artworksdepictingtheEldersisexplicitlyspecifiedasthegeneratingmerit(puṇya)fordonors,afactwhichlikelyplayedaroleintheEldersbecominganenduringthemeinmaterialcultureacrossBuddhisttraditions.

Oneof themostchallengingquestionspresentedtoarthistoriansistracingtheoriginsandexchangeof aestheticinfluencesthroughhistory.Thestudyof inheritanceandvariationacrosstimeisanimportantthemeacrossmanydisciplines,includingtextualanalysis.Areflectiononhistoryservesthedualpurposesof illuminingoriginsandof revealingmomentsof changeandcreativity.

Recentscholarship,inparticularafascinatingdissertationbyRuixuanChen,hasprovidedatroveof informationandanalysisregardingtheNandimitrāvadāna,withversionsof thetextinKhotanese,Tibetan,andChinesebeingusedtoilluminethetemporalevolutionof thetext1.Forexample,theintegrationof thesixteenEldersintoBuddhistcosmologicalcyclesandthecultof theMaitreyaisabsentinanearlierKhotaneseversionof thetext.IntheTibetantradition,thefirstevidenceof theEldersisan8thcenturypaintingof theElderKālikafromDunhuangbearinginscriptionswithboththenameandnumberof theElder2.TheaccountisconsistentwiththenumberingintheliturgicalversesbyŚākyaśrībhadrainthe12th–13thcentury3butdifferentthanthe11thcenturytranslationbyAjitaśrībhadraandShākya’od4.

Inthissetof paintings,theEldersareseatedonchairs,withvariousritualimplements,andaccompaniedbyattendantsinlandscapesettings.Abovethehorizonline,locatedroughlythreefourthsof thewayup,eachpaintingdepictsoneof theeightMedicineBuddhaswiththeirrespectiveBuddhafields,andtwofiguresfromthere-incarnationlineageof the5thDalaiLama.Thesetof paintingsthusbecomespartof theprogramcreatedtolegitimizethenewlyestablishedpoliticalhegemonyof theGelukinthe17thcentury.OtherpaintingsrelatedtothispoliticalprogramincludetheSole Ornament muralsof c.1694attheRedPalace5andasetdepictingthepreviouslivesof 5thDalaiLama(HARSet2493),publishedintherecentshowattheRubinMuseum,Faith and Empire.Inthatcatalog,forthatshow,PerSørensen

1 Chen,Ruixuan"TheNandimitrāvadāna:alivingtextfromtheBuddhisttradition"PhDdissertation,LeidenUniversity,2018.2 “OnlineCollection”(Object1919,0101,0.169).BritishMuseum.3Feb2020,https://research.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/3 Watt,Jeff."Arhat/Sthavira:MainPage&Arhat/SthaviraAppearance(Elder)".HimalayanArtResources.3Feb2020,https://www.himalayanart.org/search/set.cfm?setID=108

4 Chen,Ruixuan"TheNandimitrāvadāna:alivingtextfromtheBuddhisttradition"PhDdissertation,LeidenUniversity,2018.5 Lin,NancyG."RecountingtheFifthDalaiLama’sRebirthLineage". Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines,no.38,Février2017,pp.119-156.

20 HISTORYELDER S VAJ R ĪP UTRA AND BH ADRA

writes6:

TheFifthDalaiLama,stillayoungincarnatenovice,foundinspirationfromreadingtheBook of the Kadampa (bka' gdams glegs bam),whichsoonservedasthebasisforhislineagesanctification.Untilhispassingin1682,theGreatFifthcontinuedworkingonhisformerrebirthseriesinwritingsandwithwallpaintingsandthemanufactureof statuesandthangkas,allwiththeaimof documentingtheline'sexaltedprestige.Asheadof state,theDalaiLamapersonallyreflectedoverwhomheconsideredworthyof beingennobledintohisownformerrebirthlineage.

Analyzingthepaintingsasawhole,theorganizationof theentiresetcanbeelucidated(Table1).EpigraphicandiconographicevidenceconfirmsthattheEldersineachpaintingarepairedaccordingtothenumberingsystemseeninDunhuangandŚākyaśrībhadra'sliturgicalversed.OrderingthepaintingswiththesamenumberingsystemalsocorrectlyordersthehistoricalfiguresintheDalaiLama'sincarnationlineage.Theonlyexception,however,isfoundinthefirstthreepaintings,whereitappearsthattheIndickingKönchokBanghasbeenmovedfromthe1stElderpaintinginthesettothe3rdElderpainting(presentpainting)inordertopairhimwithSongtsenGampo.Thoughaccesstoinscriptionsonthe2ndpaintingattheYaleUniversityArtGallerywouldbehelpful,itisclearthattwofiguresarekings.Inunderstandingwhothesefiguresmightbe,andanalyzingwhethertheorderingof thesetcouldbedifferent,thedetailedstudybyNancyG.Linonhowtherebirthlineageof the5thDalaiLamaevolvedintextandmuralsoverthecourseof the17thcenturyhasbeenextremelyuseful7.Overall,thereincarnationlineagedepictedinthesetissubstantiallysimilartothetext,Yangchen's Lute,writtenapproximately1680.

Thesetcanbedatedpreciselybydeterminingthelineagefigureinthelastpaintingof theset.Thesetwouldhaveconcludedwithtwopaintingswiththreefigureseach:Hvashang,Virūpākṣa(W)andVirūḍhaka(S)inonepainting,andDharmatala,Dhṛtarāṣṭra(E)andVaiśravaṇa(N)intheother8. The additionof athirdfigurereducesthespaceavailable,leavingroomforonlyonehistoricalfigure.Thelastpaintingof theEldersconcludeswiththe3rdDalaiLama,sothefinaltwopaintingswouldhavethe4th and5thDalaiLamasinthem.ThepaintingHARItem4040isanexactmatchincompositionandstyleforwhatisexpectedforthelastpaintingintheset,withthe5thDalaiLamaseatedatthetop,thoughtheportraitureseemsdifferentthantheotherworksof theset.Thesetof paintingswasmostlikelymadeinthelastquarterof the17thcentury,thoughitisunclearwhetherthesetwasmadeduringthelifetimeof the5thDalaiLamaorduringtheinterveningyearswhenhisdeathwaskepthidden.

TheworkismadeinaclassicalNewMenristyle,whichevolvedfromtheMenriinthemid-17thcentury.Thecompositionisendowedwithaplayfulnaturalism.Monkeyshangsfromatreeovertheshoulderof oneVajrīputra,whileanotheroneholdsafreshlypluckedfruitinanticipation.AGarudadivesdownfromtheskytochaseafterafishintheriver.Thereisasenseof connectionbetweentheEldersandtheirattendants:Vajrīputraisseencarefullyexplainingtohisattendanttheuseof thebeggingbowl,whileBhadraisteachingasupplicantthevalueof equanimityanddetachmentinthefaceof greatwealth(representedbythebowlof gems).Theforegroundsarepopulatedwithprominentblue-greenrockformations,lavishlyshadedingold,withtreesandanimalsportrayedintheminiature.Figures,whethertheEldersbelowthehorizon,ordeitiesandlineagefiguresabovethehorizon,arecomposedtotakeupthemaximumamount6 Debreczeny,Karl."FaithandEmpire:ArtandPoliticsinTibetanBuddhism".RubinMuseumof Art,NewYork,2019.7 Lin,NancyG.."RecountingtheFifthDalaiLama’sRebirthLineage". Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines,no.38,Février2017,pp.119-156.8 ForacompositionwithHvashang,seeHARItem52.ForthecompositionwithDharmatala,seeHARItem4040and13640.DharmatalaandHvashangareswitchedinmanyof thecompositions.Tomaintainthehorizonlineat3/4of thewayup,itispossiblethatthefigureswouldbedepictedseated,asinHARItem#54442

22 HISTORYELDER S VAJ RĪP UTRA AN D BH ADRA

Table1:Comparisonof thereincarnationlineageof the5thDalaiLamainthepresentpaintingsettothetextYangchen'sLute(ca.1680)andthemuralpaintingsSoleOrnament(ca.1694)intheRedTemple.

HAR# Arhats Medicine Buddha Reincarnation LineageYangchen's

Luteca. 1680

Sole Ornament

ca. 1694

R1 13500

1.Aṅgaja['byung]ŚākyamuniBuddha

g... pa'i sa(ngs) rgyas (8)

2.Lha'iGyelpolha' rgyal po

✓ (37) ✓ (B38)

2.Ajita[phams pa]3.Gnya'khribtsanpos.. khri [bts]an po

✓ (24) ✓ (B23)

L1 588683.Vanavāsindus ldan

Abhijnaraja(6)4.?

4.Kālikanags (sa) gnas 5.?

R2 PresentWork

5.Vajrīputra,mo yi bu Ashokattamashringan me[d] mchog (4)

1.KonchokBangdko(n mch)og 'bang<s>

✓ (9) ✓ (A6,B8)

6.Bhadra[bzang po]6.SongstenGamposrongb[stan]_

✓ (54) ✓ (A4,B44)

L2 13502

7.Kanakavatsa(g)ser (be')uSuparikirtitanamashri

mtshan legs (1)

TrisongDetsenmnga'bdag_u_

✓ (57) ✓ (A5)

8.Kanaka-BharadvājaTriRalpacan(mnga'bd)g_[kh]r(i)

✓ (58) ✓ (B46)

R3 319.Bakula Svaraghosa

<d>(s)gra dby[angs] (2)

Dromtonpa'brom ston

✓ (61) ✓ (B47)

10.Rāhula SachenKungaNyingpo ✓ (62) x

L3 13501

11.Kṣudrapanthaka.. [phra] .. Dharmakirtisagaraghosa

(5)

ZhangYudrakpaTsondruzhang __ ✓ (63) x

Piṇḍola-Bharadvājaba ra (dz)' [dza]NyangrelNyimaOzernyang nyi ma 'od zer

✓ (65) ✓ (A8,B48)

R4 Missing13.Panthaka implied:(7)Bhisajyaguru

Dharmakirtisagaraghosa

ChogyalPhakpa (68) (B52)

14.Nāgasena Padmavajra (70) (B53)

L4 90028

15.Gopaka(sbe[d] byed pa) SuvarnabhadraVimalaratnaprabhasa

gser bzang dri med(3)

DalaiLama1thamscadmkhyenpadgedungrub

✓ (71) ✓ (B54)

16.AbhedaDalaiLama3thamscadmkhyenpabsodnaMrgyamtsho

(77) ✓ (B56)

R5 Missing Dharmatala,Dhṛtarāṣṭra,Vaiśravaṇa DalaiLama4 ✓ (74) (B55)

L5 Missing Hvashang,Virūpākṣa,Virūḍhaka DalaiLama5,NgagwangLodroGyatso ✓ (78) (B57)

of spacepossible.

TheEightMedicineBuddhasatthetopcenterareaccompaniedwithadetaileddepictionof theirrespectiveBuddhafields,whichincludesbothanarchitecturalsettingandtheretinueof Bodhisattvas.Onemodernanalysisof thetwoversionsof theBhaisajyaguru SutraintheTibetancanonhasnotedsimilaritiesbetweentheBuddhafieldsof theMedicineBuddhasanddescriptionsof thePureLandof Amitabha9.ItisfascinatingtoseemultipleinfluencesfromMahayanatextsblendsoseamlesslyintoapaintingthatsoquintessentiallyservestheintersectionof religionandpolitics!

