Aerospace Dimensions

Module 6Spacecraft

Contents

• Chapter 1 – Unmanned Spacecraft• Chapter 2 – Manned Spacecraft• Chapter 3 – Living and Working in Space• Quiz• Credits

Chapter 1

Unmanned Spacecraft

Satellites

The word satellite comes from the French language, it was at one point a name for a guard or attendant. The term was coined by Johannes Kepler in 1611 while observing the motion of the Galilean moons. Today, the term satellite means objects, both natural and artificial, that orbits another object.

Contents

Satellites

Man-made satellites have been launched only for a few decades now, starting in 1957 with the Russian built Sputnik satellite and the American built Explorer satellite

Sputnik I

Contents

Satellites

Shortly after these primitive satellites were launched, the first communications satellite (COMSATs) was launched in 1958. The first COMSAT was the Score satellite, which broadcast taped messages for 13 days. Shortly after this, Telstar I became the first commercially operated satellite in space

The satellite could process up to 60 two-way phone conversations at once. Today, COMSATs are still booming. In 1989, the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization launched a satellite that could accommodate 15,000 two-way voice circuits and 2 TV channels at once.

Contents

Satellites

NASA also has a wide array of COMSATs as well. Their Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) is comprised of 3 satellites that provide for 24 hour communications with the space shuttle while in orbit, as well as up to 25 other NASA low-orbit spacecraft. They’ve also established the Deep Space Network (DSN).

The DSN is made of 3 deep space communications complexes, that allow communication with deep space probes on other planets and elsewhere. These COMSATs work because they provide a higher up locations that provides for a much wider area you can draw a line of sight to.

Contents

Satellites

TDRSS Satellite Deep Space NetworkGround Monitoring Station

Satellites

In the late 1960s a new type of satellite was introduced: navigational satellites (NAVSAT). The first, Transit, was launched in order to give Polaris missile submarines their positions on Earth more accurately. Today, the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) is the most familiar NAVSAT system to us.

GPS enables us to know where we are on Earth within a few yards of our position, and has only in recent decades been made available to the civilian population. Another category of satellite networks are the natural resource satellites, or LANDSATs.

Contents

Satellites

LANDSATs provide a multitude of services such as agricultural information, coastal information, etc. We’re all probably familiar with weather satellites as well, or have at least seen the information they produce – on the weather reports we see. Weather satellites are one of the oldest types, being around since 1960.

The first weather satellite Tiros I, proved it’s worth the first day it was in orbit – providing an image of a hurricane the same day it was launched. Since then, weather satellites have improved greatly. Today, we use the GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites) to get very accurate weather information.

Contents

Satellites

GPS Satellite GOES Satellite

Satellites

Yet another group of satellites is the Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO), which provided solar observations in the 60s and 70s. They also helped further our understanding of x-rays, gamma rays, and ultraviolet rays. While many people may not be very interested in regular working horse satellites, the satellites known as space probes are much more interesting.

Space probes are satellites or spacecraft meant to fly by, orbit, or land on another celestial body. There have been many series of space probes, from the Ranger series which took pictures of the Moon for the Apollo missions, to the Voyager series which travelled through our entire solar system and continue to travel into deep space today.

Contents

Satellites

Ranger Probe

Mariner Probe

Satellites

Pioneer Probe Viking Probe

Satellites

Voyager space probe as it passes Jupiter

Satellite Systems

A satellite’s systems consists of several related parts to a satellite, not just the hardware onboard. Every satellite has a system made up of people, the environment around them, both a space and Earth-bound command and control system, satellite sub-systems, and the launch.Contents

Satellite Systems

The human component of a satellite system is one of the most complex. Many people are involved in a satellite throughout it’s progress. There are people involved in it’s design, manufacture, launch, and operation. This section also includes the customers of the satellite, as they give the satellite a purpose. Contents

Satellite SystemsThe space environment around the satellites is also a key player in the satellites design, as we can’t control the environment, only adapt to it. As space is extremely dangerous to satellites as well, they must be very tough. The biggest factor satellites must consider is the pull of gravity.

