[advances in food research] advances in food research volume 12 volume 12 || fish sausage and ham...

FISH SAUSAGE AND HAM INDUSTRY IN JAPAN

BY EIICHI TANIKAWA

Laboratory of Marine Food I'echnology, Faculty of Fisheries, Hokkaido University,

Hakodate, Hokkaido, Japan

I. The Fish Sausage and Ham Industry in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Manner of Preparing Fish Sausage and Ham

11. Raw Materials for Fish Sausage and Ham . . . . . . A. Red-Fleshed Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. White-Fleshed Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

111. Manufacture of Fish Sausage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Treatment of Raw Materials B. Processing Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Casings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Final Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 E. Chemical Components of Fish Sausage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

A. Treatment of Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 IV. Manufacture of Fish Ham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B. Proportion of Admixed Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 C. Stuf6ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Casings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Final Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 G. Chemical Components of Fish Ham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392

V. Putrefaction of Fish Sausage and Ham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 A. Keeping Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 B. Signs of Putrefaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 C. Types of Putrefaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 D. Detecting Putrefaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 E. Kinds of Bacteria Causing Putref 396

396 A . Bacteria in Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 B. Contamination of Factory and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 C. Thermotolerance of Surviving Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 D. Bacterial Contamination After Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 E. Invasion of Casing Mouth by Bacteria in Cooling Water . . . . . . . . . . 403

VII. Calculation of Processing Time by the General Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 VIII. Effects of Preservatives on Sterilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

A. Permissible Preservatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 B. Preservatives in Combination Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

IX. Prevention of Putrefaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

T'I. Origins of Bacteria in Fish Sausage and Ham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

367

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A. Disinfection and Sanitary Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 B. Disinfection of Supplemental Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 C. Disinfection of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 D. High-Temperature Sterilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

414 XI. Sanitary Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

B. In Packaging, Handling, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 C. General Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

XII. Storing Fish Sausage and Ham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 XIII. Aging Fish Sausage and Ham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 XIV. Official Quality Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

X. Food Poisoning from Fish Sausage and Ham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A. In Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

1. THE FISH SAUSAGE AND HAM INDUSTRY IN JAPAN

A. HISTORY

Large quantities of fish sausage and ham have been produced annually in Japan for the past several years. Total production in 1962 was 114,125 tons, equivalent to 878 million 130-gram pieces of fish sausage, the usual portion sold on the market. The industry is domi- nated by big enterprises, particularly by some big fishing companies, with large factories the basic unit. Some factories have a daily production of 500,000 pieces of fish sausage (130 g per piece). Turning back to the past, studies on preparing fish sausage were carried on by Prefectural Fisheries Experimental Stations as long ago as 1925, but actual manufacturing was unsuccessful, perhaps because the product was of poor quality or was ahead of the times.

In 1938, attempts were made by Dr. W. Shimizu (Japanese Patent 127846) to prepare fish ham from tuna meat, but the product was not as popular as i t is today. Perhaps the fishy smell of fish ham could not be overcome in those days, or the product did not go well with the rice of the staple diet.

It is only in the last few years that the fish sausage and ham in- dustries have attained prosperity. Immediately after World War I1 one of the big fishing companies, Nippon Suisan Co. (Japan Fishing Co.) , undertook to study the manufacture of fish sausage and ham from whale meat from the Antarctic Ocean and from catches of trawler ships in the East China Sea. Beginning in about 1953, the processing of fish sausage and ham has gradually become a mass-production enterprise.

The key to success was the advent of ryphan sausage casing (rubber film casing treated with hydrochloric acid) and the accumulation of scientific findings on the processing of the Japanese fish paste (“kamaboko”), which has been eaten by .Japanese from ancient times. In

FISH SAUSAGE AND H A Y INDUSTRY I N J S P A N 369

addition there has been much publicity by several big fishing companies, which have carefully and completely planned each step in the manufacture. The fact that fish sausage and ham go well with bread eating, which has increased in Japan since the war, should not be ne- glected as one reason for the growth of the industry.

In 3954 the amount of production of fish sausage and ham was first reported in the (‘Annual Report of Catch Statistics on Fishery and Aquiculture by the Japancse Government, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.” The total was 1,995 tons. Since then, production has increased annually, as shown in Table I. Licensed makers of fish sausage and ham totaled 65 in 1960, coinpared to 4,900 makers of Japanese- style fish paste (“kainaboko”).

TABLE I

PRODUCTION OF FISH SAUSAGE AND HAM IN 1954-1962

1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962

Production (tons) 1,995 9,417 18,082 35,896 59,604 71,516 101,437 111,990 114,125

The processors of fish sausage and ham are few in number because the great expense of the manufacturing plants restricts the operation to well-capitalized fishing companies that can catch whale, tuna, and other fish from their own ships.

B. MANNER OF PREPARING FISH SAUSAGE AND HAM

1. Processing Fish Sausage

Fresh white-flesh fish are dressed by removal of the head, tail, visceral mass, and bones, then filleted, and at last skinned if the fish are large. The filleted fish are crushed through a chopper. The crushed meat is soaked in fresh water to remove fat, blood, and dust, and to bleach. The bleached meat is drained in a “bulk centrifugal separator.” With red-fleshed fish, potassium or sodium nitrite is added to the flesh blocks to increase the redness (according to Japanese law, the residual amount of nitrite must be less than 70 ing per kg of finishcd products). The reddened fish meat is crushed through a chopper.

The pieces of bleached or reddened fish meat are ground with a ‘(stone grinder”; during the grinding, fine salt is added in order to make the fish meat adhesive. Added to the ground meat are vegetable oil, sodium glutamate, sodium 5’-ribonucleotide, sugar, preservatives (sorbic acid, nitrofuraxone, nitrofurylacryl amidc) , spices and condiments, and coloring materials.

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Next, during the grinding, powdered starch is added to adjust the elasticity (this is called “ashi”) of the finished products. Raw pork fa t is cut into dice-sized pieces and mixed with the ground fish meat in a mixer.

The ingredients are stuffed into one of several types of sausage casings as described later. The mouth of the casing is sealed with a “sealing machine.” The sealed fish sausages are processed 60 minutes a t 8547°C in continuous cookers and then cooled in a continuous cooler, when the sausage casings become wrinkled. The wrinkles are removed by soaking the cooled sausages in boiling water for one minute.

The finished fish sausages in their casings are packaged in ccllophttne.

2. Processing Fish H a m

For fish ham, red meat of tuna and whale is cut, into small blocks (1.5 cm3) and dry-salted with salt of 347% by weight of the meat. Potassium or sodium nitrite is added in the salt a t 0.1 g per kg of meat in order to redden it.

The blocks of reddened tuna and whale meat are mixed in a mixer with raw pork fat cut into chunks (1 x 1 x 10 cm) and ground fish m e a t c a l l e d “binding meat” (“tsunagi-niku”)-amounting to 20% by weight of the reddened fish and whale meat. Added during mixing are ingredients and various condiments as added to the fish sausage. Used as “binding meat” is crushed fish meat that has strong elasticity after processing, e.g., black marlin (Makaira marlina) or “guchi” (Nibea schlegelii). The mixed ingredients are stuffed into one of the available types of ham casings, which are larger than casings for fish sausage. Fish ham is processed about the same as is fish sausage except for the use of a “retainer” during processing.

3. Differences between Fish Sausage H a m and Japanese Fish Meat Paste

As noted above, in Japan fish paste, or pudding, has been processed and eaten as a favorite food since ancient times. Japanese-style fish paste is prepared from various kinds of white-fleshed fish meat having strong elasticity after processing of the crushed meat, e.g., ((guchi,” “eso” (Xaurida argyrophanes) , “nibe” (Scioend albiflora) , and shark meat. The procedures are dressing, filleting, crushing, grinding, seasoning, shaping, and boiling. At a glance, the procedures resemble those in making fish sausage, but there are some differences. One is that fish sausages are stuffed into sausage casing, which lengthens safe storage life to onc month even in summer. Another difference is that fa t or oil and spices are added to the fish sausage. Generally speaking, the Japanese

FISH SAUSAGE AND HAM INDUSTRY IN JAPAN 371

like a bland taste, so, preferably, many kinds of seasoning materials are not added to Japanese fish paste. Fish sausage, however, has come to be “Europeanized” in taste to be relished when eaten with bread. With changes in the Japanese diet, the production of fish sausage and ham is expected to increase year by year. In the future, the securing of raw materials is likely to become a serious problem. Many investigators in Japan are engaged in studies on raw materials and processing; they must solve many technical problems.

11. RAW MATERIALS FOR FISH SAUSAGE A N D HAM The raw materials for fish sausage are not necessarily certain par-

ticular species of fish, as are required for Japanese fish paste, which must have strong elasticity after processing. In other words, fish sausage can be made of fish flesh that has little elasticity. Fish paste requires white-fleshed fish, but fish sausage can be made of red-fleshed fish because the material is dyed during processing, and the rich taste of the red-fleshed fish meats is appropriate. Sausage cannot be made, however, from fish having a large amount of dark muscle (“chiai- niku”), such as mackerel, saury, and sardine, because the dark muscle becomes a dark blackish-rcd when processed.

Used as raw materials for fish ham is meat from big red-fleshed fishes, but it is not suitable as “binding meat,” because red-fleshed fish meat is generally weak in elasticity after processing.

At any rate, many kinds of fishes are now used as raw materials for fish sausage, in contrast to the few kinds suitable for fish paste.

A. RED-FLESHED FISH

1. Tuna

Four kinds of tuna are usually caught by Japanese fishermen: bluefin tuna (LLkuro-maguro”) ( Thunnus thynnues) , yellowfin tuna (“kihada- maguro”) (Neothynnus macropterus) , big-eye tuna (“mebachi”) (Para- thynnus sibi), and albacore (“binnaga-maguro”) (Germo germo) .

Among them, bluefin tuna has high value as raw meat for “sushi” or “sashimi,” and is too expensive to use as raw material for fish sausage and ham. But the taste of the bluefin tuna becomes poor in summer, and sometimes abnormal fleshincss occurs in the meat, as “jelly meat.” When, in consequence, the price falls, i t may be used in fish sausage. Bluefin tuna caught in distant oceans is apt to lose freshness, and fish caught with long-line hooks have sometimes been partially eaten by sharks. Such meat is used as raw material for fish sausage because such

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meat is low in price. Yellowfin tuna and big-eye tuna are raw material for canning. Indian tuna ( a variety of bluefin tuna) is considered poor in taste, so it is used for fish sausage.

2. Marlin

There are several kinds of marlin: striped marlin (“ma-kajiki”) (Tetrapturus mitsukuri) , giant black marlin (“shirokawa-kajiki”) ( M a - kairn marlina) , blue marlin (“kurokawa-kajiki”) (Tetrapturus amplus) , sailfish (“basho-kajiki”) ( H i s t i o p h m s orientalis) , and broadbill sword fish (“me-kajiki”) (Xiphias gladius). The flesh of those fish is used mainly in “sashimi.” If the freshness of those marlin falls somewhat, the price falls and the meat is used for fish sausage. Blue marlin is good in taste; i t has white flesh, and the elasticity is strong. Accordingly, blue marlin is the best raw material for the preparation of fish sausage and ham as well as for Japanese fish paste. Striped marlin and sailfish are deep red, but the color does not turn to blackish-red, unlike the bluefin tuna, because other pigments arc more abundant than hemoglobin.

3. Skipjack and Bonito

Skipjack and bonito belong to the Scombridae. There are three genera: frigate mackerel (“soda-katsuo”) (Auxis thonard), bonito (LLkatsuo”) (Katsuwonus pelamis) and skipjack (LLkitsune-katsuo”) (Sarda chilensis).

Bonito is used as a daily food, or as raw material for fish ‘Lfushi” (dried fish sticks). Bonito fish bodies deformed by freezing or icing on fishing boats are used as raw material for fish sausage. Bonito flesh becomes blackish-red during processing, even if the pigment is fixed by nitrite. The muscle fiber of the flesh of this fish is stringy, so the elasticity of the meat after processing is weak.

Among frigate mackerels, the flat frigate mackerel is large and the content of dark muscle is so poor that it is used for everyday food, but round frigate mackerel is so rich in dark muscle that i t smells typically fishy and is poor in taste, and the price is accordingly low. It is preferably used as raw material of fish sausage. The fish sausage made from round frigate mackerel is blackish owing to the rich amount of dark muscle.

4. Salmon

Salmon is used mainly for canning or salting in Japan. But the waste pieces of meat such as neck meat or deformed salmon body meat arc used as raw material for fish sausage.


5. Whale

There are many species of whale, among which the red meat of the blue whale (%hiro-nagasu”) ( Bolaenoptera musculs) and fin whale (“nagasu”) (Bolaenoptera physalus) is used as raw material for fish sausage and ham as well as for frozen or salted food products. For some time the red meat was not eaten, because it is of poor taste. Big fishing companies have tried to USC whale red ineat for fish sausage, owing to the low price.

B. WHITE-FLESHED FISH

Generally speaking, white-fleshed fish meat has poor fat content, but the elasticity of the meat after processing is strong. Such meat is suitable as raw material in fish sausage (as complementary material) and in ham (as “binding meat”), as well as for Japanese fish paste.

Among white-fleshed fish, “guchi” (Nibea schlegelii) or “eso” (Sau- rida argyrophanes) has strong elasticity but cod (“tara”) (Gadus macrocephalus) or Alaska pollack (“sukeso-tara”) (Theragra chalcogramma) is weak.