9 Shopen,Gregory."Sukhāvatīasageneralizedreligiousgoalinsanskritmahāyānasūtraliterature"Indo-IranianJournal.Vol.19,No.3/4,1977,pp.177-210

23H IS TORY ELDER S VAJ RĪP UTRA AN D BH ADRA

13th– 14thcentury,TibetGiltbronzewithturquoiseinlayandcoloredpigment17.0h×12.7w×9.0dcm

Provenance:CollectionDr.MarioFrydman,1970sAcquiredcirca1978

VAJRASATTVA

Vajrasattva'spaintedfaceshowshiminperfectandserenebliss,theeyespartiallyclosed,withtheirisestowardsthetop.Hisfacesubtlyaddscurvatureinmasterfulways,suchastheslightlypronouncedchinwithawidthspanninghalf themouthandtheslightrecessesatthecornersof thelipsthataccentuatesthefullnessof thecheeks.Thedesignof thenecklaceisparticularlyinteresting.Ithasthreejewelshangingfromit,thecentraljewelof whichhastheprominence–butnottheshape–of thetigerclawsthataretypicalof earlierNepalesebronzes.Thesecondnecklacehasanasymmetry,placingthreejewelsinthemiddleof therightsidestrand,butnottheleft.Regardingthejewelrymoregenerally,thereisaclearresonancewiththeelongateddiamondmotifscommonlyfeaturedinearlypaintingsandsculpture.Thecrownisextendedinthebackwithasingleprong.Theshapeof thebellisinteresting,asithasanalmostflatcylindricalbarrel,butendswithpronouncedcurvedends.Onthewhole,itisevidentthatthisbronzeisrichinstylisticfeaturesfromthe13thcentury.

Asforthegarments,thereisaninscribedbandextendingacrossthechestonthefrontandback,afeaturesometimesseeninbronzesof thisperiod.Insomeearlypaintings,thecushionsonwhichBuddhasandBodhisattvasareseatedhaveslightindentationsnearthearms.Thisbronzedisplaysasensitivitytowardsthis,asthescarf flowsinwardsinapronouncedfashionbywrappingaroundthe

elbow,beforefallingbackouttowardstheknee.Thecastlotusbasehasbeenintentionallylimitedtothefrontfaceonly,infavorof renderingthelotuswithaninscribedpatternprevalentin12th–13thcenturypaintings.

Thepatterningonthedhotialsoshowsthiscomplementaryusageof castingandinscribing.Therenderingof thefirstsixfoldsof thedhotialternatesbetweencastedandinscribedfolds,withaninscribedfloralmotif withineachfold.Thereafter,theremainingfoldsareinscribed,andthefloralmotifsbecomeeitherframedbydiamondsorpartitionedbyavegetalscroll.

Thevajrainthelotusseatisarareandattractivefeatureof thebronze.Inthelotusseat,complementingthecastvajraareinscribedflowerswrappedinvegetalscroll.Thevegetalscrollendsadjacenttothescarf,finishedwiththesameflairasthetipsof theinscribedlotusontheback.

24 PURITYVAJ RASATTVA

25

KĀLACAKRA

Firsthalf of the18thCentury,CentralTibet64.5h×43.2wcmDistemperoncloth

Provenance:PrivateEuropeanCollectionAcquired2018

Innameandcontent,theKālacakraTantraevokesandinvokesthemesof cosmologyandhistoryonscalesrangingfromthepersonaltouniversal.Aglanceatitsmaṇḍala1givesindicationof thescopeof itsambitions.Instarkcontrasttotheminiaturizeddepictionof thedeityinthemaṇḍala,hereintheimageof Kālacakradominatesthecompositionandisrenderedwithanaestheticsophisticationinfullbloom.

Thispaintingbelongstoawell-knownsetof paintings,designedintheNewMenristyle,andbasedontheSecretBiographyof the7thDalaiLama.Acompletedescriptioncanbefoundinlastyear'sexhibitioncatalog,Technologies of Self 2.Thesetof paintings,resonatingwiththemesintheKālacakraTantra,relatestoanintentionalactof projectingpoliticalandreligiousauthority.Inthenarrativeof thispaintingset,the7thDalaiLamasetsoutonajourneytothe24sacredpilgrimagesitesof Buddhism,asaprerequisiteforperfectingthemeditationaltechniquesof theCakrasaṃvaraTantra.Thescenesaroundthecentralfigureinthispaintingdepicthimvisitingeightof thesesites.

ThedeityKālacakrasymbolizestransience,ascommunicatedthroughthelanguageof changeandtime,andhisconsortViśvamātārepresentsthatwhichtranscendsbondagetotime.Thisjuxtapositionbetweentransienceandtimelessness,tangibleandintangible,isbroughtintorelief byaparticularcompositionalelementusedtogreateffectinthissetof paintings.Thecentralfigureisdepictedasthevisualizationof atantricpractitioner(the7thDalaiLama)below,asindicatedbyemergenceof thedeityfromtherainbowcoloredraysof light.Itcanbereadtomeanthateventhemosttangibleandcompellingof imagesareconstructedwithinthemind'seye.Inoneof thepaintingshangingadjacenttothisone,thistantricpractitionerisbedepictedasthecentralfigure.Andintheotherone,thecentralfigureisaKingof Śambhalawithscenesfromthefinalbattledepictedallaround:thecontentof thatpaintingisvisualizedbasedonthetextof theKālacakra,andhasthedeityinitsupperrightencircledinrainbowlight.

Aninterestingwayof engagingwiththispaintingwouldbetoimaginebeingteleportedtothevariousplacesdepicted.Thesweetaromaof freshfruitcarriedbyagentlebreeze,complementedbyaclipperdrumroll.Cleanandpurewaterextractedfromtheripplingstreaminfrontof youquenchesyourthirstwithguzzlesthatleaveatrickleof dropletsfromthesideof yourmouth,rapidlyevaporatedbyupliftingwarmsunshine.Whetheritisthroughgazingatthecloudsfromtheterraceof amonasteryinthemountains,inthecooldampnessof asilentcaveretreat,ormarvelingatthebeautyandvitalityof wildlife,wearecapableof effervescentspiritsineachmundanemomentonceweconstructtheopportunityforit.

1 ForsomeexcellentKālacakramaṇḍalas,primarilyfromthe14thand15thcenturies,refertoHARItems8283,11547,55694,77199,88706,and99115.2 Jain,TarunKumar."Technologiesof Self".NavinKumarGallery,NewYork,March2019.https://navinkumar.com/2019_March_NK_Catalog.pdf

26 T IMEKĀLACH AKRA

27

14thcentury,TibetGiltbronzewithturquoiseinlay26.8h×20.8w×8.9dcm

Provenance:PrivateCollection,1970s|HAR70679

BUDDHAKAPALA

Asasubject,worksdepictingBuddhakapalaareextremelyrarethoughseveralexceptionalmaṇḍalasweremadeonaccountof itsinclusioninthecompletecycleof maṇḍalasof theVajravali.Thissculptureisaniconicdepictionof thesubject.Evidencedbythefacialphysiognomy,thejewelry,lotusbase,theinscribedpatterns,andotherstylisticelements,thispiecewasmadeinthe14thcenturyaccordingtothestyleprevalentatDensatilmonastery.AsbothBuddhakapalaandhisconsortarefoundinadancingposturewiththeirentireweightononeleg,itisparticularlydifficulttosculptabalancedworkof thisweightandsize.Thesculptorhasinnovativelyco-optedthelongflowinggarmentstypicalof Densatiltoprovideadditionalsupportforthepiece.

Foresotericsubjects,particularlylesscommonlyencounteredoneslikethepresentgiltbronzeof Buddhakapala,thesimplestquestionforavieweristoaskwhatitmeans!Unfortunately,mostanswers

onetendstofindareinaccessibleunlesstheviewerisadditionallywell-versedinphilosophyandmeditativepractice.Thesimplestwayof thinkingaboutthisdeityisthatitrepresentsaprocessof culmination,of bringingaprocesstofruition.

Forthosewithmoderatefamiliarity,Buddhakapalacanbeunderstoodthroughitsrelationtoamorefamousesotericdeity,Cakrasaṃvara.CakrasaṃvararepresentsanadvancedmeditationpracticeoftencalledtheGenerationStage.Buddhakapalarepresentsthenextstagethereafter,theCompletionStage.TherelationshipbetweenCakrasaṃvaraandBuddhakapala,emergentfromahierarchicalorderingof meditativepractices,hasbeenwelldescribedbyDinaBangdelandJohnC.Huntingtonintheirexcellentpublication,Circle of Bliss1.

1 Huntington,JohnC.andBangdel,Dina."TheCircleof Bliss:BuddhistMeditationalArt".SerindiaPublications,2003.

28 CULMINATIONBUDDH AKAPALA

29

DECHEN GYALMO

Secondhalf of the19thcentury,EasternTibetDistemperoncloth66.6h×47.8wcm

Provenance:Sotheby's,NewYork.September21,2001

DechenGyalmo,translatedasQueenof Bliss,isawisdomḍākinīintheDzogchentraditionfoundwithinagroupof revealedtextscalledtheLongchen Nyingtik.Inthe14thcentury,variouslineagesof theNyingtiktraditions,includingtwothatcametoTibetinthe9thcenturythroughVimalamitraandPadmasambhava,werecompiledbyoneof thegreatestNyingmamasters,LongchenRabjam(1308–1364).YettheLongchen Nyingtik itself wasrevealedin1757byJikméLingpawhowrotethetexttoconsolidatepriorversionsandnameditaftertheteacherwhosemindhepracticedguruyogatoapprehend.

DechenGyalmoisoneof theprinciplemeditationalfiguresintheLongchen Nyingtik.Sheisconsideredadeifiedformof YesheTsogyal,whowasatantricpractitionerandawifeof Padmasambhava.Herein,sheisaccompaniedbyfourattendantḍākinīs,allof whomholdadrum,skullcup,andkatvangas,familiarinconfigurationtotheretinueof aVajrayoginimaṇḍala.

Atthetoprightisalayteacher,wearingawhiterobesandpaṇḍitahat,holdingalong-lifevaseinhislapandlotusstemssupportingaswordandbell,withavajrafastenedinhisbelt.ThisteacherislikelytobeChoggyurLingpa(1829–1870).Ontheviewer'sleftisafigurewearingatreasurerevealer'slotushat,holdingadharmawheelinhislapandlotusstemssupportingasword,book,andwish-fulfillingjewel,withavajrainhisbelt.ThisfigureislikelytobeJamyangKhyentseWangpo,consideredanemanationof Mañjuśrīandtheonlyoneof fiveTertönKingsthatlivedafterJikméLingpa.Thecompositionof figuresontheflatlandscapeforegroundissuggestiveof anEasternTibetanoriginforthework1.

1 Formoreinformationregardingregionalstylesof Tibetanpaintingsinthe17thto20thcenturies,referto:Jackson,David."PlaceandProvenance:RegionalStylesinTibetanPainting".RubinMuseumof Art,2012.Whilethelandscapeandtreatmentof figuresissimilartoaKhamrivariantof theKarmaGadriinthe19thcentury,thecloudmorphologyismoretypicalof Amdo.Additionalstudyisneededbeforefurtherdifferentiationismadeinitsplaceof production.

p1 d2 d1 d3 p2 p1 JamyangKhyentseWangpo p2 ChoggyurLingpa

d4 d1 Samantabhadra d2 WhiteAmitayus(HAR52950130)

g2 g3 d3 Hayagrīva(HAR52950207) d4 WhiteTara

d5 d6 d5 Vajravarahi d6 Simhamukha

C d7 PaldenLhamo d8 Sitatapatra(HAR52950160)

g1 g4 d9 LhaChenpoandConsort(HAR53653142)withGanesh

d7 d8 d10 RedJambhalaandConsort(HAR53653131)withYellowJambhala

d9 d10 d11 Vaishravana g1-4 Fourattendantḍākinīs

d11 g5-8 Fourgoddesses

g5 g6 g7 g8 Theinitiationcards(tsakali)producedfortheRinchenTerdzöhasfacilitatedidentificationof severalsecondarydeitieswithnon-standardiconographicdepictions.

