advances in water quality control

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Advances in Water Quality Control

Gail Krantzberg, Aysegul Tanik, Jos S. Antunes do Carmo, Antonius Indarto, Alpaslan Ekda

Scientific Reseach Publishing, USA

2010


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ADVANCES IN WATER QUALITY CONTROL

Published by Scientific Research Publishing, Inc. ISBN: 978 1935068 08 2 http://www.scirp.org

Copyright 2010 by Scientific Research Publishing, Inc., USA. All rights reserved.

This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of

the publisher (Scientific Research Publishing, Inc., USA), except for brief excerpts in connection

with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and

retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology new

nown or hereafter developed is forbidden.k

Requests to the Publisher for permission shoul d be addressed to the SRP Copyrights Manager,

Scientific Research Publishing, Inc., USA, Email: [email protected] .
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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I

Biography of

Chief

Editors

Gail Krantzberg is a Professor and Director of the Dofasco Centre for Engineering and Public Policy in the School of Engineering at McMaster University offering Canadas first Masters Degree in Engineering and Public Policy. Gail completed her M.Sc. and Ph.D. at the University of Toronto in environmental science and fresh waters. She worked for the Ontario Ministry of Environment from 1988 to 2001, as Coordinator of Remedial Action Plan and Great Lakes Programs, and Senior Policy Advisor on Great Lakes. She is a past president of the International Association of Great Lakes Research. Dr. Krantzberg was the Director of the Great Lakes Regional Office of the International Joint Commission from 2001 to 2005. She has authored more than 100 scientific and policy articles on issues pertaining to ecosystem quality and sustainability and is a frequent speaker to media and the public.

Aysegul Tanik is a Full Professor at Istanbul Technical University (ITU) in Turkey. She obtained her B.Sc. degree in Chemical Engineering (1981) and M.Sc. Degree (1984) in Environmental Engineering from Bogazici University, Istanbul. Between years 1981 1983, she worked as a chemical engineer in the Industrial Development Bank of Turkey and as a Research Assistant at Bogazici University during 1983 1984. Her Ph.D. is in Environmental Engineering (1991) and she got her degree from ITU, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering where she has been a member of teaching staff since 1992. She has become Associate Professor in 1996 and Full Professor in 2002. She has worked as a Project and Research Engineer in various Contracting Firms dealing with treatment of water and wastewater within the years 1984 1992. Her current fields of inter est are; determination and management of diffuse sources of pollutants, water quality management, water

quality modeling, and integrated watershed management. She has 50 papers appearing in international SCI journals and more than 50 papers in the selected international proceedings besides many national conference papers.

Jos Simo Antunes do Carmo received the Bachelor in Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, Portugal in 1980, He completed the M.S. degree in Hydraulics and Water Resources, Technical University of Lisbon (IST), Portugal in 1990 and Ph.D. degree in Engineering Sciences, Civil Engineering Hydraulics, University of Coimbra, Portugal in 1995. He is now an Associate Professor (Aggregated) in Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra, Portugal since 2005. His Research area are Hydrodynamics; Numerical Methods; Genera tion and Propagation of Waves; River and Coastal Morphodynamics; Coastal Protection; Coastal Management;

Oil Spills in Coastal Zones; River Flows; Water Quality Modelling, and Wastewater Treatment. He is tan author of twenty two papers in Scientific ISI journals, one book entitled Modelling in Fluvial Hydraulics and Environment, seven book chapters, about one hundred of communications in International Scientific Conferences, and more than two tens of leading articles.

Antonius Indarto received the Bachelor of Engineering degree in Chemical Engineering from the Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Indonesia in 2002. He completed the M.S. degree in Urban Environmental Manage ment from the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand and Ph.D. degree from the Universita degli studi di


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Torino, Italy.