1. Sharks and Rays

No kinds of sharks and rays are eaten as daily dishes except “hoshi- same” (Cynias manazo) , “mijka-same” (or “rakuda-same”) (Lamna ditropis) , and “aka-ei” (Dasybatus akajei) , which lack the ammoniac odor of the others. The latter have been eaten since ancient times in the form of fish paste owing to the strong elasticity of the meat. The cause of the strong elasticity is the rich content of urea (Okada, 1959).

“Ao-same” (Isurus g l a u m ) and “shumoku-same” (Cestracion zygaena) are large in size and light red in color. However, the color of the finished product is white. The dark muscle in the meat becomes blackish red, which is one defect; accordingly, they are not suitable as raw material for fish paste but can be used for fish sausage and ham.

“Hoshi-same” (Galeorhinus manazo) , “dochi-same” (Trialcis scyl- Zium) , and “abura-same” (Squalus suckii) are small but the processed meat has a strong elasticity. Meat of “Onaga-same” (Vulpecula marina) and “mej iro-same” (Carcharintis gangeticus) is also strong in elasticity after processing. Among the sharks, the meat of “mijka-same” (Isurus nasus) and of “yoshikiri-same” (Galcus glaucus) is weak in elasticity.

2. “Eso”

“Eso” (Sazirida argyrophanes) is one of typical catches in trawling in the East China Sea. “Eso” has been one of the typical raw materials

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for Japanese fish paste from ancient times. When i t is fresh, the elasticity is very strong, but as freshness declines the elasticity falls rapidly: especially when i t is frozen, the meat becomes fragile. However, raw material of poor freshness regains elasticity when bleached.

3. “Guchi“ and “Nibe”

“Guchi” (Nibea schlegelzi) is also a typical catch in the East China Sea; its taste is not good, but the elasticity is strong and remains so even if freshness is lost. ‘‘Guchi” has some defects in that it emits a metallic odor and comes to have an astringent taste as freshness is lost. “Nibe” (Scioend nlbijlora) resembles “guchi.” “Guchi” and “nibe” have

FIQ. 1A. Fish meat rollector; pressing machine with disc.


been considered the best raw material for Japanese fish paste from ancient times.

4. Others

Other fish that have white flesh, such as “kanagasliira” (Trichiurus lepturus), are also caught in the East China Sea. As freshness falls, however, elasticity weakens rapidly. “Kanagashira” is unsuitable as raw material for fish paste because the taste is poor, and the yield is comparatively small because the head is so large.

Cod (“tara”) (Gadus macrocephalus) is poor in fat content, and the elasticity is weak.

FIG. IB. Fish meat collector; machine with belt and cylinder.

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Alaska pollack (“sukeso”) (Theragra chalcogramma) meat has almost the same chemical properties as those of cod.

Flat fishes (Pleuronectidae) include many species. As freshness declines, the elasticity becomes weak.

Squid (Ommastrephes sloani pacificus) is abundant, so if i t can be used for fish sausage i t will prove very profitable. But it is regrettably weak in elasticity. As complementary material, it can be mixed with other raw material only up to 20% of the total weight (Tanikawa and Fujii, 1959). If the squid is not skinned, the color of the meat changes to red, owing to the presence of pigmentphores under the epidermis. If the skinning is carried on in warm water (about 50°C) by enzymatic action, the protein of the meat denatures and elasticity weakens. There- fore the skinning must be by hand or soaking in boiling water (100°C) for a short time. A skinning machine was recently invented.

111. MANUFACTURE OF FISH SAUSAGE

A. TREATMENT OF RAW MATERIALS 1. Defrosting

Large blocks of frozen whale or tuna meat from refrigerator ships, to be used as raw materials, are defrosted in running water. When the frozen meat is half defrosted (when a knife edge can be inserted into the material), the meat is cut into small blocks.

2. Crushing Fish bodies except whale and tuna are filleted, removing head, tail,

fins, and visceral mass, then the meat is collected with a “gyoniku- saishuki” (“fish meat collector”), which tears meat off the skin and bones. There are two styles of this machine (Fig. 1, A and B) : one is a pressing machine with a round disc having many holes, and the other has a belt and cylinder with many holes.

The percentage of meat collected varies according to the species of fish, e.g., the yield from flat fish is 25% and that of frozen tuna or marlin from which the visceral mass has been removed is 50-70%. The average yield is generally about 40% by weight of the whole raw fish.

3. Bleaching The torn meat of the fish is soaked in fresh water to remove blood,

fat, and dust. This is called “bleaching.” Bleaching renders the meat white and removes certain drawbacks peculiar to the species of fish (odor, color, taste, etc.) ; valuable qualities are retained and strength- ened, e.g., the elasticity becomes strong.

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Bleaching, i t is true, removes some nutritive components and some amount of protein. Tuna meat is not bleached by soaking, but is reddened with nitrite. For bleaching, fresh water should be employed since salt water dissolves out salt-soluble protein (e.g., myosin). Further, if chlorine compounds are added to the water, the color of the meat perhaps becomes white, but the elasticity is drastically reduced and the chlorine odor remains. Remaining odor should be removed by treatment with sodium thiosulfate or hydrogen peroxide solution.

4. Draining

In order to drain, the bleached meat is put in a cotton cloth bag and the whole is pressed in a hand-lever or hydraulic press. A bulk centrifugal dehydrator has recently become available (Fig. 2) .

FIG. 2. Draining process in a bulk centrifugal dehydrator.

The draining must be adequate, for otherwise the meat becomes watery, but if draining is excessive the meat becomes fibrous and adhesiveness cannot be obtained, even by grinding. Adequate drainage reduces the weight considerably below that before soaking (bleaching). Shark meat is drained somewhat excessively because the protein content is less than in other fish meat.

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5. Reddening

If red-fleshed fish meat having large amounts of dark flesh, such as tuna and bonito, is processed, the red color changes to blackish red. The reason is a change of hemoglobin or myoglobin to methemoglobin or metmyoglobin by oxidation. Formerly, to redden the red flesh further, saltpeter (potassium nitrate) was used. The saltpeter itself has no ability to redden, but nitrite, formed from nitrate by bacterial action, combines with hemoglobin or myoglobin to form nitrosohemoglobin or nitrosomyoglobin, which are stable and bright red in color.

bacterial action

reduction Hb + N O + HbNO

hemoglobin nitrosomyoglobin myoglobin nitrosohemoglobin

HN03 2HNOz + HzO + NO + NOn

The use of nitrite was once prohibited by law, but since Dec. 23, 1955, i t has been permitted for fish sausage or ham on condition that the amount of residual nitrite should be less than 70 mg per kg of the finished products. If the nitrite is sodium nitrite, the amount must be less than 129 mg. Nitrite is applied as follows: i t is dissolved in water and the solution is sprayed onto the red meat, or 0.1 g of nitrite is mixed with 3040 g of salt, and this mixture is rubbed homogeneously onto the red-fleshed fish meat; the meat is then kept in cold storage for 1 or 2 days.

Recently niacin amide (nicotin amide) has also been tested for the reddening of red-fleshed fish meat,. Niacin amide combines with hemoglobin or myoglobin to form niacinhemoglobin or niacinmyoglobin, which are stable against heating and are bright red in color. “Pinkmin” (a trade name), which contains niacin amide, is sold on the market for the reddening of meat sausage or ham. Yoshikawa et al. (1959) studied the use of niacin amide and ascorbic acid, singly or jointly, in reddening fish sausage or ham. Niacin and ascorbic acid used together (respec- tively 0.03-0.05% and 0.02-0.05%) proved best for reddening and maintaining the color over a long period of storage.

Red-fleshed fish meat that has lost its freshness appears blackish- red and cannot be reddened with nitrite. Added ascorbic acid sometimes reduces the methemoglobin and metmyoglobin t o their original bright red. So it is effective and permissible to add 0.05-0.5 g of ascorbic acid per 1 kg of meat.


B. PROCESSING RAW MATERIALS

1. Crushing

The drained white fish meat and the reddened meat (tuna or whale) are crushed separately in a chopper (Fig. 3) . When the meat is passed through the holes of the plate of the chopper, heat is, of course, gen- erated by the friction. The heat probably causes a change in the protein of the meat, so, t o prevent an undue rise in temperature, the meat should be cooled sufficiently before crushing, by adding ice, especially in summer. The smaller the diameter of the holes in the plate, the higher the temperaturc of the meat becomes, so the diameter should be as large as is practical.

2. Cutting Finely

Crushed white-fleshed fish, whale, and tuna meat are put into an iron mortar of a “silent cutter” (a “food cutter”) in proportions that differ from maker to maker.

The silent cutt,er has several revolving knives on a shaft. The knives are revolved a t high speed by an electric motor to cut the meat and to n i x it. The revolving knives do not touch the inner surface of the iron mortar, so the temperature of the meat being processed does not rise. Ten to 30 minutes of operation is sufficient to cut the meat finely and mix i t homogeneously in the mortar.

A particular factory furnishes an example of the proportions of various meats added: tuna meat (50%), shark meat (30%), whale red meat ( 5 % ) ; if complementary meat such as squid or Alaska pollack is added, the amount is less than 10%. Besides the fish meat there are added: starch ( lo%) , sugar (1.6%), salt (3%), sodium glutamate, sodium ribonucleotide, coloring material, smoke-flavor liquid material, preservatives, spice, and condiments (in total 0.4%). Instead of starch, gelatin made from pork skin or gluten is now added to the mixed fish meat to make strong elasticity. The mixture of seasoning material (sugar, salt, sodium glutamate), coloring material, preservatives, and condiments is prepared in a separate room and added to the meat in the mortar through a pipe. A t the end of the operation, small cubes of raw pork f a t are added to the mixed fish meat. The ingredients are stuffed into one of the available sausage casings.

The finished product, which is prepared by cutting in a silent cutter, is called “meat-sausage-style” fish sausage.

3. Grinding

In some factories, the crushed white fish meat or whale meat is ground in a “stone grinder” (“raikai-ki”) (Fig. 4) in order to increase

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FIO. 3. Crushing with a chopper.


FIG. 4. A stone grinder.

its adhesiveness, instead of cutting it in a silent cutter. Finished product prepared by grinding in a grinder is called “kamaboko-style” fish sausage. However, elasticity is not so highly desirable a quality for sausage as i t is for fish paste (“kainaboko”). A grinder has several revolving pestles in a large revolving stone mortar. The pestles and the mortar revolve in counter directions. The capacities of such mortars are 37-113 kg. If the crushed white fish meat is adequately ground, the elasticity of the ineat increases. If grinding is excessive, however,

382 EIICHI TANIKAWA

the protein of the meat is denatured by the friction heat, resulting in loss of elasticity. Adequacy of grinding is determined experimentally by grasping by hand or by the smoothness of lengthening of the ground meat. The grinding will be finished in 20-30 minutes. To prevent heat of friction, ice should be added and its presence maintained. The ice melts to water during grinding, and the proper amount of water added to the meat being ground should be reduced proportionately.

At the initial period of grinding, the meat only is put in the mortar to grind (this operation is called “kara-suri”), and near the end of the grinding a definite amount of a mixture of seasoning and coIoring material, preservatives, and condiments is added through a pipe to the meat being ground, just as with a stone grinder. At last, small cubes of raw pork fat are added to the mixture. Sometimes, to secure proper homogeneity, the preservatives should be added to the crushed meat in the initial period.

4. Seasoning

During cutting or grinding, the seasoning materials, starch, etc., are added to the mixture of white-fleshed fish meat and whale meat near the end of the operations, which go on for another 10-20 minutes. This grinding is called “hon-zuri.”

Seasoning materialevegetable oil, sodium glutamate, sodium ribonucleotide, sugar, spice and condiments, smoke-flavor liquid material, and salt-are added to the crushed meat in the order given.

Near the end of the operations, starch is added. This last adjusts the final elasticity of the meaf. Starch is added as powder or in solution in the amount of 10% of the total weight of the meat. If one wishes to determine the adequacy of elasticity, a small amount of seasoned meat is taken from the cutter or grinder and heated, aGd the elasticity is determined by touch. If i t is weak, more starch should be added; if it is too strong, water should be added. If too much starch is added, the taste of the finished product becomes poor. The amount of starch added should not be more than 10% of the meat by weight. When starch is added as a water solution, wheat starch weakens elasticity more drastically than does potato starch, because the hydrating activity of the latter is greater than that of wheat starch. Recently, gluten or gelatin made from pork skin has been added to the crushed meat to strengthen elasticity after the materials are ground in the stone grinder.

The amount of salt is 2.5% of the total amount of the crushed mixed meat. This is added in company with seasoning materials near the end of the operation.


Sugar is added in the same amount as salt. Besides sugar, sweet “sake” is sometimes added.

As vegetable oil, refined cotton seed salad oil or soybean oil is added to 7-100/0 by weight of the total amount of the mixed meat. The addition of vegetable oil certainly differentiates fish sausage from Jap- anese-style fish paste. Addition of oil to fish paste would weaken the elasticity. And if the fish meat has lost its freshness, the product will become too weak. The suitable amount of sodium glutamate is 0 . 1 4 3 % of the amount of the crushed meat. Sodium ribonucleotide is added a t about 3% by weight of the mixed meat. Added as spice and condiments are pepper, garlic, ginger, cassia bark, beefsteak plant, and onion. Some factories also include smoke-flavor liquid.