Satellites must be able to maintain their orbit, otherwise they will fall from it. They must also deal with extreme radiation conditions from the Sun as well. Another major threat to satellites are micrometeorites, or tiny particles travelling at VERY high speeds that can cause severe damage for their size.Contents

Satellite SystemsThe next part of a satellite system are the actual sub-systems of the satellite. These include a structure, a propulsion system, an attitude control system, a power system, a thermal system, and a command and control system. The specifications of these sub-systems are defined by the mission of the satellite. The structure of the satellite is the actual framework of the satellite.

A propulsion system provides power to get into orbit and stay into orbit. An attitude control system provides for minor corrections in the satellites position. A power system provides electricity for the satellite.

Contents

Satellite Systems

Satellites also experience extreme temperature differences, so it’s necessary to ensure the satellite stays warm enough during it’s nighttime period, which is what the thermal system provides for.

Finally, the command and control system functions as the communications system between the ground and satellite, telling the satellite what to do essentially. The last part of a satellite system is the launch of the satellite.

Contents

Orbits and Trajectories

An orbit is the path a satellite takes around a celestial body. Orbital theories about how the celestial bodies move has been around for a very long time. The first theory was proposed by Greek astronomer Ptolemy in 127-145, which placed Earth at the center of everything (geocentric theory).

Contents

Orbits and Trajectories

Ptolemy’s theory was proven wrong in the 1400s by Copernicus, when he proposed his heliocentric theory, which places the Sun at the center of our solar system. 200 years later, in the 1600s, Johannes Kepler developed his rules of motion known as Kepler’s laws. Johannes KeplerContents

Orbits and Trajectories

These laws govern the movement of celestial bodies. The first of his laws states that the orbit of each planet is an ellipse, with the Sun at the center. In an elliptical orbit, there is a point the object is at it’s highest, and at it’s lowest.

The highest point is known as it’s apogee, and it’s lowest is known as it’s perigee.

Contents

Orbits and Trajectories

An example of Kepler’s First Law

Chapter 2

Manned Spacecraft

Project Mercury

Project Mercury was the United States’ first manned space program, and launched it’s first mission on May 15, 1961, putting Alan Shephard, the first American in space, into suborbital space for 15 minutes. The program also put the first American into orbit, with it’s third flight.

Project Mercury lasted 2 years and had six manned missions. The main goals of Project Mercury was to answer basic questions about humans being in space that nobody fully understood.

Contents

Project Mercury

All six of the Mercury launches, from left to right

The astronauts of Project Mercury

Project Gemini

After Mercury, Project Gemini began. There was a total of 10 manned Gemini flights and it’s goal was to research many of the things that would needed to be done to accomplish a moon landing such as docking procedures and space walks.

The Gemini flights were two-man capsules that were much larger than the Mercury capsules. The Gemini flights achieve the first spacewalk as well as the first docking between two spacecraft.

Contents

Project Gemini

Gemini Launch

Gemini Capsule

Project Apollo

From the early 1960s, America’s space program’s goal was to put a man on the Moon and return him safely. With the end of the Gemini flights, Project Apollo began. Apollo’s goal was to put a man on the Moon. Early Apollo flights simply orbited in the Moon and returned.

With the launch of Apollo 11 however, it was time to land a man on the moon. On July 20, 1969, Neil A. Armstrong became the first man to walk on the surface of the Moon. Shortly after, Buzz Aldrin became the second. After Apollo 11, there were another 6 missions, 5 of which were successful.

Contents

Project Apollo

Project Skylab

Project Skylab used a lot of the leftover equipment from the Apollo missions. Skylab’s mission however, was to put a laboratory into space in order to study the effects of long-term spaceflight. Skylab was launched in 1973 and had about the same amount of room as a 3 bedroom house.

It contained all of the oxygen, food, and other supplies necessary for the mission. There were three crews that were on Skylab throughout it’s life. The first stayed for 28 days, the second for 58 days, and the third for 84 days. Skylab showed that people could live and work in space for at least 3 months safely.