30 BLISSDECH EN GYALMO

PriortoitsincorporationintoBuddhisttraditions,HayagrīvaexistedastwoseparateentitiesintheVedas.Theassimilationsof deitiesandiconographicelementsisaleitmotif intheVajrayānavehicleof Buddhism.Hayagrīvaisanearlywrathfuldeities(krodha vigñantaka),andexistedasayakshaforAvalokiteśvara1.Bythetimeof thefirstdiffusionof BuddhismtoTibethisstatuswasequivalenttothatof aWisdomKing,andismostcommonlydepictedinavarioussix-armedforms.Thisparticularworkisexceptionalforitsvolume,power,andpresence.Two-armedformsof Hayagrīvaoftenpresentamoderationbetweentheroyalandwrathful,temperingwrathfulelementswithornamentationinthecrownandjewelry.Suchisthecaseinthiswork.Notethedelineationof thenose,thelargeandopenearrings.Eachof thefive-prongsof thecrownbeginswithaskull,followedbylargeandprominentlotusbuds,fromwhichthejewelryemerges.Thecentralelementof thecrownextendsthelotustothediagonalinterstitialsonthetopaswell.

1 RobLinrothe,"RuthlessCompassion"Shambhala,1999.ThebookdocumentsvariousliteratureandearlysculpturalworksfromIndiadepictingHayagrīvaasanattendanttoAvalokiteśvara.

13thcentury17.5h×13.3w×5.5dcmGiltbronzewithorangepaint

Provenance:PrivateCollection,LondonShirleyDayLtd,London,2006|MarcelNiesOrientalArt,Antwerp,2006Bonhams,2018:TheMaitriCollectionof Indian,Himalayan&SoutheastAsianArt

HAYAGRĪVA

32 SPEECHH AYAGRĪVA

33

Thisformof Hayagrīva,theLiberatorfromArrogantOnes(rta mgrin dregs pa kun sgrol),hastherareprivilegeof havingbeenlostandre-discoveredtwice.AccordingtoitsmostrecentdiscoverybyJamyangKhyentseWangpointhe19thcentury,thetextwasoriginallydiscoveredbyaTertönnamedDruguYangwang(gru gu yang dbang)inthe12thcenturyintheParo(spa gro)valleyinBhutan.Accordingtoaprayerforthisdeity,thelineageissaidtohaveoriginatedintheancientIndianKingdomcalledUddiyanaandpassedtoTibetthroughPadmasambhava,KingTrisongDetsen,andtheTranslatorVairocana,beforeitsdiscoverybyDruguYangwang.1NumeroustextswerediscoveredinBhutaninthe11th–13thcenturiesincludingbyotherimportantNyingmateachers,suchasNyangralNyimaӦzerandGuruChowang2,3.

Thispaintingisoneof themasterpiecesof Buddhistart,andoneof themostpowerfulimagesof awrathfuldeitytohaveemergedinTibetanpaintinginthe11thto13thcenturies.Itisof extraordinaryrarityinartistry,subject,condition,andperiod.Greatdetailhasbeenplacedoneachaspectof thework,asseen,forexample,inthesublimeecstaticexpressionsof Hayagrīvaandhisconsort,thearticulationof thejewelryandhand-gestures(mudrā),thedepictionof theeightNāgaKingsandtherespectiveanimalmessengersbelowthefeet,energeticarticulationof themudrās,andtheuncommonlyexpressivevegetalscrollinthelotuspetals.

Inthefirstpartof thiswriteup,there-discoveredtextwillbeusedtoidentifythenamesof thedeitiesinthepainting,whichincludesthe5Tathāgathas,the5Herukas(WisdomKings),the4WrathfulKingswithconsorts,10Wrathfuls,and4FemaleGuardians.Thesecondparttakesafreshlookatpreviousresearchonthesecondarydeitiespresentinworksof Drigungprovenanceinthe13thcentury,withthegoalof understandingwhatpatternsprovidereasonablebasisforattributioninsteadof beingmerelysuggestive.Theanalysisprovidesanon-trivialresult:thepaintingcanbeattributedtoaDrigungprovenancewithareasonabledegreeof confidence.

Theinnermostassemblyof themaṇḍala,specifiedinthetext4,consistsof fourWrathfulKings(khro rgyal),Vajrakīlayaholdingadagger,Yamāntakaholdingasword,Vajrapaṇiholdingavajra,and1 There-discoveredtext,asproducedintheRinchenTerdzo,Volume25,Pages737-738,Folios1a1to1b3(http://rtz.tsadra.org/index.php/Terdzo-RA-035)listseightteachersinthelineagesupplication,specifically,(1)o rgyan grub pa'i rgyal po(2)Maharaja,scholarof Uddiyana(3)Prabhahasti(4)PrincessGomadevi(5)Padmasambhava(6)TrisongDetsen(7)TranslatorVairocana(8)DruguYangwang

2 Gyaltsen,Dorji.“EarlyBookProductionandPrintinginBhutan.”TibetanPrinting:Comparison,Continuities,andChange,editedbyHildegardDiembergeretal.,Brill,LEIDEN;BOSTON,2016,pp.369–393.JSTOR,www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctt1w8h246.21.Accessed1Feb.2020.

3 NyangralNyimaOzerisspecificallychosenherebecauseseveral14thcenturypaintingsweremadebasedontextshediscovered(seeaHayagrīvaMandala[HARItem30911]andaChemchogHerukaMandala[HARItem89981]).

4 Seethere-discoveredtext,asproducedintheRinchenTerdzo,Volume25,Pages737-738,Folios1a1to1b3(http://rtz.tsadra.org/index.php/Terdzo-RA-035)listseightteachersinthelineagesupplication,specifically,

HAYAGRĪVA, LIBERATOR FROM ARROGANT ONES

13thcentury,TibetDistemperonCloth63.5h×52.7w

Published and ExhibitedDemonic Divine.JeffWattandRobLinrothe,RubinMuseumof Art,2004

34 ARROGANCEH AYAGRĪVA

35

Mahākālaholdingaskullcup,ineachof thefourcardinaldirections.Theyareaccompaniedbytheirconsorts,thefourḍākinīs(mkha 'gro)namedDudulma(bdud 'dul ma,holdingavajra),RatnaNgodrubPel(dngos grub dpal,holdingajewel),PadmaDroDechenma('gro bde chen ma, holdingalotusflower),andKarmaTrinledag(phrin las bdag,holdingaskullcup).Thecolorof eachḍākinīdeterminestheTathāgatafamilytowhichtheybelong,withwhitebeingusedforthedirectionEastinsteadof bluefortheVajrafamily.

ThenextthreefigurescanbefoundjustaboveHayagrīva'stidyflamingorangehair.TheyarethethreeGarudaKings,specifiedinthetextbytheTibetanmkha' lding rgyal po bya khyung ka ru na.Theyaredepictedwiththreeprongedcrowns,goldjewelryonthewristsandarmsoutlinedincrimson,andwithwhitefortheeyes,andawhitelinetorepresentasnakeinitsadamantinelips(rdo rje mchu).Theblackoutlinesof thesefiguresmakethedetailsof theblueGarudaparticularlydifficulttosee,thoughmacrophotographyconfirmsthatthefeaturesarefullyintactdespitetheirminiaturizesize.

Theversoof thepaintingisinscribedwithaninscriptionwritteninredinkinsideagoldoutlinedstupa.Theinscriptionbeginswithalistof deitiesnamedinsuccession,Hayagrīva(ha ya gri ba)andhisconsortPadmaKrodeśwari(pad ma kro te sho ri),Vajrapāṇi(badz+ra pa ni),Vajrakila(badz+ra ki la ki la ya),Mahākāla(ma ha ka la ya ka sha),andYamāntaka(ya man ta ka kala rupa).Thenextphrasesintheinscriptionaremantras:

karma raM ram zala raM zala raM huM phatoM karuna tsa le tsa le huM phat

Thoughnotanexactmatch,thesemantrasareverycloselyrelatedtomantrasfoundinthetextualsourceforthefourWrathfulKings(karma raM raM dzwa la raM huM)andfortheThreeGarudaKings(khro ka ru na tsa le tsa le huM).Intheremainderof theinscription,theabovephrasesarerepeated,andthenfollowedbytwocopiesof thewell-knownye dharma he tumantra5.

Next,thetextlistsasetof TenWrathfuls(khro bo,11–20)similartothelistintheHevajraTantra6withṬakkirājareplacedwithTrailokavijaya.Inthispainting,andintheinitiationcards(tsakali)7createdfromthe19thcenturytext,allof thetendeitiesaredepictedwiththesameiconography,whiteincolorandholdingavajra.Nonetheless,thedeitiesinthepaintingcanassignednamedbasedontheirorderinthetext,startinginthebottom-left(East),andfollowingaclockwiseorder.Doingso,thefifthdeitywouldbeHayagrīva,andinthepainting,thefifthdeityistheonlyonethatisiconographicallydifferentiatedwiththeadditionof hisiconichorsehead.Inthetext,andconfirmediconographically,thelastfourdeitiesof theretinuearethefemaleGateGuardians(sgo ma),namelyAnkuśa,Paśa,Sphota,andGhanta.

Inthesecondrowfromthetoparetwogroupsof fivedeities:thewellknownFiveGreatBuddhas(Tathāgatas),andFiveHerukas(WisdomKings).Neitherof thesegroupsarepartof themaṇḍala,butarenamedinthetext.Thisreadingof themaṇḍalaisconfirmedbythe2016drawingmadebyDzongsarKhyentseRinpoche(recognizedasthethirdincarnationof JamyangKhyentseWangpo),whichincludesonly24deities8.Thenamesof theFiveHerukasaredifferentiatedbasedontheirfamilynameandthe

5 I'dliketothankKarmaGelekforprovidingatranscriptionof theTibetanscriptinthestupa.6 Watt,Jeff."BuddhistDeity:TenWrathfulOnes(Prints)".HimalayanArtResources.https://www.himalayanart.org/search/set.cfm?setID=449.Updated12-2019.Accessed2-2020.

7 "Terdzo-RA-048".RinchenTerdzo.AccessedFeb1,2020.http://rtz.tsadra.org/index.php/Terdzo-RA-048#tab=Tsagli8 "Terdzo-RA-048".RinchenTerdzo.AccessedFeb1,2020.http://rtz.tsadra.org/index.php/Terdzo-RA-048#tab=Mandalas

36 H AYAGRĪVA ARROGANCE

7.bdud 'dul maVajrakrodeśvari(SE)

8.dngos grub dpalRatnakrodeśvari(SW)

9.'gro bde chen maPadmakhrodeśvari(NW)

10.phrin las bdagKarmakhrodeśvari(NE)

Four Dakini Consorts

Four WrathFul kings

3.Vajrakila(E) 4.Yamantaka(S) 5.Vajrapani(W) 6.Mahakala(N)

the ten WrathFul guarDians

11.Cakravartin 12.Nīladaṇḍa 13.Yamāntaka 14.Acalā 15.Hayagrīva

16.Trailokyavijayā 17.Amṛtakuṇḍalin 18.Aparājitā 19.Hūṃkāra 20.Mahābalā

the Four DireCtional guarDians

21.Aṅkuśī(E) 22.Pāśa(S) 23.Sphoṭā(W) 24.Ghaṇṭā(N)

aspectof enlightenmenttheyreferto(body[sku],speech[gsung],mind[thugs],qualities[yon tan], action[phrin las]).Onthewhole,Ithinkitwouldbebesttonamethesefiguresaccordingtothetext(i.e.gsung mchog padma heruka=EnlightenedSpeechPadmaHeruka).Accordingtotheinitiationcards9,theFiveHerukasholdawheelof dharma(Buddhafamily),alotusflower(Padmafamily),avajra(Vajrafamily),thethreejewels(Ratnafamily),andaviśva-vajra(Karmafamily).