Spices and condiments are important to cover the fish-meat smell, especially that of whale meat. So that a delicious smell may be given off by fish sausage or ham, the undesirable odor of whale meat must first be reduced by washing sufficiently, and then the smell of spices and condiments must be substituted. The kinds of spices and condiments should be two or more; many makers use five or six. Those spices and condiments are used in fine powder or soluble form. The amount added depends on the maker’s experience in getting the flavor desired.

Added as coloring material are edible red colorings such as ponceau, amaranth, and erythrosine, the use of which is permitted by law. If the color of the raw material is dark, the coloring material is added after the meat has been bleached by, as noted, soaking in fresh water.

There are various coloring materials in one chemical compound, e.g., in ponceau. The solubility, purity, color, limit of concentration, taste, pH, and thermotolerance are dfferent according to the kind. Most of the permitted coloring materials are not changed by heating a t below 100°C.

In the preparation of fish sausage or ham, red coloring materials are employed because the main raw materials are red-fleshed fish meat. Ten kinds of red coloring materials are permitted.

Adachi (1955) studied the properties of the red coloring materials, as shown in Table 11.

The smaller the value of limit concentration is, the more the coloring materials spread. Next, the discoloration or decolorization of coloring materials is influenced by the joint use of acids, alkalines, sugar, or salt. But those changes are caused by heating a t 135°C. In other words, the coloring materials do not change during the processing of fish sausage or ham. At any rate, when coloring materials are uscrl, their properties should be carefully considered.

As to the preservatives to be added-sorbic acid (up to 2 g per kg

384 EIICHI TANIKAWA

TABLE I1

PROPERTIES OF RED COLORING MATERIALS PERMITTED BY JAPANESE LAW

Taste Purity of Limit Color (limit (minimum

Standard commercial pH (1% concentration' concentration concentration purity samples solution) (mg/100 ml) X 100,000)b to tarrte)O

No. 1

No. 2

No. 3

No. 4

No. 5

No. 101

No. 102

No. 103

No. 104

No. 105

(Ponceau 3 R)

(Amaranth)

(Erythrosine)

(Ponceau SX)

(Oil red XO)

(Ponceau R)

(New coccine)

(Eosine)

(Phloxine)

(Rose bengal)

70 75.34 7.48

70 86.46 7.70

85 90.08 8.10

75 81.28 5.45

97 97.lB - 70 81.43 7.82

70 80.00 7.92

85 80.G6 7.30

85 90.05 7.55

85 87.43 7.84

0.0070

0.0050

0.0040

0.0070

0.0800

0.0070

0.0050

0.0050

0.0040

0.0040

yellowish crimson

dark red

pink

yellowish crimson

yellowish red

yellowish crimson

crimson

yellowish pink

pink

pink; bluish pink

hitter (0.01)

tasteless

bitter (0.12)

tasteless

-

bitter (0.01)

tasteless

bitter (0.04)

bitter (0.05)

bitterd (0.15)

* Limit concentration means the minimum concentration to color.

c Taste is that in the minimum concentration of the solution. The parentheses show the valuea of

d Evil smell; like iodine.

Color is that shown in the concentration of "limit concentration X 100,000."

the minimum Concentration.

of fish sausage) and its salts, nitrofurazone (up to 0.05 g) and nitrofurylacryl amide are permitted in fish sausage and ham. The processing temperature is too low to prevent bacterial growth in the material, so the use of preservatives is considered unavoidable. The properties of the permitted preservatives are given in a later section.

5 . Mixing in Raw Pork Fat

To imitate meat sausage, fish sausage includes added raw pork fat. Cut into small cubes ( 5 m d ) it is added to the crushed ground meat to 7-10y0 of the total amount by weight of meat after grinding, and all the material is mixed homogeneously in a mixer (Fig. 5 ) . Pork back fat is better than pork belly fat.

C. CASINGS

1. Stuffing

A stuffer stuffs the ground seasoned meat into one of the sausage casings sold on the market. That machine consists essentially of a


F r Q . 5. Mixing process

cylinder and a piston. The ground seasoned meat is put into the cylinder, and the piston, operated by compressed air, pushes the meat into a casing. A stuffer was recently devised that stuffs a measured amount of meat.

The standard weight in a casing is 130 g for fish sausage and 244 g for fish ham, although the weight differs some according to the manufacturer. “Special-sized fish sausage” (“tokuyo” fish sausage) (33 x 3.3 cm; 260 g) has been processed recently. This is so convenient for home consumption that the amount of production has increased year by year. Besides, Vienna-style fish sausage (two connected pieces) is also proc-

TABLE I11

SIZES OF CASINGS

Net weight Width (cm) of cont,ent

Kinds (half diameter) Length (cm) (g)

Fish sausage 5 24 130 Fish ham 9 19 224 Vienna-style fiish sausage 2.5 24 30

(two pieces connected)

386 EIICHI TANIKAWA

essed, of which the net weight is 30 g for the two pieces. The sizes of casings are shown in Table 111.

2. Kinds of Casing Only cellophane casings were formerly employed for fish sausage.

But cellophane is permeable to moisture, permitting the fish sausage to dry out through the film. To prevent such loss of moisture, water-proof cellophane (cellophane film coated with a mixture of polymer of vinyl chloride or vinyl acetate and paraffin or other plastic materials) was developed. But this water-proof cellophane wrinkled after the processing. At this juncture, “ryphan” and polyvinylidene chloride film casings ap- peared. (Their properties are shown in Table IV.) It is not too much to

TABLE I V PROPERTIES OF CASINGS USED FOR FISH SAUSAGE

Polyethylene Properties Ryphan “Kureharon” (for contrast)

Thickness (mm) 0.028 0.033 0.045 Pulling strength (kg/cm2)

Lengthwise 1,005 893 209 Sidewise 980 1,210 173

Lengthwise 110 43.5 590 Sidewise 113 30.0 690

Lengthening (%)

Tearing strength (kg/cmz) Lengthwise 32 31.7 800 Sidewise 30 20.3 1,000

Winding strength (number of times of winding) 50,000/1 kg load 50,000/1 kg load 50,000/1 kg load

Hydrating ratio (7’) <0.1 <0.1 0.1

(g/mP/24 hr) 15 2 18 Moisture penetration

Gas penetration (Cot) (g/m2/24 hr/l Atom.) 0.6 0.1 150

say that these have accelerated the development of the fish sausage industry in Japan.

“Ryphan” film casing (rubber hydrochloride : Ryphan Industry Co. Patent, Tokyo) is prepared from rubber latex half vulcanized, like a toy-balloon. The toy-balloon-shaped rubber is treated with hydrochloric acid and drawn out to sausage casings. The “ryphan” film is shrunk by heating during processing, and the film casing adheres to the content. The strong points of “ryphan” are its light and strong struc-

PISH SAUSAGE AND HAM INDUSTRY IN JAPAN 387

ture, and the fact that i t is not affected by chemicals and oils or by heating and cooling. It does not permit water vapor or air to pass in either direction, so the flavor of the foods does not escape. The mouth of the casing is easily opened before stuffing without the film inner surfaces sticking together, so the stuffing procedure can be carried on smoothly. The film is incombustible, so there is no danger of fire; further, it is tasteless and odorless, so i t is suitable for the casing of foods. It has defects, however, in that the rubber becomes old after some months, hydrochloric acid gas is freed, and the film becomes fragile.

Another casing is vinylidene chloride film, resembling Saran. It is transparent, contractible, and water-proof, with a melting point of 16OoC, which permits perishables to be processed in this casing a t temperatures up to 120°C. It is chemically stable to fats, liquid oils, and organic solvents, and is extremely hard to break, tear apart, or punc- ture. The contractibility of the film makes possible very tight packaging of sausage and ham.

Tests yield the following comparison of rubber hydrochloride with vinylidene chloride. The first shrinks more than the latter-twice as much a t 85-100°C (its contractibility increases rapidly above 70°C). Lengthwise and sidewise shrinking differ in both films. In rubber hydrochloride the lengthwise shrinkage is great; the contraction is strong in processing, as shown in Table IV. The opening of the mouth of the casing, which is bound with cotton string or aluminum wire, is closed more tightly by the contraction, preventing the invasion of bacteria.

According to the values of tensile strength (kg/cm2) (maximum load to break the film)/[thickness (cm) x width (cm)] and elongation (%) ( l / l O ) , rubber hydrochloride is torn less easily than vinylidene chloride. The former has more tensile strength lengthwise than sidewise, and the latter is the reverse. When the two films are heated a t 100°C for 30 or 60 minutes, the former loses tensile strength in both directions, but the latter becomes weak in only the lengthwise dimension. That dimension also loses elasticity and the film becomes fragile. The two films are very slightly permeable to moisture when heated a t 100°C for 45 minutes: 0.0022 g per day for a casing of the former (thickness 0.05 mm), and 0.05 g for a casing of the latter (same thickness).

A defect of rubber hydrochloride is that it becomes opaque when heated, and when i t is heated for a long time a t a comparatively high temperature (about lOO"C), many bubbles appear on the surface of the film. Vinylidene chloride, however, is transparent even after the same heating, but the transparency becomes a defect in that the content itself can be seen. Therefore fish sausage so wrapped is given an overwrap of red cellophane film.

388 EIICHI TANIKAWA

FIG. 6. OKK new packer. The ground seasoned meat is put into a hopper (1) and conveyed to a nozzle (2) . Vinylidene chloride sheet film, which is rolled on a shaft, runs out, enveloping the meat ejected from the nozzle. The edges of the sheet film are sealed together by high-frequency heating (3) to make a tube. Tube film containing the meat is cut into sections (4 ) , and the ends of the sausage are sealed with aluminum wire. Also shown is a switchboard for an oscillator (5).

3. Sealing

The mouth of the casing was formerly sealed with cotton string; now an aluminum wire ring has largely replaced the cotton string sealing, which was imperfect and inefficient. If an empty casing does not foam a t the mouth in water under a pressure of 3 lb/inch2 blown into the casing with an air pump, bacteria cannot enter through the opening of the mouth; that is to say, the sealing is perfect.

A vinylidene chloride casing sealed with aluminum wire ring by a machine (invented by the Kureha Chemical Industry Co. and made by the Omori Machinery Industry Co., Tokyo) can stand against com- pressive strength of 15 lb/inch2. The machine, powered by an electric motor, can seal 30-40 pieces of sausage casings per minute. Another machine (“Ryphan” Industry Co.) can seal rubber hydrochloride casings with wire a t the rate of 50 per minute. Another type of sealing ma-


chine, the "OKK New Packer," is made by the Oniori Machinery In- dustry Co. (Fig. 6) .

D. FINAL PROCESSING

1. Boiling and Cooling

The sealed casings in which ground fish meat is stuffed are processed in a boiling tank, generally heated with steam, I n large factories, a continuous cooker is used. The apparatus consists of two boiling tanks, a cooling tank, and a short-time boiling tank in one connected unit. In the first boiling tank, kept a t 75"C, the pieces of fish sausage, on a conveyor, are immersed in the water for 10 minutes; then they are carried into the second boiling tank, temperature 85"C, where they are immersed for 60 minutes. Then they are carried into a cooling water tank, about lO"C, where they are cooled rapidly with running water for 10 minutes. Finally, they are conveyor-carried into a short-time boiling tank (about 1 minute) for removal of casing wrinkles caused by the cooling.

2. Drying

Moisture on the surface of the processed sausage is removed by passage through a dryer (hot-air blowing) (Fig. 71.

FIQ. 7. Drying after processing.

,I Prr C h n g i l l CJ

After siirf:Lcc drying, t l ~ c s:iiii:ages arc paclagctl by an autonlatic paek:tgcr in rccl cc1Iopli:iiic papci. piiritcd with Inbels and tr:iclc marks.

As to fish sausage stuf‘fctl in yinylidene chloride, it is packed in I C ~

cellophaiie as above t1cscril)ed. On the other linnd, as to tha t stuffed in rubber hydrochloride, the oil tsiclc of the casing is dycd before, during, or after processing. n’lien the casing is dycd after processing, red NO. 5 coloring niateijal (Oil icd SO) or a 2-3:98-97 mixture of red No. 5 and yellox No. 2 (Ycllow A131 or yellow No. 3 (Yellow OB) is dissolved in a disptrbion ii ir(1iuni :mtl tlicti i ~ d . At I n e t tlic pieces of f i h h s:llls:lgP or the ont+itIe-tIycd f ih l i s n imgc arc packed in :L c:ctoii cabe, n n t l the proccclurcs are cntl(~tI

E. ( ‘ I I L \ I I C \I. (’o\rl’ONI:NTS or; Il’lslr S.‘IC~ALC

E’ioiii inany :in:tIyx oi fin11 s :~ i i~agcs , the avciagc cliciiiical COIII-

poncnts are as f o l l o w : w t t w content, 68.67h1 fa t 5.9$$ , l)r‘otcin 15$‘0, \t:irrli G 3741, sugar 1.85; . :is11 2 ,59, 141 5 c:iloiics per 100 g of meat.

IV. MANUFACTURE OF FISH HAM

1’1J1 11:ini is iiindc froin tlic flwli of tiui:t or mailin :I> tlic principal rkiw niatcrial, and from wlialc nie:it.

-1. TREATMES I‘ 01’ I< I\V A~ATERIAL\ The liest raw rnatcrial i> hluefin tuna, Init yellowfin tuna, hig-ryc

tuna, Indian bliiefin tuna, and :~lbacorc :trc also eniployctl. Albacore and blue iiiarlin meat, liaving only liglit-red flcsli, are cniploycd \lit11 othcr red-fleshed fish meat.