Project Skylab

Skylab Launch

Skylab in Orbit

Project Apollo-Soyuz

After Apollo, Apollo-Soyuz was the last manned project until the Space Shuttle. The project launched a leftover Apollo capsule in July of 1975 that was to dock with a Soviet Soyuz capsule in space. The crews docked for two days, working together.

The project marked the end of the era of disposable spacecraft. After Apollo-Soyuz, spacecraft were to be reusable, not simply one launch.

Contents

Project Apollo-Soyuz

The Apollo and Soyuz spacecrafts docking

The Space Shuttle

The first launch of the Space Shuttle in 1981 ended a 6 year period after Apollo-Soyuz that America had no astronauts in space. The first Space Transportation System (STS) flight was in April of 1981. The shuttle was the first spacecraft designed to be used more than once.

The STS consists of three main parts: the orbiter, the solid rocket boosters (SRBs), and the external fuel tank. The orbiter is about the size of a DC-9 jet and carries the crew and payload. The SRBs and the external fuel tank are part of it for the launch only.

Contents

The Space Shuttle

There are 5 shuttles that have been into space, Columbia, Challenger, Endeavor, Discovery and Atlantis. The first four flights were done in Columbia and were mainly test flights, seeing how it would handle reentry. The fifth mission was the first operational flight.

STS-5 occurred in November of 1982 and launched two satellites. The first American woman in space also occurred on the space shuttle on STS-7. The shuttle has been on well over a hundred missions now, and is entering it’s final year of service in 2010.

Contents

The Space Shuttle

Space Shuttle LaunchSpace Shuttle in Orbit

The Soviet Union’s Space Program

The Soviet space program developed at the same time as NASA, during the ‘space race.’ The Soviet program had several firsts in space. They launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik, the first man into space, the first man to orbit Earth, the first woman, and went on the first space walk.

The Soviets had several space stations, the first being the Salyut stations, which included 7 space stations. The Soviets launched Mir in February of 1986. Mir has more room for comfort than the Salyuts did. Americans have spent over 2 years on Mir on different occasions as well.

Contents

The Soviet Union’s Space Program

Mir Yuri Gagarin, the first man to enter space and orbit the

Earth

Chapter 3

Living and Working In Space

Space Stations

The idea of space stations has been around since space travel began. The first space station, Salyut I, was launched in April of 1971 by the Soviet Union. It was crewed for three weeks, and then fell to Earth 6 months after launch. There were a total of 7 Salyut stations. After Salyut, the Soviets began developing the Mir space station.

Mir was launched in February of 1986 and had comfort in mind more than it was on the Salyut missions. Towards the end of it’s life in 1998, Mir experienced several malfunctions that NASA assisted with using the Space Shuttle.

Contents

Space Stations

The United States were not left behind in the Space Station race however. Two years after the launch of Salyut, America launched Skylab in May of 1973. A total of three crews visited Skylab, the first staying 28 days, the second staying 58 days, and the third staying for 84 days.

The European Space Agency also sent a space station to orbit. Their Spacelab was carried onboard the shuttle Columbia and therein never in orbit for more than 30 days.

Contents

Space Stations

SkylabMir

Extravehicular Activities

Extravehicular activity (EVAs) is the general term used for going outside of a spacecraft. The first spacewalk took place in March of 1965 by Soviet Aleksei Leonov and lasted 20 minutes. America accomplished their first 3 months later. The longest spacewalk was set on Skylab 4 at 7 hours and 1 minute. Contents

Space Suits

A major part of space flight and spacewalks are the space suits you do them in. Space suit design started in the 1930s with the development of pressure suits for very high-altitude flyers. During the next 30 years, space suits continued to develop. However, even the astronauts of Project Mercury just wore pressure suits. Project Gemini was the first project in which astronauts could remove their bulky suits inside the spacecraft.

As space flight progressed, the largely immobile suits of Project Mercury became obsolete. The Project Apollo moon suits were very unique in that they were extremely rugged. The suits protected against temperatures as high as 250 degrees as well as protecting from the intense radiation.