Theclosestpaintingtothissubject–thoughnotinstyleorquality–isanearlypaintingof HayagrīvaattheRubinMuseumof Art(HAR65262).Itscentralfigurereplicatestheiconographyof theritualimplements(sixarms,holdingvajrahammersintheproperrighthandsandaflamesemergingfromtheindexfingerof theproperlefthands).However,theglaringdifferencesareincolorof Hayagrīva(blueinsteadof maroon)andthepresenceof anotherwrathfuldeityattheheartcenter.Giventhecompellingsimilarities,thedifferencesarequiteconfusing.ThepaintingappearstodepictHayagrīva'sconsort,fourwrathfulkings,sixof thetenwrathfuls,andfourḍākinīconsortsinthesideandbottomregisters.Themantraonthebackappearstobeanabbreviatedlistingof theinnerretinueof HayagrīvaandtheFourWrathfulKings10.

Fromlefttoright,theeighthistoricalfiguresinitstopmostrowincludeDruguYangwang,fiveteacherswearingredheaddress,andtwomonasticTibetanteachers.Thefivefigureswithredheaddresswearredandgreenrobesthatareboundaroundtheirslimwaistbyawidegoldbelt.ThisisnotusualforIndianpaṇḍitasorTibetanteachers.Furthermore,regardingtheredheaddress,thoughtheoverallshape

9 "Terdzo-RA-048".RinchenTerdzo.AccessedFeb1,2020.http://rtz.tsadra.org/index.php/Terdzo-RA-048#tab=Tsagli10 Themantrareadsasfollows,withmissingpiecesaddedinparentheses(missing):oM ha yang 'gri ba pad ma kro ti sho ri | ba+dzra ki la ya | ma ha (ka la) yag k+sha | (ya

man ta ka) ka la ru pa | kar ma ram ram dza la ram huM huM |

22 p6 p5 p3 p1 p2 p4 p7 p8 23

d9 d8 d6 d7 d10 d2 d3 d1 d4 d5

15 1a 1b 1c 16

14 4 8 9 5 17

13 71+2

10 18

12 19

11 3 6 20

21 24

d12 d13 d14 d15 d14 d14 d16 d17

d11 d18 d19 d20 d21 d22 d23 d24

MaṇḍalaAssembly(1–24) 5Herukas(WisdomKings,d6–d10) TransmissionLineage(p1–p8)

4WrathfulKingsw/consorts 5Tathāgathas(GreatBuddhas,d1–d5) BottomRegisterDeities(d11–d24)

10Wrathfuls Deitiesusedtocreatetestset

4FemaleGuardians

38 H AYAGRĪVA ARROGANCE

The Five TaThāgaTas

d2Akṣobhya(E) d3Ratnasambhava(S) d1Vairocana(C) d4Amitābha(W) d5Amoghasiddhi(N)

the Five herukas d9RatnaHerukaThreeJewels

d8VajraHerukaVajra

d6BuddhaHerukaWheelof Dharma

d7PadmaHerukaLotusFlower

d10KarmaHerukaViśva-vajra

the Five kings

HAR5980316thcentury?

HAR101501~13thcentury

LhasaUndated

Thiswork13thcentury

HAR27112thcentury

HAR5161617thcentury

HAR916817thcentury

39H AYAGRĪVAARR OGANCE

resemblesapaṇḍitahat,ithasaholeatthetop.Fromtheholeintheheaddressemergesablacktuftof hair.Ihavefoundnoteacherswiththisdesignforahat,whetherIndianPaṇḍita,Nyingmarigs 'dzin,orotherwise.

Analternateexplanationforthisheaddressisthatitisnotahat,buttheturbanof aking.TheTibetanKing,SongtsenGampowasconsideredanemanationof Avalokiteśvara,andistypicallyrenderedwitharedhead(of Amitābha)emergingfromthecenterof theturban.Earlysculpturalof theSongtsenGampodepicthisturbanasslightlytaperedcylinderswithsimplehorizontalstriations.Renderingof theturbanwithnaturalisticfoldsandsuperimposedwithacrownisalaterdevelopment,usuallynotseenpriortothe14thcentury.Thesuggestionhereisthattheartisthasadoptedthedepictionof SongtsenGampoasthearchetypaldepictionof aKinginthispainting.SincethelineagefiguresaretoosmalltodrawAmitābha'sface,onlyhishairisdepictedemergingoutof theredturban.Adoptionof thisarchetypaldepictionensuresthatthesefigureswillnotbemistakenforapaṇḍita,rigs 'dzin,orSakyateacher.Oneof thekingswouldbeSongtsenGampo,asitishisiconographicconventionthatdefinesthearchetypaldepiction.AndthelastkinginthelineageismostlikelyTrisongDetsen,asDruguYangwangisconsideredanemanationof his,andTrisongDetsenisalsolistedinthetransmissionlineageforthistext.Theidentityof theotherthreekingsarenotknown.

ThelasttwofiguresareTibetanmonasticteachersthataredepictedwiththevolumeandpresenceassociatedwithKagyu(possiblyDrigungKagyu)teachers.Thisdetailislikelynotacoincidence,aswillbeseenfromtheanalysisof bottomregisterfigures.Likely,thefirstmonasticTibetanteacherwouldbethefirstKagyuteachertohavereceivedtheteaching.ThisteachercouldverywellhavereceivedtheteachingdirectlyfromDruguYangwang,thoughthisisnotcertain.Beforeitisconcludedonastatisticalbasis,itisrelevanttonoteonesignificantstylisticsimilaritieswithDrigungKagyuart.EarlyDrigungpaintingsoftendepicttwoNāgaKingsinhumanoidform,holdingupthethrone,oneoneitherside11. TheartistherehasplacedEightNāgaKingsunderHayagrīva'sfeetasperHayagrīva'siconography,buthastakenthelibertytogivethemhumanfacesandarms,andtoextendtheirformtowardsanerectstandingposition.

11 Jackson,DavidP."PaintingTraditionsof theDrigungKagyuSchool"RubinMuseumof Art,NewYork,2014.

Left: Macrophotographof PadmaKrodeśvari'sjewelry.Theoutlineisdoneincrimsonandrevealsamoreelaboratepatternthanindicatedbythegemstonesandtheirgoldsettings.Inthecornersof thesquarepatternarelotuspetals.Further,onthesides,thesquarepatternhasthreelotuspetalsbeforethefinalgemstone.

Opposite Page: PadmaKrodeśvariwearsabeltstuddedwithlonghorizontalgem-stones.Fouradjacentloopstructureshangfromthebelt.Eachloopstructurehasaninnerandouterloopof jewelrywithagroupof fourgemstonesintercedingatthemidpoint.Twostrandsof jewelryhangdownfromthebeltintotheinteriorof theinnerloop,andeachof thesestrandscontainonlyasinglegemattheirterminus.Intheinterstitialsbetweentheloopsisasinglestrandthatbranchesintothreestrands.

40 ARROGANCEH AYAGRĪVA

Withthecurrentmaturityof modernscholarshipinTibetanart,itisnowpossibletousestatisticsoncarefullyconstructeddatasetstogainnewinsights.Indoingso,however,oneshouldbesensitivetoassumptionsbakedintothedefinitionof thecontrolsets.Inthiscase,thecontrolsetwillbechosenasthesetof paintingsthathavebeenpreviouslyidentifiedasoriginatingfromaDrigunglineage,TheworksmostsecurelyattributabletoDrigungoriginarethefourpaintingsof CakrasaṃvarawithJigtenSumgön'sfootprints.BasedonaparticularpatterninwhichŚākyamuniBuddhaandtheEightGreatAdepts,severalotherworkswereidentifiedasbelongingtotheDrigungschool12.ItshouldbeexplicitlynotedthatwhilethisarrangementŚākyamuniBuddhaandtheGreatAdeptscanbeusedtoattributeaworkasDrigung,thenegationof thisstatementisinvalidasabasisforinference.Inotherwords,theabsenceof thisgroupdoesnotimplytheworkisnotof Drigungorigin.

Thequestionframedhereiswhetherthereisameaningfulwayof identifyingworksof Drigungoriginbasedonthepatternof deitiesinthebottomregister,orwhetherthesedeitiescanonlybesuggestiveof Drigungorigin.Inparticular,onecommonalitythathasbeennotedisthatCaturbhujaMahākālaandŚrīdēvīarepresentinthecornersof thebottomregisterinmanyof theseDrigungworks,andinbetweenthemtendstobeacommongroupof deities,namelyGanesh,Hayagrīva,Vajrapāṇi,andCakravartin.Sotobegin,around150to200worksfromthe12th,13th,andearly14thwereexamined,andalistwithbothCaturbhujaMahākālaandŚrīdēvīintheregisterswascompiled,resultinginatotalof 17paintingsmatchingthissimplecriterion.

Inonly3of the17paintings,MahākālaandŚrīdēvīarenotinthecornersof thebottomregister.Asoneof thesepaintingsisaTaklungmaṇḍalaof ChemchokHeruka,andanotheraportraitfromtheYazangKagyusect,itisimmediatelyclearthatonecannotattributeaworktotheDrigungschoolbasedontheirpresencealone.Of theremaining14workswithMahākālaandŚrīdēvīinthecorners,12arealreadyof previouslyconfirmedDrigungorigin.ThetworemainingworksareaHayagrīvaMaṇḍalabasedonaNyingmatext(theworkitself possiblyof TaklungorKarmaKagyuorigin),andasmallpaintingof ŚākyamuniBuddhawithnolineagefiguresandonlyfourdeitiesinthebottomregister.TherainbownimbusintheBuddhapaintingissuggestiveof Drigungprovenance,butnothingdefinitivecanbesaid.

12 Jackson,DavidP."PaintingTraditionsof theDrigungKagyuSchool"RubinMuseumof Art,NewYork,2014.

41ARROGANCE H AYAGRĪVA

Thus,thetwodeitiesinthecornersarestrongindicatorsof Drigungorigin(12/14),butbyitself isnotsufficientforattribution.