Whale meat t lev~lol)b 311 offtmivc m c l l with a clccliiic in ficslincp>. T o remove the smell, the wlialc nicat is soakcd in running water :mrl pressed t o rernovc I)lootl nn ( l then waslied thoroughly. This whale meat is cut into 3-cm cubcs. The rcd color is then fixed by achlition of sodium or potassium iiitritci.

Rcd-fleshed meat >ucIi :ih that of blucfin tun:i is also cut into cubes of about 3 cni. Tlic ciibes :ire put in n lxiir(~1 and sprinkled unifornily nit11 salt to the amount of 3-4% of tlic weight of the Incat. Sotliuin nitrite is mixed in the salt in the proportion of 0 l g per kg of nic:tt. If the tuna meat has been discolored hy oxidation, sodium ascorbnte is added in thc proportion of 0.05-0.5 g per kg of meat. -4dded during tlic reddening of tlic cubcs in tlic 1 ) a r r ~ l arc I)rcscrr:ttivc- wrli :I. “fiirn-

sukin” (nitrofurnzonc) (1/30,000), “Z-fr:m” (nitioJ’iiiylii( (1/5O,OOO), or sodium sorbatc (1/2,000) mLsoning niatcrinl~ (s i ig;~i ,


2-3% by weight, sodium glutamate 0.1-0.3%, several kinds of spices 0.3-0.5%), 2-3 small pieces of rocambole per 37 kg, and 50-60 cc of smoke-flavor liquor.

B. PROPORTION OF ADMIXED RAW MATERIALS

The raw material of fish ham is made by mixing cubes of red flesh of tuna and whale meat fixed with nitrites, raw rectangular-shaped pork fat, and “adhesive binding meat” according to the following de- scription. In preparing the “adhesive binding meat,” black marlin or “guchi” meat, which has strong elasticity after processing, is ground and thoroughly mixed with various preservatives, seasoning materials, spices, starch, and coloring materials in a stone grinder in the same way as the raw material of fish sausage.

Raw pork back fat is washed thoroughly and cut in rectangular sticks (1 x 1 x 10 cm). These sticks, the cubes of red meat, and the “adhesive binding meat” (20: 100:20 by weight) are mixed thoroughly in a mixer. At the same time, powdered starch is added a t 5-676 of the weight of the red meat. Water oozing out from the mixing of the meat will dissolve the powdered starch.

C. STUFFING

The mixed meat is stuffed into the ham casings with a stuffer. The weight per casing varies with the makers. For example, a small pressed fish ham (round) is 160 g, a big one is 330 g; a small square fish ham is 1,140 g, a big one 1,530 g.

D. CASINGS

The fish ham casing has a greater diameter than the fish sausage casing. The contents are generally 224 g. The shape of fish ham is generally rectangular. To make and maintain that shape, casings stuffed with the mixed meat are put into a “retainer” made of stainless steel before processing.

E. FINAL PROCESSING

Fish hams are processed by immersion in water a t 90°C for 30 minutes and then a t 85°C for 60 minutes. I n big factories they are processed in a continuous cooker, as in the pracessing of fish sausage.

F. PACKAGING

The ham is taken from the boiling tank, dried in a dryer, and packaged in red cellophane paper printed with labels and trade marks. The finished hams are packed in cartons.

392 EIICHI TANIKAWA

G. CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF FISH HAM

From many analyses, average general chemical composition is as follows: water content 61.5%, fat 11.3%, protein 17.5%, sugar 1.7%, ash 3.0%, total calories 198.5 per 100 g meat.

v. PUTREFACTION OF FISH SAUSAGE AND n u A. KEEPING QUALITY

Fish sausage and ham are generally processed a t comparatively low temperatures, becausg processing a t above 100°C damages the elasticity of the ground fish meat and melts the added pork fat. Processing a t such a low temperature may permit thermotolerant bacteria and sporeforming bacteria to survive. For information on this matter, Table V

TABLE V

RELATION BETWEEN PROCESSING TEMPERATURE AND SURVXVAL OF BACTERIA

Fish sausage without sugar Fish sausage sugar added Temp. at center of Bacterial count Bacterial count

sausage ("C) (in 1 g) Species isolated (in 1 g) Species isolated

60 5.3 X 106 Microc. varians M . epidermidis Bac. megatherium Bac. $rmw

65 6.3 X lo4 Bac. megatherium Bac. $mus Bac. subtilis

70 6.3 X lo4 Bac. coagulans 75 3.8 X lo4 -

80

85

88 8.1 X 108 Bac. subtilis

- -

- -

Bac. megatherium

6.1 X lo4 Bac. roaguluns

Bac. megatherium

5.0 x 104 -

3.2 x 104 -

1.0 x 104 -

5.6 x 104 -

7.5 X los Bac. cereus

shows Yokoseki's results (1958) on the relation between temperature and bacteria survival in fish sausage meat not treated with preservative. In view of those findings, some preservatives such as nitrofuraxone, nitrofurylacryl amide, or sodium sorbate, which slow or halt the growth of the bacteria, are added homogeneously to fish sausage and ham meat during processing.


Some fish sausages and hams putrefy within a week of processing, although almost all are safe for one month without putrefaction. Such rapid putrefaction is considered to result from uneven mixing of the preservatives or from bacteria that enter through an imperfect seal of the casing.

Ogasawara et al. (1957) investigated the qualities of several commercial sausages and hams that sometimes have bacteria present. Ac- cording to their observations, visual appearances were not abnormal, acidity of water-soluble substance (0.1N alkaline titration, cc) from fish sausage and ham meat was 4.61 in average, total amount of nitrogen 2.82%, volatile basic nitrogen 32.83 mg%, trimethylamine nitrogen 1942 mg%, histamine was not detected, coli-group was not detected, mold and yeast had not grown, bacterial count was 45 x lo7 for aerobic bacteria, 67 X lo3 for anaerobic bacteria, which were not pathologic. Those fish sausages and hams are soId and are safe.

Tanikawa et al. (1960) isolated 1 bacillus and 3 cocci from commercial fish sausages that were not abnormal in appearance. The thermotolerance of the bacillus isolated was estimated to be 90°C for 80 minutes, 100°C for 20 minutes, with destruction a t 100°C for 30 minutes. Thermo- tolerance of the cocci was weak; one of them survived 80°C heat for 20 minutes.

Generally speaking, if bacteria survive and do not become active, the meat shows no abnormal appearance, is safely edible, and does not putrefy. Therefore, the role of preservatives is very important in the fish sausage and ham industry.

B. SIGNS OF PUTREFACTION

The putrefaction of fish sausage or ham differs according to the temperature a t which the materials are stored. At 15-27°C the added pork fat softens in 30 days, the product discolors to yellow, and the materials emit a stale smell. At 32-37"C1 however, in only 10 days indi- cations of putrefaction appear: swelling of the casing, discoloration of the content, softening and yellow discoloration of pork fat, and a stale smell. Putrefaction is complete in 20 days. The amount of volatile basic nitrogen becomes above 30 mg% after 20 days.

Generally speaking, putrefaction follows discoloration of the meat or the pork fat. In other words, a t the beginning of putrefaction the meat around the blocks of pork fat discolors and the blocks themselves decompose to softness. Elasticity certainly becomes weak with the ad- vance of putrefaction.

394 EIICHI TANIKAWA

C. TYPES OF PUTREFACTION If the sealing of the opening of the casing mouth of fish sausage or

ham is perfect, any putrefaction comes from surviving bacteria that originated in the fish meat or supplemental materials such as starch, spices, and condiments.

Types of putrefaction observed in fish sausage and ham differ in such aspects as the formation of gas, changes in pH, amount of volatile basic nitrogen, bacterial count, color of meat, flavor and taste, and de- formation of constituent tissues.

Types of putrefaction may be listed as follows: 1) Swelled putrefaction: swelling of casing owing to the generation of

gases such as ammonia by various species of bacteria. 2) Acidic putrefaction: due to growth of non-gasforming bacteria

resembling those that cause “flat-sour” of canned foods. 3) “Evil-smell putrefaction”: with or without swelling. 4) Softening putrefaction: softening of the meat to niud-like con-

sistency, owing to bacteria that are active proteolytic. 5 ) Discoloration putrefaction: beginning around the meat a t the

mouth of the casing, and spreading over the visible surface; sometimes the casing swells partially.

6) Mucous putrefaction: mucous meat forms between the casing and the surface of the content; sometimes the casing swells partially.

7) Small Iight “black spots” on the surface inside the casing: a new type of putrefaction recently observed.

The above types of putrefaction are caused by various species of bacteria.

Among the cases of “swelled putrefactions,” one (sausage or ham with the surface but not the inner part discolored yellowish white) is caused by bacteria that, accompanied by air, enter the mouth of the casing. Those bacteria are nonthermotolerant. When the inner part is also discolored, the cause may be bacteria from the raw materials: meat, fat, spices, condiments. Those bacteria are generally thermotolerant. In “swelled putrefaction,” ammoniac or stimulus smells are sometimes noted.

“Acidic putrefaction,” showing changes of color, taste, or elasticity without swelling, may be caused by non-gasforming and thermotolerant bacteria from the raw materials.

“Evil-smell putrefaction,” with or without swelling, is caused by bacteria from raw materials. The smells are ammoniac or that of butylic acid.

“Softening putrefaction” can be noted in the encased sausage or


ham by pressing with the fingers. Small softened parts that can be hardly distinguished are also present. Bacteria that cause this type of putrefaction generally originate in raw materials or spices and condiments; they are thermotoIerant.

As to “discoloration putrefaction” or “mucous putrefaction,” those phenomena seldom occur singly, being accompanied by other types of putrefaction. The cause of “black spot” putrefaction, now under study, will probably be determined in the near future.

Even when actual putrefaction is not observed, one sometimes de- tects a loss of taste or discoloration of fish sausage or ham; the cause may be aging of starch and oxidation of the cubes of pork fat in the meat. These points are discussed later.

D. DETECTING PUTREFACTION

It is difficult to classify the various types of putrefaction of fish sausage or ham, being, as they are, special processed foods stuffed in air-tight casings, with added preservatives. The consequence is that putrefaction may differ with the maker, the raw materials used, and their sources.

Organoleptic, chemical, and bacteriological tests can determine the exact type of putrefaction, but incipient putrefaction is difficult to determine with chemical quantitative tests such as estimation of amounts of volatile basic nitrogen and volatile acids, pH value, or bacterial count. The reasons for the difficulty are as follows: In estimation of the amount of volatile basic nitrogen, 30 mg% generally indicates incipient putrefaction in raw fish meat, but fish sausage or ham meat may be completely putrefied with a value below 30 mg%, and may sometimes be safely edible with a value above 30 mg%. The reason may be that fish sausage is a mixture of fish meats and other raw materials. For example, in product with added sugar, the volatile bases generally do not increase until the sugar is exhausted by bacteria. If albacore meat is used, the volatile basic nitrogen in the sausage exceeds 30 mg% even if the albacore is fresh. Thus, i t is dangerous to judge incipient putrefaction of fish sausage or ham by the 30 nig% standard for volatile basic nitrogen.

Fish meat left in anaerobic condition is likely to become acidic rather than alkaline. Estimation of the amount of volatile acids was tried, but judgment by that estiiiiate proved unreliable.

As to bacterial count, fish sausage or ham generally contains 102-103 aerobes per gram of processed meat, increasing to lo7 per gram during storage, a t which point i t becomes completely putrefied. Since fish sausage or ham is under anaerobic conditions, it is of course necessary

396 EIICHI TANIKAWA

to estimate the number of anaerobes too. Much time is needed for estimation of the numbers of both aerobes and anaerobes.

Estimation of elasticity is one way of distinguishing complete putrefaction, but incipient putrefaction remains difficult to judge. Organoleptic tests are still the best method of judgment in cases of a large daily production of fish sausage or ham, to the degree that the inspectors know the relation between organoleptic results and other scientific tests.

E. KINDS OF BACTERIA CAUSING PUTREFACTION Yokoseki (1957a) pointed out the typical species of bacteria that

cause the various types of putrefaction. According to him, Lactobacillus sp. (aerobic or anaerobic nonthermotolerant bacteria) and Clostridium sp. (anaerobic sporeforming thermotolerant bacteria) were found for “swelled putrefaction” ; Lactobacillus sp. (nonsporeforming and non- gasforming bacteria) for “acidic putrefaction”; and Streptococcus sp. (facultative anaerobic bacteria, nonthermotolerant) for “discoloration putref action.”

As for Clostridium, Ino (1954) and Kasai (1957) isolated CI. welchii and Cl. sporogenes, which are thermotolerant, and found that putrefaction results if those bacteria are inoculated into fish sausage. C1. welchii especially has caused food poisoning-although rarely-so its isolation is significant from the viewpoint of public health. Those bacteria originated from the soil.

Among the bacteria causing various types of putrefaction, nonthermotolerant bacteria appear to have entered through pinholes or through the mouth of the casing during cooling or during storing, but the thermotolerant bacteria that survived processing seem to have come from the raw materials. The points of origin of thermotolerant bacteria are considered in the next section.

Vl. ORIGINS OF BACTERIA IN FISH SAUSAGE A N D H A M

A. BACTERIA IN RAW MATERIALS Bacteria in putrefied fish sausage or ham are considered to have

come from raw materials, or from equipment and facilities used in the various steps of manufacture, e.g., grinder, mixer, stuffer.