During his M.S. study, he obtained a precious experience on how to manage and develop an urban area from economic, environmental, and technological point of view. Currently, he conducts wide broad research activi ties: 1) the development of plasma for novel chemical reactions and environment, 2) catalytic plasma reactions, and 3) theoretical/computational study of reactions. For this research and development contribution, he re ceived some awards, such as: 1) The 2009 Nuclear & Plasma Sciences Society (NPSS) graduate student award + Phelps Continuing Education Grant from NPSS; 2) Young Science Award of the International Association of Catalysis Societies (IACS) during 14th international Congress on Catalyst, Seoul, South Korea (2008); 3) Gold medal by Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) for the achievements in research and development (2007). He wrote more than 20 international papers and contributed in 4 books publication.

Alpaslan Ekdal is working at the Istanbul Technical University Environmental Engineering Department. He got his B.Sc. degree from Y ld z Technical University, Environmental Engineering Department in 1998. Then, he had completed his M.Sc. studies in 2000 at Istanbul Technical University, Institute of Science and Technology, Environmental Engineering Program. In 2000, he started his Ph. D. studies at the same program. He worked as a visiting scientist at the United States Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Ecosystems Research Division, Athens, GA to conduct part of his Ph. D. studies between February 25, 2005 and February 25, 2006. He completed his Ph D entitled Water Quality Modeling of Kyceiz Dalyan Lagoon in 2008. Dr. Ekdal published scientific papers in peer reviewed national and international journals and at the con ferences and symposia. His major fields of interest are water quality modeling and integrated watershed man agement, and he has been involved in national and international research and professional projects in these fields.


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Preface

WATER is for sure the only common and global issue that interests all the living bodies of the world including humans, flora and fauna. Without water, survival is not possible. It is among the main natural resources that recognizes no borders. The two components of water are namely quality and quantity . World water resources are estimated to be 1400 million km 3; however, only a minor portion of this potential amount is usable water. As the amount of usable/accessible water differs from country to country, place to place, season to season, water shortage is experienced in some countries. It is well known that water resources are not equally distrib uted according to population densities among the countries. Some countries have abundant water resources, whereas some others suffer from inadequate water, and even face severe water scarcity problems. Currently, a portion of accessible global water resources are polluted especially through human induced activities, and can no longer be used. Another portion of water is lost during transmission due to lack of efficient and proper infrastructure. Thus, pollution of water resources leads to serious sanitary problems. 1/5 th of the worlds popu lation that accounts to approximately 1.1 billion people is under the risk of water related diseases, and more over each year many people die as they do not have safe drinking water. The main reason of this fact is lack of adequate infrastructure rather than water scarcity. For that reason, one of the Millennium Development Goals, announced at the United Nations General Council in year 2000, is to decrease the number of people that suffer from clean water access by 50% by year 2015.

The sectoral distribution of water consumption as a global average is dominated by agricultural and green land irrigation with an overall value of 70%, followed by industrial uses with 22%, and 8% is shared by domestic uses as referred in the UN World Water Development Report of year 2003. It is for sure that our limited natural

water resources

are

highly

used

in

agricultural

activities,

and

industrial

development

and

population

rise

in

parallel increase the demand for water to be used in these sectors. Thus, we are trying to increase the quantity of accessible clean and secure water. On the other hand, the wastewater arising from the use of water is an even more significant problem when they are discharged into receiving water bodies. To cope with this prob lem and protect the wellbeing of our environment, various types of wastewater treatment systems; primary, secondary, tertiary have to be installed for the point sources of pollutants. Technological advances make it pos sible to implement different types of wastewater system s to minimize their polluting effects and moreover, the most recent reuse technologies enable to establish advanced systems for reusing wastewater. On one hand, humans pollute their environment through their activities and on the other hand, they work hard and spent time and money in installing wastewater treatment plants to protect their environment. The efforts of the hu mans in keeping their water resources clean usually become insufficient especially in developing and un

derdeveloped

countries.

Among

the

reasons,

one

can

address

the

high

investment

and

operational

costs

of

wastewater treatment plants, the institutional and legal constraints faced in the countries, lack of receiving water and discharge standards, and lack of monitoring and control of the already established plants.