Thenextquestioniswhetherthereissomeminimumcombinationof thefouradditionaldeities,Ganesh,Hayagrīva,Vajrapāṇi,andCakravartin,thatcanprovidedefinitiveattributiontoDrigung.Whilethepresenceof allfourwouldcertainlyprovideadefinitiveattribution,thisisnotanexampleof aminimalcombination.Theresult,forexample,usingasarequirementthepresenceof allfoursecondarydeitiesmissestwopaintingsthatexcludeGaneshbutareof confirmedDrigungprovenance.Thisexampleisalsoevidenceof whytheabsenceof anydeitiesshouldnotbeusedtoinferthenegativeof thepropositionthatisbeingexamined.Onefindsthat,havingfirstfilteredthedatasetbypaintingswithMahākālaandŚrīdēvīinthecorners,theadditionof justasingleoneof thefourdeitiesisaccordingtothedatasetenoughtoconcludeDrigungorigin.Addinganyfurtherdeitiesmakestheconclusionstronger.Inthisinstance,thepresentpaintinghastwoof thefour,namelyVajrapāṇiandGanesh.However,thepaintingalsoraisesthequestionof howexactlyshouldthepresenceof thedeitiesbecounted.Theostensiblymissingdeities,HayagrīvaandCakravartin,arenotinthebottomregister,buttheyareinthepainting,depictedastwoof the10wrathfuls.Soinanalternateinterpretation,thepaintingindeedhasallof thefourstandardsecondaryDrigungdeities.Followingthestandardfour,thenextmostcommondeitiesfoundinthebottomregisterareAcala(foundin8/12of theDrigungpaintingsinthisset),andaTara(foundin5/12)13.Thispaintinghasboth.Itbearsrepeatingthatthisanalysisof theadditionalfigurestakesplaceafterfilteringthedatasetbythepresenceof CaturbhujaMahākālaandŚrīdēvīinopposingcorners,andthusthestatementsabouttheadditionalbottomregisterdeitiesareconditionalonthis.

Overall,theanalysisindicatesthatthepaintingcanbeattributedtoaDrigungprovenancewithafairdegreeof certainty.Thisresultisnotatallobvious,anditisafascinatingresult.Itraisesthequestionof howtheteachingenteredintotheDrigunglineage.Abrief biographyonDruguYangwang,indicatesthathewasbornsomewhereinDokham(mdo 'khams),anddiscoveredatextatDrakmar(brag dmar),asiteassociatedwithTrisongDetsen.Thereafter,hediscoveredthetextforthispaintingatspa gro,animportantlocationinBhutan.ClearlyDruguYangwangtraveledthroughTibet,thoughitisunclearhowlonghestayedatParothereafter.Onetext,inmentioningDruguYangwang,discusseshimincontextof agroupof treasurerevealersactiveinBhutanbetween1147and126614,therebyplacinghiminthe2ndhalf the12thcentury.

Againstthistimeline,JigtenSumgön,bornin1147,foundedDrigungin1166.ThismeansthatthereisapossibilitythatDruguYangwangdirectlytransmittedthisteachingtooneof thefirstfewDrigunghierarchs.IthasbeennotedthatNyingmarelateddeitiesfeatureprominentlyinthemuralsatZangskar.DavidJacksonhasconvincinglyelucidatedhowteachingsof thefirstdiffusionof Buddhism,normallyassociatedwithPadmasambhavaandtheNyingmaschool,weretransmittedtoJigtenSumgön,fromSachenKungaNyingpothroughPhagmodrupa15.IthasbeenrecordedthatJigtenSumgönheldtheseteachingsinhighregards.TheconnectionbetweenJigtenSumgönandNyingmateachingsrevealsthattherewouldhavebeenareceptivenessforteachingsof thiskind.Thisreceptivenesscouldhavebeeninheritedbysucceedingabbotsof Drigung.

13 CakrasaṃvaraandVajravarahihavebeenexcludedbecausethedata-setisskewedbytheirpresenceascentralfiguresinthefourpaintingswithJigtenSumgön'sfootprints.

14 Baruah,Bibhuti."BuddhistSectsandSectarianism"SarupandSons,NewDelhi,2000.Page24015 Jackson,DavidP."PaintingTraditionsof theDrigungKagyuSchool"RubinMuseumof Art,NewYork,2014.

42 ARROGANCEH AYAGRĪVA

ThepossibilitythatDruguYangwangtaughtthisformof HayagrīvatoPhagmodrupa,andthatitwasthenpassedontoJigtenSumgöncannotberuledoutbasedonthedateseither.However,if thefirstteacherweretobePhagmodrupa,andthesecondJigtenSumgön,itwouldsuggestthatthepaintingwasmadeinthefirstquarterof the13thcentury.Whilethepaintingiscanveryreasonablybeconsidereda13th centurywork,therearefewcomparableworkslikethisonefromthefirstquarterof the13thcentury.

Thepaintingasawholeindicatesarigorandprecisionthatmakesabbreviationof thetransmissionlineageratherunlikely.Atthelatest,thefirstmonasticfigureinthelineagewasprobablyastudentof JigtenSumgön,activeintheperiod1160–1200.Giventhatthereisonlyonesubsequentteacherinthelineage,itwouldbereasonabletoconcludethepaintingwasmadesometimeinthemid-13thcentury.Itshouldbenotedthatdatingtheworkonstylisticbasisisespeciallychallenginggiventhatotherearlypaintingsof wrathfuldeitiesarethemselvesdatedonastylisticbasiswithoutanyconfirmingepigraphicorlineageevidence.Furthermore,scholarshiphastobeverycarefulaboutthelogicalbasisof claims.Thatcertainstylisticmotifsaremostcommonlyassociatedwithaparticularperiodinhistorydoesnotmeanthatexamplesusingthesamestylisticmotifsarenotfoundinearlierperiods.Therelevantquestionforstylisticanalysisisdatingthefirstinstancethatamotif isusedin,orthefirstinstanceinwhichaparticulargroupingof motifsareusedin.

Table1:TabulateddataonpaintingsthatcontainCaturbhujaMahākālaandŚrīdēvīinthebottomregisterfromthe12th,13th,andearly14thcenturies.

Subject HAR Period Mahakala4Armed

Śrīdēvī Ganesh Hayagrīva KrodaVajrapāṇi

Cakra-vartin

Tara Acala Cakra-saṃvara

Vajra-varahi

Thispainting ✓ ✓ ✓ ~ ✓ ~ ✓g ✓w

Chakrasamvara 81410 ~1210 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓r ✓ ✓ ✓

Chakrasamvara 99622 ~1210 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Chakrasamvara 58301 ~1210 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓r ✓ ✓ ✓

Chakrasamvara 65205 ~1210 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Drigungteacher 101334 ~1220 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

JigtenSumgön DKFig.5.23

~1220 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓r ✓ ✓ ✓

Drigungteachers 19829 Q113th ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Dri+TakLamas 7847 ~1250 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Drigungteacher 92037 ~1250 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Lokeshvara DKFig11.30

~1285 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Drigungteacher 22395 ~1300 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓g ✓ ✓ ✓

Milarepa 65121 ~1300 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓g ✓

Hayagrīva 30911 ✓ ✓

Shakyamuni 32048 ✓ ✓ *Asthissmallpaintingonlyhas4figures,registeranalysisisnecessarilyinconclusive

HerukaMandala 89981 ✓* ✓* *Notincorners

Vajrapani 200494 ✓* ✓* *Notincorners

YazangChoje MoBFig.1.3

✓* ✓* *Notincorners

DK=Jackson,David."PaintingTraditionsof theDrigungKagyu".RubinMuseumof Art,NewYork,2015.

MoB=Jackson,David."Mirrorof theBuddha".RubinMuseumof Art,NewYork,2011.

43ARR OGANCE H AYAGRĪVA

Thisimageof Vajrapāṇidisplaysaprecisionof compositionalharmony,withtherhythmiccurvatureof fleshcomplementingthepowerfulandsweepinglinesof hisposture.Hisexpressionismenacing,andhisiconicvajraisfour-pronged,prominent,andvoluminous.Byeschewingjewelryonthewrists,arms,ankles,andneckinfavorof adornmentbycoiledserpents,thereisaclearintenttobringVajrapāṇi'srelationshipwithserpents(nāgas)totheforefront.Thisisreinforcedwiththeearringsactingasaresidenceforserpents,andemphasizedbyminimizingthecurlingof hairattheedgesof themouthandeliminatingcurlingintheeyebrowsandorangebeard.

Hishairisneatlyarrangedintoahairknotwithaserpenthair-tie,risingjustabovethecrownandcappedwithlotuspetalsandavajra.Fromthefront,asimplenecklacedrapesovertheneckintoaturquoise-studdedclaspatthechest,withasinglestrandhangingbelow.Fromtheback,thejewelryformsfourloopswithasquarishmorphology,withsingleshortstrandsof goldbeadsdecoratingtheinterstitials.Thetreatmentof thesefeaturessuggestsa15thcenturydatingforthework.

15thcentury,TibetGiltbronzewithturquoiseinlayandorangepigment18.9h×13.4w×10.1dcm

Provenance:PrivateEuropeanCollection,1970s

VAJRAPĀṆI

44 POWERVAJ RAP ĀṆI

45

Inthispainting,Mañjuśrīisseatedinhiscanonicaliconographicdepiction,orangeincolor,holdinglotusstemswithaswordandbookemergentoneitherside.Thebackof thethroneisshroudedbypinkclouds,withpairsof elephants,lions,birds,andchildrenhangingfromvegetalstemsamidstthescentof flowers.AGarudastandsjustaboveMañjuśrī'shalo,accompaniedbyamulti-coloredvegetalscroll.

SurroundingMañjuśrīarenarrativescenesdepictingalifestory,startingatthetopleftandmovingclockwise.Thescenesbeginbydepictingthebirthof theMañjuśrīemanation(1),hisfirstvisitbyamonk(2)andhisformativeeducation(3).Themajorityof thescenes(4–13),extendingfromthetoprightallthewaytothebottomleft,showtheMañjuśrīemanation'sextensiveeffortsinteachingothers.Thelasttwoscenesillustratehistimeteachingandadvisingatthecourtof aChineseEmperor.Whilehighlyesteemedteachersareoftengiventheiconographicattributesof Bodhisattva(usuallyMañjuśrī,Vajradhara,orVajrapāṇi),depictingateacherdirectlyasaBodhisattvaasseenhereisrare.

Basedontheheaddress,themonkdepictedinthelifestoryappearstobelongtotheSakyatradition,andthephraseces rkang pa bzhi thatendstheinscriptionof eachscenesuggestthatheisthe4thSakyahierarch,KungaGyeltsenPelZangpo,orcommonlyknownasSakyaPaṇḍita.HeisthemostfamousSakyateachertoberecognizedasanemanationof Mañjuśrī,andthetimehespentinthelastpartof hislifeatthecourtof GödanKhanisconsistentwiththeeventsinthepainting.

Priortothedevelopmentof theMenriandKhyenristylesinthe15thcentury,scenesof alifestorywouldbedepictedinsquaresorrectangles,arrangededgetoedge,thatwouldfilltheentirespacearoundthecentralfigure.Followingthe15thcentury,landscapeelementsweredepictedintwodifferentways.Onewastoenlargetheboxes(oftentothewholewidthof thepainting)whileincorporatinglandscapedirectlyintothedepictionof scenes,andtheotherwastoconverttheboxesintoarchitecturalelementsthatcouldbeseamlesslyincorporatedagloballandscapesharedacrosstheentirepainting.TheformerstyletypicallyhasmultiplescenesineachboxandresemblesthewayonewouldreadaChinesescrollpainting,readinghorizontallywitheachscenenaturallyfollowingthenextwithoutpartition.Thelatterstyleisalsoparticularlyelegantasthesharedlandscapecreatesmovementacrosshierarchicalpartition,andonecanswitcheasilybetweensceneswhilealsoappreciatingthefinerrenderingswithineachscene.