There have been many investigations of contamination of raw materials or equipment (Sugawara and Oshima, 1950; Noguchi and Tsukuda, 1954a; Takabatake, 1957). According to Tanikawa et al. (1960), various raw materials were contaminated by bacteria as shown in Table VI.

TABLE VI

BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION I N R.AW MATERIALS FOR FISH SAUSAGE AND HAM __

No. of thermotolerant Bacterial counts bacteria.

I. Main raw materials

11.

111.

IV.

v.

Tuna (bluefin tuna) meat White marlin (“makajiki”) meat Big-eye tuna (“mebachi”) meat Sperm whale meat Squid meat Shark (“mejirosame”) meat Shark (“ubasame”) meat Pork red meat Pork fat Pork oil Supplemental materials Wheat starch Corn starch Potato starch Condiments Coriander Ginger Nutmeg Pepper Cayenne Curry powder Chinpi Garlic Onion Sodium glutamate Sugar Salt Coloring materials New coccine (Red No. 102) Rose bengal (Red No. 105)

Additives Miton (SPK-21) (a kind of

poly phosphate) Polygon-M (a kind of

polyphosphate) Sodium succinate Ascorbic acid Neo-furasukin (a mixture of nitro-

furylacryl amide, nitrofuraeone, and lactose 8: 2: 90)

1.2 x 108 3.5 x 108 2.2 x 10’ 5.2 X lo8

5.2 X loe

5.4 x 108 1.2 x 108

1.2 x 104

1.6 x 104

1.2 x 104

2.9 x 102 2.0 x 104 2.8 x 103

2.6 x 107 2.1 x 104

2.0 x 103 1.2 x 103

1.2 x 103

4.4 x 103

0-104

1.6 X los 6.4 X lo3

0

5.5 x 108

150

0 2.0 x 103

0

2.0 x 103

1.2 x 103 0

0

0 0 0 0 0

4.2 X lo2 4.7 x 102

0 0 0

1.2 x 10 5.2 X 10 2.0 x 103

1.4 x 104 1.2 x 103

0 0

1.1 x 102 1.0 x 102

0 0 0 0

20 0

0 0

0

4.0 x 109

0 0

0

* Thermotolerant bacteria are those which have survived after heating 30 minutes at 85°C.

397

398 EIICHI TANIKAWA

Of course, the degree of bacterial contamination differs with the manufacturer and the method of transport of the materials. But the trends in contamination shown in Table VI are largely confirmed by many other investigators (Sugawara and Oshima, 1950; Noguchi and Tsukuda, 1954b; Takabatake, 1957). As seen in Table VI, the principal raw materials are generally contaminated by bacteria, though hardly any thermotolerant bacteria are found. The contamination may have been caused by the treatment or washing with water.

The high contamination of shark meat seems traceable to transport and handling methods. For example, sharks, which are generally large, are usually transported in the round, and therefore are left on ship decks and the floors of fish markets, which are contaminated with soil thermotolerant bacteria. Accordingly, the main raw materials should be treated with care.

It is surprising that condiments are seriously contaminated with bacteria, some of them thermotolerant. Nevertheless, thermotolerant bacteria in condiments seem to be one of the causes of putrefaction. Their presence in spices and condiments has been reported by several investigators (Takabatake, 1957; Tanikawa et al., 1960). Attempts have recently been made to prepare sterile spices and condiments. Their disinfection is described below.

The presence of thermotolerant bacteria in starch has been reported by Kimata and Kawai (1951), Kimata and Sosogi (1956), and others (Yokoseki and Oshima, 1952; Suzuki, 1959). Among the starches, potato starch contains the largest number of bacteria, 70% of them thermotolerant bacteria. Kimata (1951) isolated Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus circulans from putrefied Japanese fish paste. These are the same bacteria found in potato starch used in that product. He also isolated Bacillus snegatherium and Bacillus cereus from potato starch, and warned that some of the putrefactive bacteria may certainly come from potato starch. From wheat starch, Kimata isolated Bacillus subtilis and nonsporeforming bacteria such as Flavobacterium sp., Corynebacterium sp., Micrococcus sp., and Sarcina sp.

Disinfected potato starch (less than 100 bacteria per g) is now manufactured in an automatic operation with high-temperature short-time drying. The decrease in bacteria in the potato starch may result from the decrease in time of manufacture (reducing time for contamination) and from using temperatures high enough to kill the bacteria attached to the potato. In fact, Suzuki (1959) found some starch with lo2 bacteria manufactured in modern starch factories. There is a bright future in the manufacture of sterile starch. Suzuki also suggested using a sulfite process to decrease the number of bacteria.


Bacterial contamination of coloring matter and seasoning materials (sodium glutamate, sodium succinnte, sugar, salt) is considered to be due to bacteria in the air.

B. CONTAMINATION OF FACTORY AND EQUIPMENT It is important to know to what extent factory facilities, equipment,

and product may be contaminated with putrefactive bacteria during processing, because such bacteria have been shown to come from sources such as factory floors and equipment.

Tanikawa e t al. (1960) investigated the contamination of machines, equipment, factory environment (floors, soil around the factory, hands of workers), and water in a fish sausage factory. Their findings are shown in Table VII.

It is interesting that thermotolerant bacteria were not found in meat during the grinding or mixing procedures but were present in ground seasoned meat pushed from the stuffer into the sausage casing, after mixing with supplemental materials and spices and condiments.

From those observations i t seems that thermotolerant bacteria may be traceable to the admixture of supplemental materials or spices and condiments.

A lack of thermotolerant bacteria in the mixture being made for ham when i t was pushed from the stuffer into the casing is ascribed to the fact that starch is not added to “adhesive binding meat” in preparing fish ham.

Instruments and articles of equipment such as the dresser table, fish meat boxes, conveyor, and other parts that come in direct contact with raw fish meat were found to be highly contaminated with thermotolerant bacteria ; especially seriously contaminated was the dresser. This is also observed in the case of fish canneries (Tanikawa and Kiya, 1954; Tani- kawa, 1958). Except for water heated a t 85”C, washing or cooling water also has a large number of bacteria, though not thermotolerant species. If the processed sausage or ham is cooled in water containing a large number of bacteria, they are likely to enter the casing through the mouth or through pinholes, and the fish sausage later becomes putrefied. The cooling water should be sterilized with chlorine.

As to the environment of the factory, found on floors of the raw- material room, refrigerating chamber, or a t the output of the stuffer are many thermotolerant bacteria, which spread into raw materials and cause post-processing putrefaction of the fish sausage. Care must be taken to avoid contamination with soil bacteria, which are highly thermotolerant.

Kasai and Matsui (1957) investigated bacteria in the air of fish

400 EIICHI TANIKAWA

TABLE VII BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION IN FACTORY ENVIRONMENTS

Place of sampling

I. Raw material throughout manufacturing processes (half- finished goods)

for ham

Meat in a mixer Meat in a silent cutter

for ham 11. Equipment and apparatus

Dresser Fish cage Conveyor f for raw materials

\ for fish sausage 111. Water in the factory

Washing water for raw material Well water Cooling water Water heated a t 85°C

IV. Facilities in factory On floor in raw-materials room On floor in refrigerating chamber On floor in chilling chamber On floor in cooking room On floor in processing room In thawing water tank At the output of silent cutter

for sausage for ham At the output of stuffer

On the casing board In soil around the plant Hands of workers (av.)

No. of thermotolerant Bacterial counts bacteria

6.0 X 10' 1.0 x 104 6.0 x 103 1.2 x 104 1.5 x 104 4.0 x 103

1.4 x 107

2.0 x 103

5.5 x 107 2.2 x 106

5.5 x 107 7.1 x 103 1.2 x 107

0

5.5 x 107 6.7 X 106 2.2 x 106 5.5 x 106 3.4 x 107 1.2 x 107 5.5 x 103 6.7 x 103

2.4 x 104 3.2 x 103

4.0 X lo3

5.5 x 107

0 0 0

4.2 X loa 4.0 x 103

0

1.2 x 103 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

7.9 x 103 7.6 X lo2 2.2 x 102

0 0 0 0

0 0

0

4.0 X lo2

4.0 X lo2

paste factories, and found that their numbers vary with temperature, humidity, air current, and the kinds of dust in the factories. The more in- sanitary the factory was, the larger the number of air bacteria that fell onto the product. Especially there are many bacteria in the air around a stone grinder. Kasai and Matsui (1957) and Noguchi and Tsukuda (1954b) painted out that contamination of the air may be due principally to starch being added into the material as i t is passing through the


grinder. In a modern fish sausage factory using automatic equipment transport is by conveyor and each room is isolated by glass walls, so there are few falling bacteria.

Generally speaking, the various raw materials can be highly contaminated. If ground seasoned fish meat is contaminated and stuffed into casings, the fish sausage will become putrefied despite the most careful processing.

Other origins are considered to be various raw materials, supple- mentary raw materials, and spices and condiments; contamination is considered unavoidable in some materials, but care must be taken to avoid contamination as far as possible.

C. THERMOTOLERANCE OF SURVIVING BACTERIA Yokoseki (1958) found sporeforming bacteria of 1@/g surviving even

after the center of fish sausage was brought to 88OC during the processing. Further, Akamatsu (1959) found many commercial sausages containing aerobic bacteria of 102-1@/g and anaerobic bacteria of 10-102/g. Tani- kawa e t al. (1960) isolated three kinds of cocci that were weakly re- sistant to heating (destroyed a t 8Q"C for 10 minutes, 85% for 5 minutes) from swollen putrefied fish sausage, and also a thermotolerant sporeforming bacillus from putrefied softened fish sausage. They made i t clear that the thermotolerance of the isolated bacillus increased with an increase in concentration of the spores. According to their observation, with a 103 concentration of spores the bacillus survived for 90 minutes a t 85"C, but was destroyed by 50 minutes a t 95'C or 10 minutes a t 100°C. With a lW/cc spore concentration, the bacillus survived 130 minutes a t 100°C or 40 minutes a t 105"C, and was destroyed by 60 minutes at 110°C or 20 minutes a t 115°C. This bacterium was identified as Bac. circulans; i t was isolated by Yokoseki e t al. (1958) from putrefied softened fish sausage. Thermotolerant bacteria will survive the usual commercial processing of fish sausage. The survival of nonthermotolerant cocci in normal commercial fish sausage is explained as follows: Almost all of the cocci will be destroyed by commercial processing, but some will survive in small number and multiply during storage. Another explanation is that the nonthermotolerant cocci were allowed to multiply in the fish meat before processing, which increases thermotolerance. I n fact, the thermal death points of bacteria or cocci are higher in fish meat than in bouillon or physiological salt solution. Of course, the invasion of cocci into fish sausage after processing through the mouth of the casing can be considered one of the reasons for the presence of nonthermotolerant cocci.

402 EIICHI TANIKAWA

D. BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION AFTER PROCESSING As with canned foods, fish sausage or ham will be putrefied if the

casings themselves and the sealing are not perfect.

1. Invasion through Pinholes and Casing Mouths

The casing films sonietimes have pinholes even though carefully manufactured. Shimiau (1957) studied the invasion of bacteria through pinholes. Rubber hydrochloride and vinylidene chloride differed in the diameter of pinhole that permitted invasion by bacteria: In the former, 100 p permitted invasion and 80 p did not; in the latter, 70 p did and 50 p did not. The figures are larger for the former fihn since i t shrinks more in processing, invasion thereby being prevented even if there are many small pinholes in the casing.

The mouth of the fish sausage or ham casing was formerly hand- tied with cotton or linen strings or vinylidene chloride or rubber hydrochloride strings. The strength of tie differed with the worker and various other conditions, so there was often imperfect sealing through which bacteria could invade.

In sealing with aluminum wire by a sealing machine, the tightness of tying is uniform as adjusted on the machine. Machine sealing has drastically reduced the trouble caused by invasion through the mouth of the casing.

2. Tie Tightness as Related to Bacterial Invasion

The Kureha Chemical Industry Co. studied the relation between tightness of the tie (pressure, lb/inch2 by an air-tester) and the number of putrefied fish sausages (judged by discoloration at the casing mouth).

TABLE VIII RELATION BETWEEN TIGHTNESS OF TIE OF THE MOUTH OF THE

CASING AND NUMBER OF PUTREFIED FIBH SAUSAGES

Hemp string Vinylidene chloride string

Strength of tie No. putrefied/ Ratio of No. putrefied/ Ratio of (Ib/inch2) No. samples putrefaction No. samples putrefaction

Below 1 7/40 17.5 0/39 0

4-6 9/40 22.5 0/40 0

Above 20 1 /40 2.5 0/40 0

2-3 9/40 22.5 1 /40 2.5

6-8 3/40 7.5 2/40 5.0 10-18 2/39 5.1 1 /40 2.5


As seen in Table VIII, if the tie is with linen string, the stronger the tie the less the putrefaction; minimum pressure of the tie should be a t least 6-8 lb per square inch.

Vinylidene chloride string gave a lower ratio of putrefaction than did linen string. The reason may be the greater shrinkage of the former.

An aluminum wire ring sealed by a sealing machine is nearly perfect. Vinylidene chloride casing thus sealed withstood 20-25 lb/inch2, indi- cating perfect prevention of invasion of bacteria.

If meat scraps are pinched between the films a t the mouth of the casing, a tight tie may still be imperfect, allowing bacterial invasion.