In short, maintaining the required quality of water according to the intended use has now become one of the important issues to be tackled with. This book on Advances in Water Quality Control emerged at this point. There are various books written worldwide on water quality; however, this book aims to put forth and focus on the recent advances of water quality control. A group of international experts have come together to write this book who target to pass recent available knowledge and information to the readers. The readers and benefici aries varies from academicians, professional engineers and scientists, to undergraduate and graduate engi


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neering students from all nations no matter where they come from; either a developed and a developing coun try.

Keeping in mind the philosophy of utilization and protection balance , Chapter 1 refers to water quality re quirements emphasizing on the factors that affect water quality. The water quality parameters that need to be considered for various common beneficial uses of water worldwide are mentioned, and the authors focused on the water quality criteria, guidelines and standards in use. As is known, standards need to be set by nations based on their intended use of water by taking into account the socio ec onomical status and political situation. Reuse of water in various sectors has nowadays become an important topic in the field of water use, as this natural resource is becoming more limited. Chapter 2 is on using the treated wastewater in different sectors; mainly in agricultural activities. As referred previously, the share of water dominates in the agricultural sector and we have to find an alternative water resource to reduce the irrigation water demand with clean water. The advances in reuse technologies have made wastewater treatment available for irrigation. Therefore, this chap ter, after introducing the various types of reuses reviews the advanced technologies used in implementing and

upgrading agricultural reuse systems. The recent experiences of various countries are mentioned. The man agement of wastewater as a new resource of water is also referred to enlighten the readers on the important items of reusing treated water. Selection of the most effective and proper wastewater treatment is actually the essential part of generating a new water resource as well as protecting the discharge environments. Thus, the fundamental principles of wastewater treatment are focused in Chapter 3. This chapter covers all the accept able and universally applied wastewater treatment processes and systems. Another aspect is using wastewater in aquaculture. The historical background using wastewater in aquaculture, probable impacts and technical aspects of fish culture is explained in depth in Chapter 4. Beyond presenting the wastewater treatment tech nologies and reuse of wastewater in various sectors, one gets interested with the use and application of eco nomic instruments, selection between different instruments to cope with the problem of water pollution. This topic is covered in detail in Chapter 5. Moreover, financing and sustaining wastewater management is another

issue that needs to be highlighted. Chapter 6 is devoted to this topic of management where sustainability is emphasized as the common key word of technical, legislative and supportive aspects of wastewater manage ment.

Within the past few decades, the advances in computer science made available the use of modern informa tion technologies that makes our lives easier. Chapter 7 is spared to the information systems used nowadays in water quality control. Emphasis is given to the implementation of water quality networks and to water quality monitoring technology. After presenting all the important points of water quality control, now we have to es tablish a framework for water pollution control. This is covered in Chapter 8 where it is referred th at identifica tion and determination of polluting sources need to be done on watershed basis. Watershed based studies require the use of certain modern management tools and instruments. The selection and application of an ap propriate management plan for water pollution control and management alternatives form the basis of this cha pter. There are various conventional and modern tools and techniques used in water quality interpretation. They are explained in Chapter 9 in detail including a case study on application of salient techniques to ground water quality assessment.

Chapter 10 is on a case study conducted in Canada on revitalization plans and implementation aiming estab lishment of a successful clean up strategy. The lessons learnt from the application are also stated. Chapter 11 is again on a case study of a pollution control strategy implemented for determining the characteristics of Polya luminum Chloride (PAC) that is used as coagulant prepared by baking process. Chapter 12 concludes the book with a look at lowcost wastewater treatment processes. Along with the conventional wastewater treatment


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processes, the natural biological treatment systems are overviewed in this chapter in detail. This book is de signed in a way to overview the recent advances in water quality control and I hope it will serve to advance the

field of water quality control and improve the control actions and strategies to be applied by the nations of the world.