Thispaintingfallsintothelattertradition,of whichafewexistingexamplesareknown,includingonefascinatingpaintingof the3thKarmapacurrentlyinthecollectionof theHahnCulturalFoundation(HAR98847).Unlikethatwork,however,theforegroundof eachindividualsceneisnotrectangular.Instead,theartisthascreativelyuseddiagonalbalustradestocreateirregularanddynamicshapesfor

18thcentury,DegeDistemperoncloth70.5h×53.7w

Provenance:PrivateEuropeanCollectionKollerAuktionen,Zurich,1991

MAÑJUŚRĪ AND LIFE STORY OF SAKYA PAṆḌITA

46 WISDOMMAÑJ UŚRĪ

48

Wylie Transcription TBRC HistoricalNote

1 byangchubsemskyikludbangspyi'ibo'isteng

W23681 Compiledin19thcentury.Pre-existingSadhana

5 mi[r]nam[s]mi'gyurskyesb[u]nyishulnga"skyesbunyishulnga"

W4CZ5369 DergeKanjurCirca1733

8 srid______spyangpa

11 thabkyilamkyis'byungbzhirabtusbyapas'thabkyilam"[gyis]..."bzhinspyod"

W23703DegeTengyur

Producedin1737-1744

12 [r]toggenganpa'irgolbathamscadbzlog

W00EGS1017151 SakyaKumbumCollectedworksof first

fivehierarchs

15 bsampadagpa'i'dulbya'ga'zhiggis"bsampadagpa'i"

SakyaPaṇḍitaAClearDifferentiationof

theThreeCodes

16 shidmaspul_byal_______bzhi

All cesrkangpabzhi W23703 DegeTengyurProducedin1737-1744

1

MF

23 4

5 6

7

8

9

10

111213

14

15

16

theeventstakingplace.Suchdiagonalbalustradesarenotuncommon,butincontextof thiswork,itisrelevanttonotethatitisfoundinsomeKarmaGardripaintingsof the18thcentury,including,forexample,inthepaintingshowingthelifestoryof SharchenMingyurGyeltsen(HAR89906).Thatlifestoryisremarkableforitsuseof perspectiveandspace.

Onepainting,alifestoryof NgorchenKungaZangpo(HAR73300)bearssuchstrongresemblancetothepresentworkthatitisalmostcertainlybythesameartist.WhatissurprisingaboutthatpaintingisthatitwasfoundattheDegeGongchen:Degeisnotusuallyassociatedwithpaintingsof thisstyle.Atextualcross-referenceof theinscriptionsonthispaintingsupportsattributiontoDege,asinthreeinstances,theexactwordingof theinscriptionsarespecificallyfoundeitherinDegeeditionsof theTengyur(1737-1744)orKanjur(c.1733).Thus,theanalysisalsosuggestsaperiodforitsproductionof sometimeinthemid18thcenturyinDege.

Infact,duringthisspecificperiod,itisknownthatworkswerebeingcommissionedatDegeintheMenristyle,thoughfewof themhavecometolight.Mostlikely,thishasmoretodowithourabilitytorecognizeDegeastheplaceof originforworksof theMenristylebasedontheminorvariationsthatitsplaceof productionmightreflect.Thispainting,andtheworkof NgorchenKungaZangpotherefore,provideanchoringexamplesthatmayinformfutureattributions.Forexample,onecouldhypothesizeaDegeoriginforanotherpainting,HARItem65644,basedontheseobservations.

49W ISDOM MAÑJ UŚRĪ

Yama,knownastheLordof Death,isseenhereinaniconographicformthathasbeeninheritedfromtheVedas,holdingastick(daṇḍa)andridingabull.Despitedifferencesacrosstraditionsinhissignificanceandfunction,YamaisoftenfoundteachingthroughSocraticquestioning(forexample,KaṭhopaniṣadandtheMajjhimaNikāya).Theconceptof death,if notviewedwithinstinctualtrepidation,createsopportunitiestoreflectonwhatmakeslifemeaningfulwhenviewedinhindsight.Inthemirror,areflectiononpastexperiencebecomesaguideforactionsinthefuture.

Thissculptureisparticularlyspecialinthecontextof modernsociety,giventhedeeplyconnectedglobalnetworksof trade,finance,andinformation.ForYama'srideshowsaresemblanceinformtoWallStreet'siconicchargingbull.Thebullisdepictedstandingtall,withoutadornmentof anykind,comfortableinitsownskinandbrimmingwithpowerandpotential.Financialsystemshavetakenonalifeof theirown.Anddisruptionstofinancialmarkets-asseeninthepastfew"crises"-seemtocreateexistentialthreatstocivilization.SoextrapolatingbeyondaBuddhistcontext,thisparticularsculpturemaybetakenasacallforustobecomemastersof thesystemsthatwehavecreated.

Theinscriptionontheback,readinggshin rje sdom po lho 30,literally,Yama,blue,south,30.Onthebasisof thisinscription,thisfigurewasidentifiedbyJeffWattaspartof 51deitysculpturalmaṇḍalaof theMedicineBuddha,Bhaisajyaguru1.Inthisway,theworkrelatestothepaintingof theElders,asboththesculpturalmaṇḍalaandthesetof paintingscontaintheMedicineBuddhasassecondaryfigures.

Theworkisdifficulttoplaceinregardstoplaceandperiod.Thestyleof jewelry(notablythenecklace,armbands,andearrings),physiognomicrendition,andoverallaestheticcouldallwelloriginateinthe15thcentury.Thestyleoverallappearssimilartoseveralknownworksof the12Yakshageneralsthatarealsopartof aMedicineBuddhamaṇḍala(HARSet4137),thoughthedifferenceinsubjecttype(wrathfuldeityvsperson)limitswhatconclusionscanbedrawnfromthesimilaritiesanddifferences.Thehair,however,isneitherasneatasfoundinthe15thcentury,norasvoluminousasfoundinthe17th centuryonwards.Therefore,ithasbeententativelygivena16thcenturydate.AttributionstoMongoliaandChina,anddatesaslateas18thcenturycouldalsobepossibleforthiswork.

1 Watt,Jeff."MedicineBuddha-RetinueFigure".HimalayanArtResources.AccessedFeb8,2020.https://www.himalayanart.org/items/70694

16century,TibetGiltBronzeandOrangePigment16.0h×11.0w×9.0dcm

Provenance:Collectionof ThomasClarkeAcquiredin1988

YAMA

50 DEATHYAMA

51

Beyondthebenevolenceof wisdom,rulersoftenfoundtheuseof forceexpedientinprotectionandexpansion.So,whilekingsandemperorsactivelyidentifiedthemselvesasmanifestationsof Mañjuśrī,itwashiswrathfulemanation,Vajrabhairava,thatwasthesubjectof manyimportantimperialcommissions.Theseincludethestunningcutsilk(kèsī)maṇḍala,datableto1330-1332intheMetropolitanMuseum,aYongleperiodembroidery1404-1424,andaZhengdeperiodworkfrom1512.Thesearethemostsecurelydatableworksof aboutadozenworksof Vajrabhairavamadewithinthespanof twohundredyearsfollowing1330.Compileddata(Table1)onthecorpusof workscanbehelpfulinlearningabouttherelationshipsbetweenthemaṇḍalastructure,iconography,transmissionlineage,style,anddating.

Vajrabhairavatransmissionlineagesaretypicallydifferentiatedbythenumberof deitiesinthemaṇḍalaassembly.However,thetabulateddataindicatesthatthemaṇḍalaassemblyalonedoesnotspecifythetransmissionlineage.ThemostcommondeitystartingthetransmissionlineageisVajradhara(11/17),andisfollowedbyafemaledeitywithaskullcupandvajra-chopperof bluecolorineightpaintingsandredinthree.Sevenof theeightworkswiththebluefemaledeityaremaṇḍalas,andfiveof themhavethreeormoreYamaris(formsof RaktaYamari,KṛṣṇaYamari,Yama,andVajrabhairava)inthesquinchesjustoutsidethemaṇḍala(includingthisone).Bycomparison,of thesevenmaṇḍalaswithoutthebluefemaledeity,onlyasinglepaintinghasmorethanoneYamariclassdeitiesinthecorners.Thecorrelationof thetransmissionlineagewithsecondarydeitiesoutsidetheprimarymaṇḍalahintsatthe

possibilitythatthetransmissionlineageisfortheentiregroupof Yamarideities,andnotonlyVajrabhairava.TwoYamarilineagesmaybematches,providedthattheiconographyof thewisdomḍākinīlistedinbothsourcescanbetextuallyvalidated(TBRCL8LS15337,HARSet522).Theselineagescorrectlyestimatethedateof theYuanmaṇḍala,andareroughlyconsistentwithcorrelationbetweenlineagelengthformostof theworksinthetable.

Ararefeatureof thismaṇḍalaisthatitdepictsboththe13-deityassemblyandtheassemblyof 32Ayudhas(a1–a32)implements)and8Vetalis,(v1–v8)depictedinblack(seediagramonleft).Thisfeatureisfoundinonlyoneothermaṇḍala,locatedintheSanFranciscoMuseumof Fine

Firsthalf of the15thcentury,TibetDistemperonCloth74.9h×62.4wcm

Published and ExhibitedDemonic Divine.JeffWattandRobLinrothe,RubinMuseumof Art,2004

DUAL MAṆḌALA OF VAJRABHAIRAVA

s a24 a25 a26 g4 a27 a28 a29 s

a23 v6 v7 v8 a30

a22 a31

a21 a7 a4 a8 a32

g3 v5 a3 M a1 v1 g1

a20 a6 a2 a5 a9

a19 a10

a18 v4 v3 v2 a11

s a17 a16 a15 g2 a14 a13 a12 s

52 DEATHVAJ RABH AIRAVA

53

Arts.Thatmaṇḍalaappearsatfirstglancetobea17-deitymaṇḍala,butismorelikelyacombinationof the13-deitymaṇḍala,withall32Ayudhas,andonly4of the8Vetalisdepicted.Vajrabhairavaismostlyfoundinsolitaryforminmaṇḍalasof thisperiod,thoughinthispainting,thereasonforthismayberelatedtohissolitarydepictionintheassemblyof 32Ayudhasand8Vetalis.

Thismaṇḍalacontainsastandarddepictionof theCharnelGrounds,thoughthereisaslightvariationinthegroupingof the8GreatAdepts.WhileVirūpaisaminorfigurealongsideIndrabhūtiintheDrigunggroup,VirūpareplacesIndrabhūtialtogetherinthispainting.IntheSakyastandardization,whereinVirūpareplacesPadmavajra1.Thesignificanceof thisvariationisnotyetknown,thoughperhapsitsuggeststhatoneshouldnotrushtoattributethisworktoaSakyalineageonaccountof Virūpa'spresenceattheWestCharnelGround.Identificationof thewhiterobedteachersinthe12thand14th lineagepositionsmayprovidefurtherinformationrelevanttothepainting'ssectarianorigins.

Stylistically,theflamescircumscribingthecentralformof Vajrabhairavahavepointedtipswithscrollingpatterns,of atypemostcommonacrossthe14thcentury.Two14thcenturypaintingslistedinTable1havethistriangularflame(oneattheLosAngelesCountyMuseumandtheotherinthePritzkerCollection).Ihaveseennosystematicstudiestilldatethatdifferentiatessub-stylesinflamemorphologyforthesetriangularshapedflames.Thefiguresarerenderedwithconsiderablevolume,andthejewelryisheavyandprominentwithanemphasisonroundels.Thestylewithwhichthefacesandbodieshavebeendrawnisuncommon,andmayprovideindicationsregardingtheplaceof productionoreventheartist.Theportraitureissimplyphenomenalinthiswork.Note,forexample,Vajrabhairava'slongtongue,whichextendsallthewaydowntotheskullcupatheartcenter.Futureworkmayilluminemoreaboutthisincrediblepaintingthroughthesehighlysubtlestylisticconsiderations.

