advanced composite ma terials f or automotive applications · 2013. 10. 28. · 1.4 green...

AUTOMOTIVE SERIES

EDITORAHMED ELMARAKBI

ADVANCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS FOR AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS

STRUCTURAL INTEGRITYAND CRASHWORTHINESS

JWST372-fm JWST372-Elmarakbi Printer: Yet to Come September 20, 2013 12:56 Trim: 244mm × 170mm

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ADVANCED COMPOSITEMATERIALS FORAUTOMOTIVEAPPLICATIONS

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ADVANCED COMPOSITEMATERIALS FORAUTOMOTIVEAPPLICATIONSSTRUCTURAL INTEGRITYAND CRASHWORTHINESS

Editor

Ahmed ElmarakbiUniversity of Sunderland, UK

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This edition first published 2014C© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, LtdRegistered officeJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Advanced composite materials for automotive applications : structural integrity and crashworthiness / [compiled by]Ahmed Elmarakbi.

pages cmIncludes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-118-42386-8 (cloth)1. Composite materials in automobiles. 2. Automobiles–Crashworthiness. I. Elmarakbi, Ahmed.TL240.5.C65A38 2014629.2′32–dc23

2013023086

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 978-1-118-42386-8

Typeset in 10/12pt Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India

1 2014

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http://www.wiley.com


Contents

About the Editor xv

List of Contributors xvii

Series Preface xxi

Preface xxiii

Part One FUNDAMENTAL BACKGROUND

1 Overview of Composite Materials and their Automotive Applications 3Ali Hallal, Ahmed Elmarakbi, Ali Shaito and Hicham El-Hage

1.1 Introduction 31.2 Polymer Composite Materials 5

1.2.1 Non-Structural Composites 61.2.2 Semi-Structural Composites 61.2.3 Structural Composites 71.2.4 Laminated Composites 91.2.5 Textile Composites 91.2.6 Hybrid Composites 12

1.3 Application of Composite Materials in the Automotive Industry 121.3.1 Crashworthiness 131.3.2 Composite Driveshaft and Spring 151.3.3 Other Applications 16

1.4 Green Composites for Automotive Applications 171.5 Modelling the Mechanical Behaviour of Composite Materials 19

1.5.1 Modelling the Elastic Properties of Unidirectional Composites 191.5.2 Modelling of Laminated and Textile Composites 20

1.5.2.1 Analytical Modelling 201.5.2.2 Numerical FE Modelling 21

1.6 Discussion 221.7 Conclusion 23

References 24

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2 High-Volume Thermoplastic Composite Technology forAutomotive Structures 29Neil Reynolds and Arun Balan Ramamohan

2.1 Introduction – Opportunities for Thermoplastic Composites 292.2 Recent Developments in Automotive TPCs 312.3 Case Study: Rapid Stamp-Formed Thermoplastic Composites 34

2.3.1 Materials Selection: Exploring the Potential of Aligned Fibre TPCs 342.3.2 Demonstrator Beam Component 372.3.3 TPC Process Development 382.3.4 Beam Manufacture 392.3.5 Demonstrator Beam Structural Performance 402.3.6 Environmental Impact Assessment 442.3.7 Economic Analysis 46

2.4 Conclusion 48Acknowledgements 49References 49

3 Development of Low-Cost Carbon Fibre for Automotive Applications 51Alan Wheatley, David Warren, and Sujit Das

3.1 Introduction 513.2 Research Drivers: Energy Efficiency 523.3 Lightweight Automotive Materials 533.4 Barriers to Carbon Fibre Adoption in the Automotive Industry 553.5 Global Production and the Market for Carbon Fibre 583.6 Low-Cost Carbon Fibre Programme 60

3.6.1 Project Aims 613.6.2 Precursor Materials 61

3.6.2.1 Commodity PAN-Based Precursors 613.6.2.2 Lignin-Based Precursors 633.6.2.3 Polyolefin-Based Precursors 64

3.6.3 Advanced Processing Techniques 653.6.3.1 Microwave Assisted Plasma Processing 653.6.3.2 Advanced Stabilisation/Crosslinking 663.6.3.3 Plasma Oxidation 673.6.3.4 Advanced Surface Treatment and Sizing 69