Advances in Water Quality Control would not have been possible without the great efforts paid by all the authors and I am sure their valuable contributions increase the significance of the book. I wish it will act as a handbook for those interested readers on water quality control. Thanks go to each of the international authors whose brief CVs are included at the end of each chapter.

Last but not the least; I would like to pay an affectionate tribute to Ms. Shirley Song from Scientific Research Publishing (SRP) who has communicated with all the authors all throughout the preparation period of the book with patience.

Dr. Aysegul TANIK (On behalf of the authors)

Istanbul August 11, 2010


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Acknowledgements

Advances in Water Quality Control would not have been possible without the great efforts paid by all the au

thors and I am sure their valuable contributions increase the significance of the book. I wish it will act as a

handbook for those interested readers on water quality control. Thanks go to each of the international authors

whose brief CVs are included at the end of each chapter.

Last but not the least; I would like to pay an affectionate tribute to Ms. Shirley Song from Scientific Research

Publishing (SRP) who has communicated with all the authors all throughout the preparation period of the book

with patience.

VII


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Contents at a Glance

Biography of Chief Editors I

Preface III

Acknowledgments VII

Chapter 1 Water Quality Requirements Melike Grel , Elif Pehlivanoglu-Mantas 1

Chapter 2 Wastewater as a Resource Aysegul Tanik 27

Chapter 3 Wastewater Treatment Jos Simo Antunes Do Carmo 71

Chapter 4 Wastewater Use in AquacultureGuangming Li 125

Chapter 5 Economic Instruments Xianjin Huang , Xingyu Zhang , Weilin Wang , Xiaowei Chuai 139

Chapter 6 Financing and Sustaining Wastewater Management Antonius Indarto 165

Chapter 7 Information Systems Rongrong Lin 181

Chapter 8 Framework for Water Pollution Control Alpaslan Ekdal 193

Chapter 9 Tools and Techniques for Water Quality Interpretation Deepesh Machiwal , Madan K. Jha 211

Chapter 10 Revitalization Plans and Implementation, Collingwood Harbour, Georgian Bay,Ontario

Gail Krantzberg 253Chapter 11 Characteristics of Polyaluminum Chloride (PAC) Coagulant Prepared by Baking

ProcessGuanyun Wang , Chunlu Zhao 265

Chapter 12 Low-Cost Wastewater Treatment Process-Natural Biological Treatment Systems Zongping Wang 291

Abbreviations 311


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Contents

Chapter 1 Water Quality Requirements

1.1. Introduction 31.2. Water Quantity 31.3. Water Quality 51.4. Factors that Affect Water Quality 7 1.5. Water Pollution 91.6. Water Quality Parameters 111.7. Beneficial Uses versus Water Quality Parameters 11

1.7.1. Drinking Water 111.7.2. Recreational Use 121.7.3. Fisheries and Shellfish Production 121.7.4. Irrigation 131.7.5. Industrial Process Water 14

1.8. Water Quality Criteria, Guidelines and Standards 141.8.1. Water Quality Criteria 141.8.2. Water Quality Guidelines 151.8.3. Water Quality Standards 15

1.9. Comparison of Water Quality Standards 16

1.10. Conclusions and Recommendations

22References 23About the Authors 25

Chapter 2 Wastewater as a Resource

2.1. Introduction 292.1.1. Potential Benefits and Risks of Using Effluent Water 30

2.2. Types of Reuse 312.2.1. Landscape Irrigation 312.2.2. Agricultural Irrigation 322.2.3. Recreational Use 33

2.2.4. Environmental Enhancement

332.2.5. Groundwater Recharge 332.2.6. Industrial Reuse 332.2.7. Other Urban Uses 342.2.8. Other Indirect Potable Use 35

2.3. Implementing or Upgrading Agricultural Reuse Systems 352.3.1. Membrane Technology 37

2.3.1.1. Membrane Filtration 372.3.1.2. Membrane Separation 38

2.3.2. Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) Technology 41


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2.3.3. Disinfection Systems 412.3.4. Some Recent Advances on Implementing and Upgrading Agricultural Reuse Systems 44