Table1:Paintingsof Vajrabhairavafrom1300to1520

Collection deities Period Date NoteLineage

HAR Heads #yamari# School Deities

LACMA 13 14thcentury Style+Lineage 14 Sakya RedMaleandFemale 85722 Stack 2

MetropolitanMuseum 49 1330-1332 Confirmed 14 Sakya Vajradhara+Nairatmya 86530 Circ. 4

PrivateCollection 49 14thcentury Style+Lineage 16 Vajradhara+Nairatmya 77198 Stack 0

HahnFoundation 13 14th-15thcentury Style+Lineage 17 ? Vajradhara+Nairatmya 98702 Circ. 3

TibetHouse 13 14thcentury Style+Lineage 17 ? Vajradhara+RedFemale 8920 Stack 0

PritzkerCollection 13 Late14thcentury Style 19 Sakya Vajradhara+RedFemale 101365 Stack 0

PrivateCollection 13 15thcentury Style+Lineage 20 ? Vajradhara+Nairatmya 99642 Stack 4

PresentWork 13+41 15thcentury Style+Lineage 21 ? Vajradhara+Nairatmya Stack 6

PrivateCollection n/a 1404-1424 Confirmed 16 Geluk Vajradhara+Nairatmya 35857 Circ. 0

ErnstCollection 13 c.1435 Tsongkhapa+1 17 Geluk Vajradhara+Nairatmya 8003 Circ. 4

Private 13 c.1465 Tsongkhapa+3 16 Geluk Vajrabhairva+Simhamukta 23394 Circ. 0

Private 32 c.1465 Tsongkhapa+3 19 Geluk Vajradhara+Nairatmya 19837 Circ. 1?

PhiladelphiaMuseum 13 c.1480 Tsongkhapa+4 21 Geluk Vajrabhairva+Simhamukta 87103 Circ. 2

SanFranciscoMuseum 13+41 Late15thcentury Style n/a Sakya? n/a 69414 Stack 4

JuckerCollection 13 c.1510 Style 24 Sakya Amitayus 89197 Stack 0

RubinMuseumof Art 13 1516-1535 Confirmed 26 Sakya RedFemale 65463 Stack 0

Private n/a 15thcentury Style 30 ? Vajradhara+RedFemale 19050 Circ. 1

1 Luczanits,Christian.2008.OntheEarliestMandalasinaBuddhistContext.InMahāyānaBuddhism.HistoryandCulture.EditedbySambhotaSeriesXV,DarrolBryantandSusanBryant.NewDelhi:TibetHouse,pp.111–36.

54 DEATHVAJ RABH AIRAVA

55

Roundingofftheexhibition'sgroupof Yamariclassemanationsof Mañjuśrī,isthisexceptionallyfinelycraftedbronzeof KṛṣṇaYamari,madein11th–12thcenturiesinthePalaEmpireof NorthernIndia1. KṛṣṇaYamariholdsweaponsinhisproperrighthands,thesword,vajra,andvajra-chopper,whilehisproperlefthandsprovideamorepeacefulcounterpointwithalotusflower,dharmacakraandskullcup.

Thisisapiecewhoseaestheticneedstobeunderstoodonmultiplescales.Seeingtheworkupclose,eachiconographicelementtakesalifeof itsown,callingforattentionandfillingthemind'seyeonaccountof theirvolumeandsignificance.Thebodyappearswell-articulatedandbrimmingwithenergy.Yetwhenseenatthedistanceof severalmeters,alithenessandgraceemerges.

Thereareseveralinterestingfeaturesof thiswork,includingtheuseof lotusbudstoadornthelargetopknot,theasymmetryintheearrings(oneishollow,theothercontainsaserpent).Thepostureof theserpentinthetopknotisnoteworthy,asitstandserectlikeacobra,withitsfaceemergingjustoverthetipof thefrontallotusbud.

1 Forsomeworkswithasimilaraesthetic,seean11thcenturysculptureof Hevajra(HARItem57148),an11thcenturysculptureof Acala(HARItem200417),anda11-12thcenturyJambhala(Sotheby's,10June2015,Artsd'AsieLot168)

11th-12thcentury,NorthernIndiaBronzealloy9.8h×8.6w×3.4dcm

Provenance:PrivateEuropeanCollection,1960s

KṚṢṆA YAMARI

56 KṚṢṆA YAMARI DEATH

57

choskyirjekundga'rgyal mtshandpal bzang po'idgongspayongssurdzogspargyurcig|bdagsogssems canthams cadrjessugzungdugsol

Maytheintentof DharmaLordKungaGyeltsenPelZangpobecompletelyfulfilled.MayIandallsentientbeingsbeprotected.

Inanearlytranslationof theGuhyasamājaTantraintoEnglish,thetitlewasreadasThe Secret Union of the Body, Speech, and Mind of the Tathāgathās1.Thereareprobablyseveralnewertranslationsof thetitle,buttheflavorof themremainsthesame.Oneof themainaimsof theritualsandmethodsinthetextisthecultivationof adeeperunderstandingof reality.Thethreefactors,body,speech,andmind,areimmediatelyaccessibletousascentraltoourlivedexperience.Yetthequestioninmoderntimesishowtoapproachquestionsregardingthenatureof realitythroughthesefactorsof experience.Attheexpenseof fidelitytotheschoolof thoughtfromwhichtheTantraoriginated,onecaninterpretthefactors('dus pa)inthefollowingway:bodyaselementaryparticles,speechasinformation,andmindasrepresentation.Withthisinterpretation,allphenomenaembeddedinspaceandtimemanifestinsomewaythroughtheunionof thesethreefactors.Oneof thegreatmysteriesisthatweareabletoseeourselves,andstandwitnesstophenomena.So,itiswhenthethreeworktogetherisaspecialway,inSecret Union,thatthiswitnessing,thiscapacityforaparticularkindof self-representation,arises.Theintroductionof the'dualspace'of particles,information,andrepresentationallowsdiscussionof theSecretUnioneitherthroughphenomenology("subjective")orthroughmodernscience("objective"),withapreliminarydictionaryfortranslatingbetweenthetwo.SoGuhyasamājaasasubjectinart,canbeappreciatedasareflectionof howthenatureof realityisapprehendedthroughthecoordinationof differentiatedfactors.

This19-deitymaṇḍaladepictsGuhyasamājainhiswisdomformof Mañjuśrī,alignedwiththefactorof speech.Thisform,GuhyasamājaMañjuvajraismentionedbrieflyinChapter12of theGuhyasamājaTantra,andiselaborateduponinanothertextcalledtheVajrahṛdayālaṃkāra.Thispaintingisoneof thefewworksthatdepictGuhyasamājaMañjuvajrainhissolitaryform,asopposedtobeingshownasco-emergentwithhisconsortMotherMañjuvajra2.

Fortheinnerretinue,MañjuvajraisaccompaniedbytheremainingTathāgathāsonthecardinaldirections,Vairocana(2,E),Ratnasambhava(3,S),Amitābha(4,W),Amogasiddhi(5,N),alongwiththeirrespective1 Fremantle,Francesca."ACriticalStudyof theGuhyasamājatantra".Universityof LondonLibrary,1971.2 Thenameof hisconsortisfoundhere:Watt,Jeff."BuddhistDeity:Guhyasamāja,MañjuvajraMainPage".HimalayanArtResources.Updated6-2017.https://www.himalayanart.org/items/30833

1557-1585,TibetDistemperoncloth41.3h×33.7wcm

Provenance:FrederickKeppel&Co,NewYorkCity,pre-1940.PrivateNewYorkCollectionChristie'sNewYork,March2019

MAṆḌALAOFMAÑJUVAJRA GUHYASAMĀJA

58 UNITYGUH YASAMĀJ A MAÑ J UVAJ RA

59

consortsontheintermediates:WhiteTārā(6,SE),Māmakī(7,SW),Pāṇḍarā(8,NW),andGreenTārā(9,NE).Guardingthegatesof themaṇḍalaarefourwrathfuls,andconsistentwiththedirections,theyareidentifiediconographyasbeingYamāntakaattheEastGateholdingaVajraHammer(16),PrajñāntakaattheSouthGateholdingaVajraMace(17),PadmāntakaattheWestGateholdingaLotusFlower(18),andVajrapāṇiattheNorthGateholdingaVajra(19).Theremainingsixpeacefulfigures,alongthesidesof thegates,aremoredifficulttoidentifyiconographically.ComparingwiththeAkṣobhyavajraGuhyasamājamaṇḍala,thesepeacefuldeitiesaremostlikelymembersof theEightGreatBodhisattvas,withMañjuśrīexcludedowingtohispresenceinthecentralfigure,andVajrapāṇiexcludedowingtohisdepictionasawrathfulattheNorthGate.Thepresentrosterwouldthenconsistof

Maitreya(10),Kṣitigarbha(11),Sarvanivaraṇaviṣkambhin(12),Ākāśagarbha(13),Avalokiteśvara(14),andSamantabhadra(15).LiketheAkṣobhyavajramaṇḍala,allof thefiguresaresix-armedasreflectionsof Guhyasamāja,holdingaswordandflowerintheupperpairof arms,andwiththebottompairinVajradharamudrā.Oneof thetakeawaysfromthiselucidationisthatforthepurposesof preliminarycomprehension,itisusefultolookatamaṇḍalaascomprisingof groupsof severalclassesof deitiesinsteadof justalistof names.

Theremainderof thispaintingcontainsthetransmissionlineagefortheteaching,andinthisinstance,eachof thethirtyteachersinthelineageareaccompaniedwithaninscribedname(Table1).Paintingswithsuchextensivelydocumentedlineagesarerareandprovideinvaluablearthistoricalinformationthatisusednotonlyfordatingindividualpaintings,butalsovalidatingmethodologiesof analysis.

Lineages,likemaṇḍalaretinues,mayatfirstseemlikealistof names,butabitof diggingintothatlistcanaddsignificantdepthandappreciation,especiallywhenthecontributionsof peopleinthelineagecanberecognized.Inthiswork,thetransmissionlineagedepictedinthispaintingstartswiththe8thcenturyteachertowhomtheoldestGuhyasamājalineagestracebackto,Buddhaśrijñāna.Thenextteacher,Dipaṃkarabhadra,wasanimportanttantricexpertin9thcenturyIndia,andtheauthorof 39knowntantrictexts3.Of notehereisthepresenceof Ratnakīrti,an11thphilosopher,astudentof thesignificantthinkerof pan-IndicreputenamedJñanaśrimitra,andwhostudiedlogicandepistemology.

Thereafter,thelineagefindsitswaytotheSakyatradition,startingwithSachenKungaNyingpo,passesthroughavarietyof teachersinthe13thcentury,andthenthroughanumberof Ngorabbotsstartingwiththefirst,NgorchenKungaZangpo.Atransmissionlineageforthe19-deityMañjuvajramaṇḍala(TBRCL0RKL315)recordedbytheSakyaTrichenNgagwangKungaSonam(1597–1660,TBRCP791)matchesthelineageinthispaintingupuntilthe6thNgorAbbotSonamSengge(1429–1489,TBRCP1042).