E. INVASION OF CASING MOUTH BY BACTERIA IN COOLING WATER Bacteria that invade the casing may come not only from the air but

also from the cooling water. Cooling follows processing so as to prevent the growth of thermophiles. In cooling, the meat content contracts, dc- veloping inside the casing a slight vacuum that can suck in cooling water-and bacteria may be sucked in too.

Yokoseki (195713) made samples of fish sausage and cooled them in city water or water contaminated with bacteria isolated from putrefied sausage. The sausages cooled in city water did not putrefy; all the others did.

It follows that the sealing of the casing should be perfect and the cooling water disinfected if a t all possible.

VII. CALCULATION OF PROCESSING TIME BY THE GENERAL METHOD

Processing time can bc calculated by the "general method" of Bige- low (Bigelow e t al., 1920) just as in processing canned foods.

Thus, if fish sausage is processed without preservatives, how many minutes of processing time are required? The time will differ, of course, with processing temperature. The higher the temperature the shorter the time, but the processing temperature of fish sausage or ham cannot be raised, for the several reasons given earlier. The practical limit is presently considered to be 90°C.

Tanikawa et al. (1960) calculated the necessary processing time (minutes) a t 9O"C, making use of Bac. megatherium, often isolated from fish sausage or ham and comparatively thermotolerant. The results are in Table IX.

To calculate processing time, hcat-penetration curves were drawn for fish sausage (3 x 16.5 cm, 132 g, rubber hydrochloride casing) and fish ham (4 x 4.5 x 9 cm, 107 g, same casing) heated a t 90 2"C, 98 -C 1"C, and 105 2 1°C. The curves are shown in Figs. 8, 9, and 10.

Figure 11 (at left) plots the temperatures ( O F ) (y) a t the center of a

404 EIICHI TANIKAWA

TABLE IX THERMAL DEATH TIME OF Eacillua megalherium ISOLATED PROM

PUTREFIED SOFTENED FISH SAUSAQE

Heating temp. ("C) 95 100 105 110 115 ~~~~ ~

Thermal death time (min) 50 40 30 20 10

FIG. 8. Relation between log To (lethal time) and e (temperature).

fish sausage sample vs. heating time (minutes) (z). On the right side, to show the thermal lethal rate value, the temperatures a t which bacteria are killed (an object of the calculation) are plotted vs. heating time (minutes) (2'). The scales of both ordinates showing the tempera-

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Heating lime (rnin)

FIG. 9. Heat penetration curve of fish sausage.


801 d I l l r l I l l l l l l I 0 10 20 30 4 0 50 60

Heating time (min I

FIG. 10. Heat penetration curve of fish ham.

tures are the same. The thermal death time below 95°C can be known by the curve in Fig. 8. On the axis parallel with the under abscissa in the right side of Fig. 11, reciprocal numbers of the heating time (minutes) are scaled, showing the lethal rate value (d').

To know the lethal rate value at some degree ( O F ) in the center of the fish sausage, one draws a line parallel to the under abscissa showing the heating time, and crossing the thermal death curve of the bacterium. From the crossed point, one draws a vertical line to cross with the lethal rate value axis (z"-axis). The intersection shows the lethal rate value,

I X ' t

FIG. 11. C:ilrulotion of proper piorussing time of fish snusnyc at 90°C.

406 EIICHI TANIKAWA

Next, a lethality curve is drawn by plotting lethal rate values vs. heating time (minutes) as shown in Fig. 12. The area enveloped by

FIG. 12. Lethality curve.

lethal rate value curves is proportionate to the lethality due to the processing.

According to the “general method,” the relation between lethality ( A ) and heating time (minutes) ( t ) is shown in the following equation:

A = L d t = KS

Here, L is each lethal rate value of a bacterium a t each heating temperature, and i t is each reciprocal number of each heating time (minutes). S (cmz) is the area enveloped by lethal rate value curves, and I( is a constant. If L = 1 is taken as m (cm), and the heating time, d minutes, is scaled as 1 cm on graph paper, Eq. 1 will be written:

I11

A = S . d / m P I If A is 1, the processing is considered to be complete. Here, the area

(8) is measured with a planimeter, and the heating time is calculated, from obtaining the lethality of a bacterium employed, to be 1. The relation between the lethality (A) and heating time a t 90°C is shown in Table X.

From Table X, adequate processing of fish sausage a t 90°C is calculated to be 103 minutes. If a safety factor (such as 20%) is added to processing time, the safe processing time becomes 124 minutes. Similarly, a t 100°C the theoretical requirement is 63 minutes (safe processing time 76 minutes). Similarly, if adequate processing of fish ham a t 90°C is calculated from the heat penetration curve drawn in Fig. 10, the safe processing time is 151 minutes.

In practice, fish sausages or hams are not processed as long as the calculated processing time a t 85-90°C, because of the expense. Naturally, bacteria survive in sausage or ham processed for a shorter time than the calculated processing time, and there must be some compensation:


TABLE X

RELATION BETWEEN THE LETHALITY ( A ) OF A BACTERIUM AND THE HEATING TIME

Proceesing time (min)

10 15 20 25 30 35 60

103.4

L

0.00637 0.00870 0.00982 0.01009 0.01019 0.01041 0.01135

SS A

0 3.77 4.63 4.98 5.08 5.15 5.62

3.77 8.40

13.38 18.46 23.61 50.77

100.00

0.037 0.084 0.134 0.185 0.236 0.508

1 .ooo

the use of preservatives or processing temperature higher (above 100OC) than presently used.

VIII. EFFECTS OF PRESERVATIVES ON STERILIZATION

Preservatives added to fish sausage not only prevent the growth of bacteria that survive processing but also decrease the thermotolerance of all the bacteria present.

A. PERMISSIBLE PRESERVATIVES Preservatives allowed by law in fish sausage and ham in Japan are

nitrofurazone, nitrofurylacryl amide, and sorbic acid. Permitted levels per kg of fish sausage or ham meat are 0.005 g nitrofurazone, 0.02 g nitrofurylacryl amide, and 2 g sorbic acid.

Furfural is produced in the distillation of bran or sugar and wood in dilute sulfuric acid.

In 1944 Dodd and Stillman found that nitrofurazone has antimicrobic power for gram-positive or gram-negative bacteria and has little toxicity. I n 1947 the Ueno Chemical Co. succeeded in manufacturing i t as an industrial product under Dr. Imoto’s guidance. It was named “furasukin.” I n 1950 its use was authorized in fish meat pastes and fish sausage and ham.

Nitrofuraeone is yellow, is an effective germicide, and has the further qualities of being heat-fast and acid- and alkaline-fast. It is dissolved with difficulty in water (1 :4,200), alcohol (1 :590), propylene glycol (1:300), acetic acid (1:250), and lactic acid (1:150). It does not dissolve in ether.

Nitrofurylacryl amide was perfected later; its use in fish-meat pastes

408 EIICHI TANIKAWA

has been permitted since 1956. Nitrofurylacryl amide is lighter yellow than nitrofurazone, and also more effectively antimicrobic. The Ueno Chemical Co. sells a mixture of the two under the commercial name “neo-furasukin,” 8% nitrofurazone, 2% nitrofurylacryl amide, and 90% lactose.

The germicidal powers of the above three preservatives have been studied in fish meat paste and fish sausage and ham by many investigators (Ueno Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., 1950; Shimizu, 1956; Goda and Isa, 1959). Observations by the Shizuoka Prefectural Fisheries Experi- ment Station (Shimizu, 1956) on the effects of preservatives on fish sausage are shown in Table XI. Similar results were obtained by other investigators (Niikawa, 1956; Shimizu et al., 1958).

TABLE XI

PRESERVATION OF FISH SAUSAGES WITH ADDED PRESERVATIVES~

Maximum Proc. center Preserva- After After After After No. of

temp.b temp. tives added 3 days 7 days 15 days 30 days sausages

1 84-87OC 86°C “2-fran“ normal normal normal discolored. 10

2 81-92°C 83°C “2-fran” Ditto Ditto Ditto normal 10

3 8 P 8 7 T 8G°C Not Incipient Complete 81-92°C 83“C Not putrefac- putrefac-

abnormal tion faction in

1/20,000 quality quality quality but edible

1/30,000 quality

all pieces

a Storage temperature wa5 3 7 T . b For 50 minutes.

Sorbic acid (2,4-hexa-dienoic acid), having the chemical formula CHS.CH: CH-CH: CH-COOH, is a white crystalline substance, tasteless, possessed of slight smell resembling fat, and is heat-fast and nontoxic. Solubility in 1,000 ml of water is 1.4 g a t 20°C, 16 g a t 8O”C, 38 g a t 100°C. Level of use is up to 2 g per kg of fish meat paste. Since sorbic acid or its salts is inferior in effective germicidal power, i t is sometimes used in combination with nitrofurazone in fish sausage or ham.

B. PRESERVATIVES IN COMBINATION USE

Each preservative has its germicidal peculiarity for each species of bacteria. Therefore a single preservative cannot be effective on the many species present in fish sausage or ham.

Ueno (1960) studied the effects of preservatives on Bacillus mycoides and Bacillus mesenten’cus, often found in fish sausage or ham. Thew


were suspended in physiological salt solution with nitrofurazone, penta- chlorophenol, and vitamin K, added separately or jointly in respective concentrations of 50 ppm. The suspended solutions were heated a t various temperatures.

As seen in Figs. 13 and 14, germicidal effects did not appear rapidly in the initial period of heating, but effects were marked after certain

0 6 12 18 2 4 30 0 6 12 18 2 4 30 Healing lime (min)

\t PCP t K

F t P C P I K

u- 0 6 12 18 24 30 0 6 12 18 2 4 30

Healing lime (min I

FIQ. 13. Survival of Bacillus mycoides heated in solutions to which various preservatives had been added.

intervals, as shown by the curves. Two or three preservatives used jointly were more effective than a single preservative. Like effects were observed by Tetsumoto e t al. (1953) in storing raw fish meat a t low temperature.

The more kinds of preservatives used, the shorter the germicidal cff ect. Similarly, preservation effects are more marked a t lower temperatures (below about 80°C) than a t higher temperatures (Ueno, 1960).

Many fish sausage factories now use nitrofurazone and nitrofurylacryl amide and sorbic acid together. The result is that fish sausage or ham will keep for a month even in the summer.

410 EIICHI TANIKAWA

20-0 20-0 Heating time (min)

Hooting iime (min)

FIG. 14. Survival of Bacillus mesenten’cus heated in solutions to which various preservatives had been added.

IX. PREVENTION OF PUTREFACTION

Considered important, and recommended, to prevent putrefaction of fish sausage and ham are: 1) disinfection of factories and sanitary treatment of the principal raw materials; 2) disinfection of supplemental materials; disinfection of water; and high-temperature sterilization of finished product.

A. DISINFECTION AND SANITARY TREATMENT Popular for the disinfection of factories has been cation soap (e.g.,

quaternary ammonium salts) or sodium hypochlorite solution. Takase et al. (1955) used a cation soap diluted 1:lOO to 1:500 to

prevent bacterial contamination during the grinding of fish meat for fish paste. After fish bodies, dressers, equipment, the fish tank, and the hands of workers were washed with diluted cation soap solution, they were sufficiently washed with city water again. Then, meat a t each stage of processing (e.g., after filleting, fleshing, chopping, grinding, adding of starch) was sampled for bacterial count and estimation of coli score. At each stage, meat in the disinfected line had fewer bacteria than material not so treated. Sugawara and Oshima (1950) tried to sterilize


ground fish meat directly by soaking in water containing germicides such as bleaching powder (CaOC12) (containing available chlorine of 40 mg per liter), sodium hypochlorite (containing 28.4 mg of available chlorine per liter) , or nitrofurazone (1 g dissolved in 4.6 liters of water) ; the meat was then used in fish meat paste as usual. The desired effect was not obtained, however, and elasticity was damaged. Germicides should not be in direct contact with fish meat; they should be used only to sterilize equipment or facilities.

B. DISINFECTION OF SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS

1. Disinjection of Potato Starch

As stated earlier, starch, especially potato starch, may contain many thermotolerant bacteria.

Oshima (1950) reported that the bacteria in potato starch are destroyed within 3 days by intermittent heating for 60 minutes a t 100°C (Table XII) .

TABLE~XII

STERILIZATION OF POTATO STARCH BY HEATING

No. of survived No. of bacteria in sample Heating 1 g of starch

1 Not heated (control) 2 10,000-300,000 2 70°C for 30 min 40,000-6 1,250 3 100°C for 30 min 4004,000 4 108°C for 30 min 1 80 5 100°C for 30 min 0

intermittently during 3 days

Yokoseki and Oshima (1950) added 1 g of potato starch to each of several test tubes containing various chemicals, and followed multipli- cation of the bacteria. As seen in Table XI11 the number of bacteria increased when the starch was soaked with sterilized distilled water, On the basis of this observation, the number of bacteria in starch will increase unless it is dry. Guanoflasin (5-nitro-2-furfuralydine-amino- guanidine hydrochloride) or nitrofurazone prevented the increase in numbers of bacteria in starch. Capric acid also prevented an increase in the initial soaking period, but not after 24 hours. Alcohol decreased the number of bacteria somewhat, but not sufficiently. Hydrochloric acid decreased the number of bacteria to zero. Steaming was also effective when repeated once daily for three days.