Contents

Space Suits

Space Shuttle suits were even more advanced than the Apollo suits, designed to be put on one layer at a time, and to accommodate men and women. It’s also designed to be reusable and last up to 15 years. In 1984 the Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) was invented.

This unit was a bulky pack that was fitted on to an astronaut’s back that allowed him to move without being tied down to a spacecraft.

Contents

Space Suits

The Apollo moon suit An astronaut with an MMU on

The Future In Space

Space travel is most definitely here to stay with us. NASA currently plans on going back to the Moon and on to Mars. The Space Station Alpha, also known as the International Space Station, is also now fully operational in orbit around Earth. ISS is a joint operation between the US, Canada, Europe, Japan and Russia.

Future spacecraft will also be reusable just as the shuttle is, and several are being designed to replace the shuttle after it’s last year in 2010. As space becomes more open to us, commercial space travel is something not too far off in the future.

Contents

The Future in Space

The International Space Station

The Orion Space Capsule, one of the potential shuttle

replacements

Quiz

Question 1

Who’s laws govern orbital motion?

A) PtolemyB) KeplerC) CopernicusD) Galileo

Contents

Correct!

Johannes Kepler’s Laws of Motion governs the orbital motion of celestial bodies.

Next Question

Incorrect

Johannes Kepler’s Laws of Motion governs the orbital motion of celestial bodies.

Next Question

Question 2

What satellite was the first commercial COMSAT?

A) NAVSTARB) Tiros IC) Telstar ID) GOES

Contents

Correct!

The first commercial COMSAT was Telstar I

Next Question

Incorrect

The first commercial COMSAT was Telstar I

Next Question

Question 3

Which of the following is a part of a satellite system?

A) PeopleB) Sub-SystemsC) Space EnvironmentD) All of the above

Contents

Correct!

The people, the environment around a satellite, and it’s hardware sub-systems are all part of the satellite system.

Next Question

Incorrect

The people, the environment around a satellite, and it’s hardware sub-systems are all part of the satellite system.

Next Question

Question 4

Which project involved a American and Soviet docking in space?

A) Apollo-SoyuzB) GeminiC) SkylabD) Mercury

Contents

Correct!

An American and Soviet spacecraft docked during the Apollo-Soyuz program.

Next Question

Incorrect

An American and Soviet spacecraft docked during the Apollo-Soyuz program.

Next Question

Question 5

Who was the first man on the Moon?

A) Chuck YeagerB) Buzz AldrinC) Neil ArmstrongD) Ed White

Contents

Correct!

The first man on the Moon was Neil Armstrong.

Next Question

Incorrect

The first man on the Moon was Neil Armstrong.

Next Question

Question 6

Which group of satellites can give you your position down to just a couple of yards?

A) GOESB) LANDSATC) COMSATD) GPS

Contents

Correct!

GPS satellites are capable of giving you your position down to just a few yards.

Next Question

Incorrect

GPS satellites are capable of giving you your position down to just a few yards.

Next Question

Question 7

What was the United States’ first space station called?

A) SpacelabB) SkylabC) MirD) Space Station Alpha

Contents

Correct!

America’s first space station was known as Skylab.

Next Question

Incorrect

America’s first space station was known as Skylab.

Next Question

Question 8

What was Russia’s second space station project called?

A) SalyutB) ApolloC) SoyuzD) Mir

Contents

Correct!

Russia’s second space station program was known as Mir.

Next Question

Incorrect

Russia’s second space station program was known as Mir.

Next Question

Question 9

Research has shown that living in space for long periods of time is impossible.

True

False

Contents

Correct!

Research done on Skylab has shown that living in space for long periods of time is possible.

Next Question

Incorrect

Research done on Skylab has shown that living in space for long periods of time is possible.

Next Question

Question 10

What was the European Space Agency’s first space station called?

A) MirB) SkylabC) SpacelabD) ISS

Contents

Correct!

The European Space Agency’s first space station was known as Spacelab.

Contents Credits

Incorrect

The European Space Agency’s first space station was known as Spacelab.

Contents Credits

Credits

• Created by Cadet Ryan Stanley• Based on Aerospace Dimensions Module 6:

Spacecraft

Contents