2.3.4.1. Experiences of the European Countries 442.3.4.2. Experiences of China 462.3.4.3. Experiences of South Korea 462.3.4.4. Experiences of Middle East Countries 46

2.4. Management of Wastewater as a Resource 472.4.1. Basic Principles of Wastewater Treatment for Water Reclamation 482.4.2. Existing International Quality Standards/Regulations and Guidelines 482.4.3. Tools for Risk Assessment 542.4.4. Current Wastewater Reuse Potential, Policy and Public Attitudes in Various Countries 56

2.4.4.1. Prevailing Situation in Some Countries 572.5. Conclusions and Recommendations 63References 64Websites 67

About the Authors

69

Chapter 3 Wastewater Treatment

3.1. Introduction 733.1.1. General Considerations 733.1.2. Causes of Water Pollution 733.1.3. Wastewater Treatment Processes and General Guidelines 743.1.4. Water Quality 75

3.2. Conventional Wastewater Treatment Processes 753.2.1. General Considerations 75

3.2.1.1. Primary Treatment 78

3.2.1.2. Secondary Treatment

823.2.1.3. Tertiary Treatment 83

3.2.2. Design of the Main Treatment Plant Units 883.2.2.1. Primary Treatment Units 883.2.2.2. Secondary Treatment Units 98

3.3. Natural Biological Treatment Systems 1113.3.1. General Considerations 1113.3.2. Lagoons and Ponds Systems 1123.3.3. Wetland Systems 116

3.3.3.1. Natural Wetlands 1183.3.3.2. Constructed Wetlands 118

3.4. Conclusions and Recommendations 1213.4.1. Conventional Treatment Systems 122

3.4.2. Biological Treatment Systems 122References 123About the Author 124

Chapter 4 Wastewater Use in Aquaculture

4.1. Introduction 1274.1.1. Fundamental Principles in Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture 1274.1.2. Historical Overview of Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture 127


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4.1.3. Current Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture Practice 1284.1.4. Potential Impacts on Food Safety and Human Health 128

4.2. Biota in Aquaculture Ponds 1294.2.1. Functional Zones in the Pond 1294.2.2. Plant in Aquaculture System 1304.2.3. Aquaculture Fish 1304.2.4. Biological Characteristics 131

4.3. Technical Aspects of Fish Culture 1324.3.1. New Evidence of Health Risks from Studies in Indonesia 1324.3.2. Stocking of Filterivorous Animals 1334.3.3. Combining Conservation with Reasonable Utilization of Hydrophytes 1344.3.4. Aquaculture-Pig Husbandry Integration 135

4.4. Conclusions and Recommendations 1354.5. Acknowledgements 136References 136

About the Author

138

Chapter 5 Economic Instruments

5.1. Introduction 1415.1.1. Survey of Water Pollution 1415.1.2. The Loss Areas by Water Pollution 141

5.1.2.1. Influence of Water Pollution on Industry 1415.1.2.2. Influence of Water Pollution on Agriculture 1425.1.2.3. Influence of Water Pollution on Fishing 1425.1.2.4. Influence of Water Pollution on Ecological Landscape 142

5.1.3. Calculation of the Loss by Water Pollution 142

5.2. Policy and Principles

1435.2.1. Research on Methods to Solve Water Pollution in America 1435.2.2. The Research on European Policies, Laws and Rules about the Handling of Water Pollution 1435.2.3. The Research on Chinese Policies, Laws and Rules about the Handling of Water Pollution 1445.2.4. The Comparison between the Direct Governing of Water Pollution and the System of Tax 144

5.3. Why Use Economic Instruments? 1465.3.1. Administrative Instruments 1465.3.2. Economic Instruments 1465.3.3. Legal Means 1475.3.4. Technical Means 1475.3.5. A Comparative Analysis of Economic Means and Administrative Means 148