412 EIICHI TANIKAWA

TABLE XI11 STERILIZING EFFECTS OF VARIOUS CHEMICALS UPON POTATO STARCH

Concentration Soaking time Bacterial count in ( %) (hr) 1 g of starch

Control (not treated) Sterilized distilled water

‘ ’Guanoflasin” (5-nitro-2-furfuralydine- amino-guanidine hydrochloride)

Nitrofurazone tablet

Nitrofurazone powder

Capric acid

Ethyl alcohol

Hydrochloric acid

Steam-heated a t 100°C for 30 minutes

- - - -

0.02 0.02 0.02

0.02 0.02 0.02

0.02 0.02 0.02

0.02 0.02 0.02

TO TO 70

1 1 1

-

2 4

24

2 4

24

2 4

24

2 4

24

2 4

24

2 4

24

2 4

24

once twice three times

571,250

651,500 822,500

190,132,800

546,650 441,600 434,300

588,350 449,200 437,300

480,600 444,000 437,300

555,700 358,800

69,720,000

2,300 2,270 2,212

593 408

0

120 GO 0

Noguchi and Tsukuda (1954a) also used nitrofurazone to sterilize potato starch. A nitrofurazone-saturated solution decreased the numbers of bacteria to about 1/10, but could not sterilize the material completely. As noted above, potato starch is now being manufactured by machines and the numbers of bacteria are much less than in the past.

2. Disinfection of Spices and Condiments

Spices and condiments are also contaminated by bacteria: commercial salt (Sugawara and Oshima, 1950), pepper, ginger, and coriander contain 109-106 bacteria per g (Ichikawa et al., 1959). Spices and condi-


ments cannot be disinfected by heating, because that is likely to cause them to lose their flavor. Spices and condiments are sterilized by washing the original pieces with soapless soap, dry heating the powder 10-15 minutes a t 60°C, or fumigating with ethylene oxide gas. Extracts of spices and condiments and chemically synthesized flavors are sterile, but sometimes lack the full flavor of natural spices and condiments.

C. DISINFECTION OF WATER Much water is used in fish sausage factories. City water, being gen-

erally disinfected with chlorine, is almost completely free of trouble. Well water or river water, however, must be disinfected according to the degree of the bacterial contamination-especially if used for cooling after processing, a conspicuous opportunity to invade the casing. Uchiyama (1956) suggested the disinfection of water with bleaching powder after studying the keeping period of fish sausage cooled with disinfected water (Table S I V ) .

TABLE XIV KEEPING PERIOD OF FISH SAUSAGE COOLED WITH DISINFECTED WATER

(ORGANOLEFTIC TEST CARRIED OUT AFTER THREE DAYS, BACTERIAL COUNT AITER FIVE DAYS; STORAGE TEMPERATURE 30°C)

Ryphan Kurehalon

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 6 Sample 6 Sample 7

Cooling by City water Water con- Disinfected City water Contanii- Leaving in Disinfected taminated water nated water the air water with bac- (available like 2 (available teria from chlorine chlorine putrefied was was sausage 20 ppm) 20 ppm)

Number of Below 2.5 X 104 0 Below 2.5 X 10' - 0 bacteriain 1 X 102 1 x 102 cooling water

Degree of Discolored Ditto Normal Discolored Ditto Ilitto Normal putrefaction (not dis- and putre- (not dis- (at mouth of colored) fied colored) sausage)

~ ~

Ract. count Aerobic - 4.6 X 108 - - 5.5 x 108 - 1 x 10 Anaerobic - 2.6 x 108 - - 3.8 X 10s - 0

Sausages cooled in contaminated water showed discoloration a t the mouth of the casing, but those cooled in disinfected water showed no discoloration.

Watcr is disinfected with bleaching powdcr by dissolving four tea-

414 EIICHI TANIKAWA

spoons of bleaching powder in about 200 liters of water. The sausages are soaked in this solution to cool until they become wrinkled on the surface, and then soaked in running clear city water to cool sufficiently. Five hundred sausages can be treated with this 200 liters of solution.

D. HIGH-TEMPERATURE STERILIZATION If casing could be sealed as completely as canned foods to ensure

a sterilized state, perfect preservatives would be much desired since high- temperature sterilization cannot be used, Fish sausage or ham cannot be processed a t over 85-90°C for 60-90 minutes, because of: 1) non- thermotolerance of the casings, differing from can containers; 2) melting of the pork fat content; 3) decrease in elasticity of the fish sausage or ham meat; 4) decrease in adhesiveness of the meat; and 5 ) losses of flavor and color. However, low-temperature processing cannot provide complete sterilization without the addition of some preservatives.

Tanikawa e t al. (1960) tried to sterilize fish sausages in “retainers” a t 105-llO°C for 60 minutes. Elasticity was not damaged, but color and taste were quite inferior. There is room for improvement in high-temperature processing of fish sausage and ham.

X. FOOD POISONING FROM FISH SAUSAGE AND HAM

About half the cases of food poisoning in Japan are caused by fish or shell fish meat and their products. Among them, rnollusca meat (squid and octopus) supply the largest number, with raw fish meat and Japanese fish paste next, accounting for comparatively large numbers.

Food poisoning from fish sausage or ham, which are kinds of fish pastes, is unexpectedly rare. The reason may be that fish sausage is packed in a casing and heated a t a higher temperature than fish paste. In addition, putrefaction is observed organoleptically more easily in fish sausage or ham than in fish paste.

However, the incidence of putrefaction in fish sausage or ham is only 1/10 that in Japanese fish meat pastes.

Kawabata et al. (1955) observed that two specios of Escherichia and one species of Enterococcus added to raw ground fish meat for fish paste were destroyed by heating 1 minute at 75°C. Salmonella and Staphy- lococcus, which sometimes cause food poisoning from fish paste, were also destroyed in the raw ground meat by the processing temperature of fish paste-75”C for 80-90 minutes.

Since fish sausage and ham are processed a t a higher temperature (82435°C for 60 minutes in the center), food-poisoning and nonsporeforming bacteria should be destroyed by the processing.


Aiiso (1956) observed that Clostridium species often isolated from putrefied fish sausage were destroyed in test tubes by nitrofurazone in a solution of 5-20 ppm, but not by sorbic acid.

They prepared fish sausage inoculated with Clostridium sp., with and without added nitrofurazone, and inspected the types of putrefaction (Table XV) .

TABLE XV

DISINFECTANT EFFECT OF ADDED NITROFURAXONE (“FURASUKIN”) ON Clostn’dium SPECIES

Putrefaction 6 15 20 30 Amount added and judgment

~ ~~~ ~~ ~

None (left at 27°C) Gas (melled) Softened Smell Judgment

(1/60,000) Gas (swelled) (left at 27°C) Softened

Smell Judgment

Gas (swelled) Softened Smell Judgment

None (left at 16°C)

(1/50,000) Gas (swelled) (left at 16OC) Softened

Smell Judgment

Fish sausage and ham will not cause food poisoning as do other Japanese-style fish pastes, but i t cannot be said that there may be no occurrence of food poisoning due to fish sausage or ham, because thermotolerant bacteria such as Cl. welchii have been isolated from the putrefied fish products (Ino, 1954; Kasai, 1957). Discovery must be made of how to sterilize fish sausage completely and how to minimize the contamination of raw materials.

XI. SANITARY MEASURES

The Public Health and Welfare Ministry of the Japanese Govern- ment has set forth the following points for guidance in sanitary preparation and handling of fish sausage and ham.

416 EIICHI TANIKAWA

A. IN MANUFACTURING

1. Raw Materials

1) Einploy fresli fish as principal raw material. 2) Don’t use very damaged fish bodies. 3) Don’t allow contamination of fish bodies or meat with bacteria,

especially with thermotolerant bacteria, or those causing food poisoning. 4) If fish bodies are partially damaged, cut off the damaged part. 5 ) Don’t use poisonous fish; their natural toxin is dangerous. 6) Wash the fish bodies tliorouglily beforc treatment. 7) Wash off scraps of visceral organs or the contents of intestines

after dressing; put the dressed fish into clean containers; especially, col- lect fish meat into clean exclusive-use containers.

8) At bleaching, use abundant cold clean water and change i t often.

2. Supplemental Materials

Use sanitary precautions in handling seasoning materials, spices, and materials such as starch; don’t tolerate the excrement of rats and in- sects.

3. Processing

1) Carry out processing at a temperature that gives safety. If starch is added to the fish sausage or ham, heat the fish sausage above 73°C and make an effort to raise the processing temperature still higher.

2) If raw starch particles or coli-group bacteria are detected in the center of the finished fish sausage, i t was not sufficiently processed, and must be processed once more.

3) Carry out processing accurately; use a recording thermometer.

4. Cooling

1) After processing, cool the finished sausage or ham sufficiently by

2) When cooling is carried out in a clean place, don’t pile sausages on soaking in clean water or leaving in a clean place.

one another; that prevents sufficient ventilation.

€3. IN PACKAGING, HANDLING, ETC.

1. Packaging

1) Package the finished goods with clean cellophane films. 2) Packaging must be carried out after sufficient cooling. 3) Be sure the packaging place is clean.


2. Iiundliny

1) Don’t leave finished merchandise or containers on the floor. Don’t leave finished merchandise exposed to the direct rays of the sun.

S. Transport

Cover the car bodies, transport instruments, and containers. Some- times a unit cooler must be arranged to prevent the growth of bacteria.

4. In Retail Shops

The showcases must be kept a t low temperature.

C. GENERAL SANITATION

1) Wash the instruments or containers for the preparation of fish sausage with boiling water more than once a day. Keep clean the places that raw materials contact directly, by washing with boiling water or with disinfectant agents permitted by law.

2) Clean the surfaces of floors and shelves every day, and keep them in sanitary condition.

3) Water supply must be abundant, and i t must be drinkable according to tests by the local public sanitary station.

4) Dirt and dust must be put promptly into a covered container. Make sure the workers keep clean, cutting and cleaning their finger nails and washing hands with cation soap solution.

5) Workers must wear clean white caps, clothes, or aprons, and disinfected shoes or boots for use exclusively in the factory.

6) Don’t use persons having suppuration or diarrhea in the manufacture of fish sausage or ham.

7) Prohibit spitting or smoking in the restricted area. 8) Workers should not touch parts of the body, the foods, or the

containers during the preparation of fish sausage or ham.

XII. STORING FISH SAUSAGE AND HAM

The storing of fish sausage or ham, especially in summer, requires

Fish sausage or ham stuffed in rubber hydrochloride should be

1) Finished sausage or ham must be wrapped in dark red cellophane

2) Storage should be in a cool, dark place of relatively low humidity. 3) Sausage and ham must be kept where there is scarcely any vibra-

many precautions.

handled with attention to the following points.

or the casing dyed with coloring material.

tion of floor and shelves.

418 EIICHI TANIKAWA

Rubber hydrochloride casings will age, just as rubber goods do, if kept in a light room for long. The elasticity becomes weak, and hydrochloric acid gas freed from the film imparts a bad taste to the sausage or ham. Sunlight or ultraviolet rays accelerate aging, and so does moisture.

Fish sausage in vinylidene chloride casings should be handled almost as carefully.

XIII. AGING FISH SAUSAGE AND HAM

As the casing film ages, the texture and delicate flavor of fish sausage meat are likely to deteriorate.

The cause of aging of the sausage or ham is the starch added to increase elasticity after processing, The added starch swells during processing, producing the strong elasticity. But in time the starch particles return to the condition of raw starch. Therefore, if fish sausage aged several months is heated again, its good taste is often restored by the re- swelling of the retrograded starch.

The tempo of aging differs with storage temperature and kind of starch. The lower the storage temperature, the more rapid the aging, and potato starch retrogrades more easily than wheat or sweet-potato starches.

Starch retrogradation is prevented by adding sugar in amounts greater than given above. The retrogradation is accompanied by decolorization of the red coloring material. According to Okamura et al. (1960) , the decolorization of fish sausage dyed with red No. 102 (new coccine) may be due to oxidation caused by bacterial growth. They found about 20% decolorization in fish sausage meat a t the stage of incipient putrefaction, and a rapid increase as it reached complete putrefaction. They also observed that the remaining nitrite that combined with hemoglobin or myoglobin in red-fleshed fish meat or whale meat may accelerate the decolorization. Added polyphosphate did not prevent decolorization, and may have accelerated it somewhat.

Goto (1961) reported that the discoloration or decolorization of coloring material results from the fact that the coloring material becomes a hydrogen acceptor in the oxidation-reduction system of bacteria. He further stated that decolorization is caused by oxidation of myoglobin or hemoglobin by oxygen that penetrates the casing, or by ultraviolet light or the sun’s rays.