Onaestheticlevel,therelationshipof thepaintingwithSakyaandNgorisapparentinthestyleof the

3 Chattopadhyaya,Alaka."AtiśaandTibet:LifeandWorksof DipamkaraSrijnanainRelationtotheHistoryandReligionof TibetwithTibetanSources"MotilalBanarsidassPublishers,1996.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

12 10 11 13

14 d12 d18 d13 15

d7 d4 d8

d17 d3 d1 d5 d19

d6 d2 d9

16 d11 d10 d16 d15 d14 17

20 18 19 21

30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22

60 GU H YASAMĀJ A MAÑJ UVAJ RA UNITY

artwork.Themostrelevantcomparisonisthe1569-1575setof VajravalipaintingscommissionedbytheNgorAbbotDrangtiNamkhaPalzang(HARSet2772) andamaṇḍalaof HevajraformerlyintheLionelFourniercollection4.ANgor/Sakyamaṇḍalaof GuhyasamājaAkṣobhyavajraMandala(tobediscussedmorelater),isalsostylisticallyrelated,thoughitisslightlylarger,anddifferentiatesitself fromthisworkinthefinalstepsof itsproductionwithsubtleshadingof figuresandthewiththelavishuseof goldpigment.Whatisparticularlyspecialaboutthetransmissionlineageof thisworkisthateachfigurehasbeengivenindividualizedattention,withwellrenderedfacialphysiognomyandanawarenessof theiconographicdepictionof eachmemberof thelineage.Thisisevidentfromtheyellowhatsof LamaDrakpaPelandSazangPhagpa.

Thelastfigureinthepainting,aKungaGyeltsenPelZangpo(abbreviatedaskun dga' rgyan pa)isastudentof the10thNgorAbbot,KonchökLhundrub.Thisname(kun dga' rgyan)isalsofoundinthededicatoryinscriptionof amaṇḍalaof GuhyasamājaAkṣobhyavajrasoldatBonhamsin20145. The presentpaintingdepictsbothkun dga' rgyanandKungaSonaminthetransmissionlineage,confirmingthatkun dga' rgyan isnottheNgorabbotKungaSonam(1485–1533),andisinfact,astudentof KonchökLhundrub.ThispaintingthushelpsconfirmthattheGuhyasamājaAkṣobhyavajramaṇḍalawasmostlikelymadein1558forthefuneraryritesof KonchökLhundrub.

Thedonor'suseof thenamekun dga' rgyan (pa)directlyassociateshimwiththeeminentSakyaPaṇḍitaKungaGyeltsenPelZangpo.AsSakyaPaṇḍita(sa pan)isthelastteacherintheabbreviatedtransmissionlineage6intheGuhyasamājaAkṣobhyavajramaṇḍala,theadoptionof anabbreviatednameallowstheviewertoseethedonorinlieuof SakyaPaṇḍitaasthelastteacherinthelineage.Howclever!InsearchingthroughtheTBRCdatabase,fiveteacherswerefoundwiththenameKungaGyeltsenPelZangpo7,8,9,10;theonlyteacherthattemporallycoincidedwithKonchökLhundrubbelongedtoaNyingmalineage(TBRCP1703)thoughitishighlyunlikelythatthisisthepersonmentionedintheinscription.Thissuggeststhatthenameisanabbreviationof alargername.Withthisconsideration,oneindeedfindsastudentandclosediscipleof KonchökLhundrub:theSakyaTrichenKungaRinchen(1517–1584)11.KungaRinchenservedastheheadof Sakyaforfiftyyears,andsponsoredmuchconstructionandrestorationof sitesinadditiontohisroleasteachertothenextgenerationof SakyaandNgorleaders12.AnattributiontoKungaRinchenishighlycompelling,forthedonormusthavehadaveryhighlevelof spiritualaccomplishment,wealth,andaccesstomasterartiststocommissionbothworksof Guhyasamāja.Adetailedbiographyof KungaRinchenwaswrittenbyNgagwangKungaSonam(1597–1660,TBRCP791),andmaycontains

4 "ThangkaRepresentantleMandaladeHevajra".Christie'sParis,Sale16245,December12,2018,Lot16.https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/lot/thangka-rep-resentant-le-mandala-de-hevajra-tibet-6185308-details.aspx"

5 "AThirty-Two-DeityGuhyasamajaMandala".Bonhams,Lot18,17Mar2014,13:00EDT.Soldfor$929,000.https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/21423/lot/18/

6 ThetransmissionlineageisabbreviatedtomakeroomfortheGuardiansof theTenDirections,dikpālas.Thisgroupof deitiesisfoundinthebottomregisterof mostGuhyasamājaAkṣobhyavajramaṇḍalas.

7 Thefirstwasoneof theImperialPreceptorstotheYuandynasty,andlivedfrom1310to1356.SeeCasey,Jane."BuddhistInitiationPaintingsfromtheYuanCourt(1271-1368)intheSino-HimalayanStyle".Asianart.com.PublishedJune16,2014.AccessedJan25,2020.https://www.asianart.com/articles/tsakli-casey/index.html

8 Thesecondlivedfrom 1382-1446(TBRCP4512),andwaspartof theSakyadzong patraditionfoundedbyLamaDampaSonamGyeltsen.9 Thethirdwasastudentof LowoKhenchenSonamLhundrubwhowasaroyalprecepteratthecourtof MangyulGungthang.SeeQuintman,Andrewand

Bogin,Benjamin"HimalayanPassages:TibetanandNewarStudiesinHonorof HubertDecleer"WisdomPublications,2014.10 Thefourthhadthebearingglangthangspyansnga,andwasadiscipleof ThekchenChoje(1349-1425)andwroteabiographyonhisteacher.SeeHeimbel,

Jörg,"VajradharainHumanForm:TheLifeandTimesof NgorchenKundga'bzangpo"VajraBooks,2018,p395.11 OnlyoneotherteacherwasfoundwhosenamecouldbeabbreviatedasKungaGyeltsenPelZangpo.ThisteacherwasaDrigungAbbot(1475-1527,TBRCP466).

12 Gardner,Alexander,"NgawangKungaRinchen".Treasuryof Lives,publishedJuly2010.AccessedJan20,2020.https://treasuryoflives.org/biographies/view/Kunga-Rinchen/TBRC_P460

62 UNITYGUH YASAMĀJ A MAÑ J UVAJ RA

referencestoeitherof thesemaṇḍalas.Itmayalsobepossiblethatthispaintingof Mañjuvajrawasmadeforthefuneraryritesof KungaRinchenin1585,insteadof beingcommissionedbyhim.

Paintingsof MañjuvajraGuhyasamājaarerareandoftenof exceptionalquality.Theyarefoundinsomeof themostimportantmuseumandprivatecollectionsaroundtheworld,includingtheClevelandMuseumof Art(HAR59213),theNortonSimonMuseum(HAR59331),theMuseeGuimet(HAR77208),theAshmoleanMuseumof ArtandArchaeology(HAR518),theRubinMuseumof Art(HAR100033),theCollectionof DonaldandShelleyRubin(HAR359),andtheCollectionof RockMountain(HAR30833).Institutionswithworksof AkṣobhyavajraGuhyasamājaextendthislisttotheArtInstituteof Chicago(HAR71107),theMetropolitanMuseumof Art(HAR86477),theRietbergMuseum(HAR200914),theBritishMuseum(HAR34430).

Table1:TransmissionlineageasdescribedinthepaintingInscription Name TBRC Dates

1 'jam pa'i rdo rje Mañjuśrī P0RK1498

2 sang[s rg]yas ye [sh]es zhabs Buddhaśrijñāna P0RK196 late8thcentury

3 me mdzad bzang [p]o Dipaṃkarabhadra P0RK197

4 dpal bde Śrīdevā P0RK198

5 bi ma la gu pa ta Vimalagupta P0RK199

6 ra(tna) bdzra Ratnavajra P8152

7 ratna kri ti Ratnakīrti P0RK200 11thcentury

8 dpe 'da' pa LamaPaṇḍita P0RK1499

9 gnyan lo tsa ba GyanLotsabaDarmaDrak P2614 11thcentury

10 gnang kha zhu ba DharmaSengge P0RK1499

11 sa chen SachenKungaNyingpo(Sakya3) P1615 1092–1158

12 rtse mo SonamTsemo(Sakya4) P1618 1142–1182

13 grags pa DrakpaGyeltsen(Sakya5) P1614 1147–1216

14 sa paN SakyaPaṇḍita(Sakya6) P1056 1182–1251

15 'phags pa LodroGyeltsen(Sakya7) P1048 1235–1280

16 bla ma kun dga' grags KungaDrakpa P2612

17 slo [dp]on bkr[a sh]is dpal TashiPel P0RK569

18 dga' ldan pa kun bsod KungaSonam P3903

19 khams pa rdo [rj]e dpal KhampaDoPel P0RK1500

20 bla ma kri rti sh(nyi) PeldenDrakpaPel P0RK259

21 kyen gangs pa LamaDrakpaPel P0RK410

22 ma ti paN chen MatiPanchen P151 1294–1376

23 sa bzang 'phags pa SabzangPakpa P3874 1358–1412

24 rdo [rj]e 'chang kun dga' bzang po NgorchenKungaZangpo(Ngor1) P1132 1382–1456

25 kun dga' dbang phyug KungaWangchuk(Ngor4) P1040 1424–1478

26 bsod nam[s] seng [g]e SonamSengge(Ngor6) P1042 1429–1489

27 dko[n mch]og 'phel KonchokPelwa(Ngor7) P1873 1445–1514

28 kun dga' bsod nams KungaSonam(Sakya22) P461 1485–1533

29 'jam [db]yangs dko[n mch]og lhu[n gru]b KonchokLhundrup(Ngor10) P783 1497–1557

30 kun dga' rgyan pa KungaRinchen(Sakya23) P460 1517–1584

63GUH YASAMĀJ A MAÑ J UVAJ RAUNIT Y

Anunusualnumberof masterworksof GuhyasamājaAkṣobhyavajraweremadeinthe15thcentury,includingsixworks1relatedtotheCentralTibetanstylerecentlyassociatedwiththesculptorSonamGyeltsen2. The slenderfiguralarticulationpresentinworksof thisstyleisparticularlywell-suitedfordepictingmulti-armeddeities,whereitallowsforgreaterharmonyandbalancebetweenpositiveandnegativespace.Withsuchacorpusavailableforcomparison,itisafacileexerciseforaviewertoabsorbthroughosmosisthestyle'squintessentialnature.Onefeaturethatmakesthisworkstandoutistheoutstandinglyexpressivegoldpaintedface.Fewworksof theperiod,andonlyoneof thesixotherworksof GuhyasamājaAkṣobhyavajra,havethisfeature.Theartisthasbestowedexquisiteattentiontodetailtothework,reflectedinthequalitywithwhicheachfinger,toe,iconographicelement,andelementof jewelryisrendered.Onemomentof surpriseandjoyisthediscoveryof aninscribedfloralmotif ontheedgeof Sparśavajrā'sdhoti,visibleonlyfromaspecificangle,andthuseasilymissedatfirstglance.

1 Oneof theseworksisinthePalaceMuseuminBeijing(HARItem9516),twoareintheRubinMuseumof Art(HARItems65446and65271),withthreeothersinprivatecollections(HARItems8050,34123,and1745).

2 "AGiltCopperAlloyFigureof AvalokiteshvaraSahasrabhujaEkadasamukha"Bonhams,NewYork,19Mar2018,Lot3033.https://www.bonhams.com/auc-tions/24358/lot/3033/

15thcentury,TibetGiltbronzewithturquoiseinlayandgoldandotherpigments18.9h×13.4w×10.1dcm

ProvenancePrivateGermanCollection,before1976

Published (frontandbackcover):Buddhistische Kunst aus dem Himalaya.UlrichvonShroederandHelmutUllig.KunstamtBerlin-Tempelhof,1976

AKṢOBHYAVAJRA GUHYASAMĀJA

64 UNITYAKṢOBH YAVAJ RA GUH YASAMĀJ A

65