5.4. Applying Economic Instruments 1495.4.1. Pollution Charge 150

5.4.2. Taxes, Fees and Fines 1505.4.3. The Price Mechanism for Water Resources 1515.4.4. Water Rights and Water Market 1515.4.5. Emission Permits Trading 1525.4.6. The Mechanism of Ecological Compensation 152

5.5. Choosing between instruments 1535.6. Application in Developing Countries 153

5.6.1. The analysis of Chinas Water Pollutions 1545.6.2. The Economic Methods Adopted by China to Treat the Water Pollutions 1545.6.3. Emission Permits Trading Practice in China 156


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5.7. Conclusions 159References 161About the Authors 162

Chapter 6 Financing and Sustaining Wastewater Management

6.1. Introduction 1676.2. The Challenges of Urban Sanitation 167

6.2.1. Basic Sanitation Services for Urban Households and Its Effect 1686.2.2. Urban Waste Water Management and Pollution Control 1696.2.3. Connection between Sanitation Services and Environmental Issues 170

6.3. The Financial Challenges 1716.3.1. User Charges 1716.3.2. Subsidies for Introducing Appropriate Technology 172

6.4. Sustainable Waste Water Management 1736.4.1. Approaches to Sustainable Municipal Solid Waste Management 1746.4.2. Upstream Approach 1756.4.3. Downstream Approach 176

6.5. Recommendations for Sustainability of WWM 1766.5.1. Technical Aspects 1766.5.2. Management Aspects 1776.5.3. Legislative Aspects 1776.5.4. Supportive Aspects 178

References 178List of Acronyms and Abbreviations 179About the Author 179

Chapter 7 Information Systems

7.1. Introduction 1837.2. An Overall Strategy for Developing Water Quality Information Systemes 1837.3. Selection of Variables 185

7.3.1. Physical Parameters 1857.3.2. Chemical Parameters 1857.3.3. Biological Parameters 186

7.4. Implementing Water Quality Networks (Including Data Collection, Archiving, and Dissemination) 1867.4.1. Design of Monitoring Networks 1877.4.2. Data Collection, Archiving, and Dissemination 188

7.5. Monitoring Technology 189

References

190About the Author 191

Chapter 8 Framework for Water Pollution Control

8.1. Introduction 1958.2. Initial Analysis of Water Quality Problems, Setting up the Objectives 1978.3. Characterization of Existing Conditions in the Watershed 1978.4. Management Tools and Instruments 198


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12.1. Introduction 29312.2. Conventional Wastewater Treatment Processes 293

12.2.1. Suspended Growth Bioreactors 29412.2.1.1. Activated Sludge 29412.2.1.2. Aerobic Digestion 29512.2.1.3. Anaerobic Contact 29512.2.1.4. Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor 29512.2.1.5. Anaerobic Digestion 296

12.2.2. Attached Growth Bioreactor 29612.2.2.1. Fluidized Bed Bioreactors 29612.2.2.2. Rotating Biological Contactor 29612.2.2.3. Trickling Filter 29612.2.2.4. Packed Bed 29612.2.2.5. Anaerobic Filter 296

12.3. Natural Biological Treatment Systems 297

12.3.1. Land Treatment

29712.3.1.1. Technology Definition 29712.3.1.2. Types of Land Treatment Systems 29712.3.1.3. Land Treatment Mechanisms 29812.3.1.4. Development 299

12.3.2. Wetland Treatment 30012.3.2.1. Technology Definition 30012.3.2.2. Types of Constructed Wetland Treatment Systems 30112.3.2.3. Constructed Wetland Treatment Mechanisms 30212.3.2.4. Development 303

12.3.3. Waste Stabilization Ponds 30412.3.3.1. Technology Definition 30412.3.3.2. Types and Wise Use of Waste Stabilization Pond 304

12.3.3.3. Mechanism

30612.3.3.4. Development 306

12.4. Conclusions and Recommendations 307References 308About the Author 309

Abbreviations


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advances in water quality control

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