The taste of fish sausage or ham also deteriorates over a long period. Yokoseki and Takabatake (1961) studied changes of taste and color in fish sausage during storage. Those changes, they report, may result from oxidation caused by oxygen that penetrated the casings. They tested reducing agents such as sodium ascorbate and sodium erythroascorbate

TABLE XVI CHANGES IN NUMBERS OF BACTERIA IN FISH SAUSAGE WITE OR WITHOUT ADDED REDUCTIVE AGENTS

Sodium ascorbate Sodium ascorbate Sodium erythro- Sodium erythro- Storage Without addition l/l,000 1 /2,OOo ascorbate 1/1,000 ascorbate 1/2,000

(weeks) Aerobes Anaerobes Aerobes Anaerobes Aerobes Anaerobes Aerobes Anaerobes Aerobes Anaerobes time

0 3.5 X lo2 1.6 X lo2 3.9 X loe 3 X 10 4.9 X lo* 2.0 X 10 8.0 X lo2 2.1 X lo2 3.6 X lo3 5.0 X 10 1 1.8 x 105 103 4.0 x 102 103 8.0 x 102 103 4.0 x 102 103 3.0 x 102 103

3 3.0 X loa 103 1.0 x 1 0 2 103 3.6 x 106 103 1.0 x 102 103 3.0 x 106 103 2 1.5 x 103 lo" 2.0 x 102 lo3 1.5 X lo2 103 2.0 x 102 103 3.0 x 103 103

4 8.4 x 105 lo6 3.0 X lo2 103 2.1 x 106 103 8.9 x 106 103 1.8 x 105 103 5 2.0 x 103 103 3.2 x 105 10s 2.3 x 105 103 9.4 x 104 104 5.6 x 1 0 6 103

420 EIICHI TANIKAWA

(sodium isoascorbate) to prevent oxidation in fish sausage. As shown in Table XVI, the agents prevented for a long time the growth of aerobes that survived processing in the fish sausage. The mechanism may be the prevention of invasion of oxygen through the casing (Fig. 15).

0 I 2 3 4 5 Weak.

FIG 15. The amount of oxygen that penetrated the casing film when reducing agents were or were not used. The amount of oxygen was estimated by the depth (mm) at which the color of added methylene blue changed.

The color of fish sausage was changed slightly by the reducing agents. Yokoseki and Takabatake also observed that fish sausage containing these reducing agents changed less in taste than those without such agents. Thus, reducing agents such as ascorbic acid are considered to prevent somewhat the usual changes in taste and color of fish sausage.

XIV. OFFICIAL QUALITY STANDARDS

In 1962 the Japanese Agriculture and Forestry Ministry adopted quality standards for fish sausage and fish ham in accordance with the Agriculture and Forestry Products Standards Law. They became effective on March 1, 1962. Based on the standards, fish ham and fish sausage will be graded and assigned scores according to color, flavor, and texture.

A. DEFINITIONS

I. Fish Ham Fish meat (including whale meat and meat of aquatic animals other

than fish) seasoned with salt, or a mixture consisting primarily of fish ineat mixed with pork, beef, horse meat, mutton, rabbit meat, or poultry meat seasoned with salt, and combined with binding meat (consisting primarily of ground fish meat, to which have been added additives such as oil, flavoring, and starch to give i t binding strength), and packed in a casing, then sealed and steamed.


2. Fish Sausage

Ground fish meat or a mixture consisting primarily of ground fish mixed with ground pork, beef, mutton, horse meat, rabbit, or poultry, to which have been added additives such as oil, seasoning, and starch for binding strength, packed in a casing and sealed, then steamed or boiled. Contents may be smoked before packing in casing.

B. STANDARDS

Quality will be graded on a point system for appearance, flavor, and texture. Average score must be higher than 3.0 points, and for each category the score must be higher than 1 point.

1. Appearance

a) Contents must not be deformed. b) Seal must be perfect. c) Contents must not be damaged. d ) Separation must not occur between casing and content. e) Contents must not be pressed into sealed portion of casing.

2. Starch Content

Must be less than 9% for fish ham and less than 10% for fish sausage.

3. Other Substances

There must be none.

4. N e t Weight

Net weight must correspond with weight indicated on package.

5. Label

a) Packing date must be clearly indicated. b) Names and addresses of manufacturer and distributor must be

c) Words and pictures must correctly describe contents and must shown.

not convey misleading impression.

C. GRADING METHOD

Fish ham and fish sausage will be graded as follows:

1. Color Score

4 to 5 points Contents are appropriately colored; pigments in the meat used for binding purposes are not noticeable; color of casing has no discolored contents.

EIICHI TANIKAWA 422

3 points

2 points

1 point

4 to 5 points

3 points

2 points

1 point

4 to 5 points

3 points

2 points

1 point

Coloring of contents generally acceptable; pigments in binding meat almost unnoticeable; color of casing has no noticeably discolored contents.

Contents excessively colored ; pigments in binding meat slightly discolored and noticeable ; color of casing has noticeably discolored contents.

Contents considerably discolored ; color of casing has deeply penetrated contents.

2. Flavor Score

flavored and seasoned.

generally satisfactory.

flavor and seasoning somewhat inadequate.

low flavor,

Contents have no peculiar odor and are deliciously

Contents have no peculiar odor ; flavor and seasoning

Contents have slightly raw or slightly scorched odor;

Contents have strong peculiar odor and markedly

3. Texture Score

Contents have consistency and resilience; texture fairly smooth; practically no oil or liquid separation; small air spaces in contents.

Contents have consistency and resilience ; texture fairly smooth; practically no oil or liquid separation; small air spaces in contents.

Contents lack consistency and resilience ; texture less smooth; certain amount of oil and liquid separation has occurred ; contents contain numerous small air spaces but relatively few large air spaces.

Contents have softened ; considerable separation of oil and liquid; pack has become slimy and contents contain numerous large air spaces.

REFERENCES Adachi, T. 1955. Studies on synthetic food coloring materials from the view point

of practical application. J . Utilization Agr. Prods., 2 , 201-207. Aiiso, K. 1956. Studies on food preservatives. Rept . Znst. for Putrefaction Research,

Chiba Univ. 9, 98. Akamatsu, M. 1959, Bacteriological studies on the spoilage of fish sausage. I.

Number of bacteria present in the meat of fish sausage on the market. Bull. Japan. SOC. Sci. Fisheries 25 7-9, 545.

Bigelow, W. D., Bohert, G. S., Richardson, H. L., and Ball, C. 0. 1920. Heat penetration in processing canned foods. Natl. Canners Assoc. Bull. 16-L.


Goda, M., and Isa, Y. 1959. The cooperation of some legalized antiseptics in their preservative application to fish cakes. Bull. Japan. SOC. Sci. Fisheries 25, 7-9, 525.

Goto, R. 1961. Use of edible coloring materials. Rept. Japan. Assoc. Fish sausage Ind. No. 73, p. 5.

Ichikawa, T., Ohishi, J., and Watanabe, M. 1959. Bacterial contamination of spices and condiments on the market. Rept. Japan. Assoc. Fish sausage Ind. No. 42, p. 10.

Ino, Y. 1954. Experimental study of the effect on food preservatives. In relation to the effect on the furan derivatives against the anaerobic putrefaction of fish meat. Rep t . Ins t . for Putrefaction Research, Chiba Univ. 7, 31.

Kasai, K. 1957. Putrefaction by anaerobes in fish sausage. Textbook IV of Japan. Assoc. Fish Sausage Ind. p. 51.

Kasai, K., and Matsui, T. 1957. Investigation of environmental sanitation of fish sausage factories. Rept. Japan. Assoc. Fish sausage Ind. No. 18, P. 5.

Kawabata, T., Takase, A,, and Amano, K. 1955. Food hygienical studies on Japanese fish-cake products. 111. Thermal death condition of some causative organisms of food poisoning and other enteric bacteria in fish-cake products. Bull. Japan. SOC. Sci. Fisheries 20 (9), 835.

Kimata, M. 1951. Studies on the spoilage of “kamaboko.” IV. On the microbiology in the spoilage (1). Bull. Japan. SOC. Sci. Fisheries 16 (12), 46.

Ximata, M., and Kawai, A. 1951. Studies on the spoilage of “kamaboko.” VII. Microbiological studies of refined starch on the market (1). Bull. Japan. Soc. Sci. Fisheries 16 (12), 55.

Kimata, M., and Sosogi, T. 1956. Studies on the spoilage of “kamaboko.” VIII. Microbiological studies of refined starch on the market (2). Bull. Japan. SOC. Sd. Fisheries 22 (4), 269.

Niikawa, Y. 1956. On sorbic acid as a preservative material of fish sausage. Rept. Japan. Assoc. Fish Sausage Ind. No. 13, p. 6.

Noguchi, E., and Tsukuda, N. 1954a. A study on the preservation of fish cakes (1). Antibacterial action of 5-nitro-2-furfural semicarbasone for the starch. Ann. Rept. Japan. Sea Regional Research Lab. No. 1, p. 225.

Noguchi, E., and Tsukuda, N. 1954b. A study on the preservation of fish cake (3). Number of microbes in the parts of the plant. Ann. Rept. Japan Sea Regional Research Lab. No. 1, p. 233.

Ogasawara, K., Saito, T., Mitsui, Y., and Shibuta, T. 1957. A study on the quality of fish sausage and its preservation. Rept. Hokkaido Inst. Public Health. No. 8, p. 46.

Okada, M. 1959. Application of setting phenomenon for improving the quality of “kamaboko.” Bull. Tokai Regional Fisheries Research Lab. No. 24, p. 67.

Okamura, K., Kiyota, R., and Yokoyama, M. 1960. Decoloriration of edible coloring material (1). Rept. Japan. Assoc. Fish Sausage Ind. No. 54, p. 6.

Oshima, H. 1950. Bacteria in Japanese style fish meat paste. 3. Hokkaido Fisheries Sci. Inst. 7 (4), 6.

Shimisu, W. 1956. Fish sausage. Japan. Assoc. Fish Sausage Ind., Tokyo, p. 192. Shimizu, W. 1967. Relation between the strength of tying of the mouth of casing and

invasion of bacteria through pinholes on the casing film. Rept. Japan. Assoc. Fish Sausage Ind. No. 20, p. 5.

Shimiau, W., Hibiki, S., Ueno, S., Endo, K., Takagi, I., and Yokoyama, M. 1958. Studies on fish sausage, I V . Bull Research Znst. Food SCi. Kyoto Univ. No. 21, p. 59.

424 EIICHI TANIKAWA

Sugawara, T., and Oshima, H. 1950. Environmental sanitation of Japanese style fish paste factories. J. Hokkaido Fisheries Sci. Inst . 7 (41, 1.

Suzuki, S. 1959. On the thermotolerant bacteria in potato starch and wheat starch. Rept. Japan. Assoc. Fish Sausage Ind. No. 52, p. 8.

Takabatake, K. 1957. On bacteria in fish sausage. Rept. Japan. Assoc. Fish Sausage Ind. No. 19, p. 4.

Takase, A,, Kawabata, T., and Amano, K. 1955. Food hygienical studies on Japanese fish-cake products. IV. Bacterial contamination during the manufacturing process of “Hampen” (a kind of fish-cake products) and the sanitary control. Bull. Japan. SOC. Sci. Fisheries 20 (9), 846.

Tanikawa, E. 1958. Studies on technical problems in the processing of canned salmon. M e m . Fac. Fisheries Hokkaido Univ. 6 (2), 67.

Tanikawa, E., and Fujii, Y. 1959. Utilization value of fishes caught abundantly in waters around Hokkaido as raw material for fish jelly products (“kamaboko” or “chikuwa”) (1). Bull. Fac. Fisheries Hokkaido Univ. 10 (21, 147.

Tanikawa, E., and Kiya, T. 1954. Studies on bacterial contamination in canneries. Bull. Fac. Fisheries Hokkaido Univ . 5 (3), 299.

Tanikawa, E., Suwaki, M., and Akiba, M . 1960. Studies on sterilization of fish sausage (1). Bull. Fac. Fisheries Hokkaido Univ. 10 (4), 332.

Tetsumoto, S., Tozawa, H., and Okitsu, T. 1953. Effect of furan derivatives on the maintenance of freshness of fish. Ann. Meeting Japan. Soc. Sci. Fisheries.

Uchiyama, H. 1956. On the prevention of putrefaction of fish sausage. Textbook I of Japan. Assoc. Fish Sausage Ind.

Ueno Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd. 1950. Studies on the preservative effect of “furasukin” (nitrofurasone) on fish paste. A Rept. of Ueno Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., Tokyo.

Ueno, S. 1960. Thermal bactericidal effect of disinfectant for spores of aerobic bacteria (2). Tech. inform. No. 4, Kureha Kasei Co., Ltd., Tokyo.

Yokoseki, M. 1957a. The preservation of fish sausage. Textbook I11 of Japan. Assoc. Fish Sausage Ind. p. 9.

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Yokoseki, M. 1958. Studies on the internal spoilage of fish jelly products cooked at different temperatures. Bull. Japan. SOC. Sci. Fisheries 23 (9), 539.

Yokoseki, M., and Oshima, H. 1950. Studies on the preservation of boiled and baked fish paste. IV. On the sterilization of starch. J . Hokkaido Fisheries Sci. Inst . 7 (lo), 17.

Yokoseki, M., and Oshima, H. 1952. Studies on the preservation of “suisan neri- seihin” (some kind of boiled and baked Japanese fish paste). 11. On the thermotolerant bacteria in starch and preservative effects of “furasukin” and others. Bull. Hokkaido Regional Fisheries Research Lab. No. 5, p. 21.

Yokoseki, M., and Takabatake, K. 1961. Studies on preventing loss of flavor of fish sausage with some reducing agents. Rept. Japan. Assoc. Fish Sausage Ind. No. 68, p. 19.

Yokoseki, M., Uchiyama, H., and Mamizuka, T. 1958. The softening deterioration of fish sausage. 11. Microbiological studies of softening deterioration. Bull. Japan. Soc. Sci. Fisheries 24 (2), 156.

Yoshikawa, S., Nishimaru, S., and Aoki, S. 1959. On the prevention of decolorization of fish sausage. I. Preventing effect of niacin amide (NAA). Rept. Japan. Assoc. Fish Sausage Ind. No. 49, p. 11.

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