3.6.4 Integration: Low-Cost Carbon Fibre Pilot Line 703.7 International Cooperation 72

Acknowledgements 72References 72

Part Two IMPACT AND CRASH ANALYSIS

4 Mechanical Properties of Advanced Pore MorphologyFoam Composites 77Matej Vesenjak, Lovre Krstulović-Opara and Zoran Ren

4.1 Introduction 774.2 Cellular Materials 78


Contents vii

4.2.1 Mechanical Behaviour of Cellular Materials 784.2.2 Energy Absorption Capabilities of Cellular Materials 804.2.3 Influence of Pore Fillers 814.2.4 Strain Rate Sensitivity of Cellular Materials 81

4.3 Advanced Pore Morphology Foam 834.4 Mechanical Properties of Single APM Foam Elements 844.5 Behaviour of Composite APM Foam 89

4.5.1 Compressive Loading of Confined APM Foam Elementswithout Bonding 90

4.5.2 Partially Bonded APM Foam Elements 914.5.3 Fully Bonded APM Foam Elements – Syntactic Structure 93


5 Automotive Composite Structures for Crashworthiness 99Dirk H.-J.A. Lukaszewicz

5.1 Introduction 995.2 Traffic Safety 995.3 Alternative Vehicles 1015.4 Selective Overview of Worldwide Crash Tests 1035.5 Structural Crash Management 106

5.5.1 Front Crash 1065.5.2 Side Crash 108

5.6 Composite Materials for Crash Applications 1105.6.1 Performance Metrics for Energy Absorbing Structures 1115.6.2 Energy Absorbing Deformation Mechanisms in Composite

Profiles 1135.7 Energy Absorption of Composite Profiles 115

5.7.1 Fibre Material 1165.7.2 Matrix Material 1175.7.3 Fibre Volume Fraction 1185.7.4 Fibre Architecture 1195.7.5 Trigger 1215.7.6 Geometry 1215.7.7 Test Speed 1225.7.8 Test Direction 122


6 Crashworthiness Analysis of Composite and Thermoplastic FoamStructure for Automotive Bumper Subsystem 129Ermias Koricho, Giovanni Belingardi, Alem Tekalign, Davide Roncato andBrunetto Martorana

6.1 Introduction 1296.2 Materials for Automotive Applications 132


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6.3 Composite and Thermoplastic Materials 1336.4 Numerical Modelling of Fiat 500 Frontal Transverse Beam 1376.5 Standards for Low-Speed Frontal Impact 1416.6 Bumper Beam Thickness Determination 1416.7 Results and Discussion 1426.8 Conclusion 145

References 146

7 Hybrid Structures Consisting of Sheet Metal and Fibre ReinforcedPlastics for Structural Automotive Applications 149Christian Lauter, Thomas Tröster and Corin Reuter

7.1 Introduction and Motivation 1497.2 Conventional Method for the Development of Composite Structures 1507.3 Approaches to Automotive Lightweight Construction 1517.4 Requirements for Automotive Structures 154

7.4.1 Mechanical Requirements 1557.4.2 Load Adapted Design 1557.4.3 Derivation of Reference Structures 157

7.5 Simulation 1587.6 Manufacturing 160

7.6.1 Overview 1607.6.2 Prepreg Press Technology: Basic Investigations

and Process Parameters 1627.6.3 Prepreg Press Technology: Bonding of Composite Material

and Sheet Metal 1637.7 Testing 165

7.7.1 Quasi-Static Tests 1677.7.2 Crash Tests 168

7.8 New Methodology for the Product Engineering of HybridLightweight Structures 170

7.9 Conclusion 172References 172

8 Nonlinear Strain Rate Dependent Micro-Mechanical Composite MaterialModel for Crashworthiness Simulation 175Ala Tabiei

8.1 Introduction 1758.2 Micro-Mechanical Formulation 175

8.2.1 Equations for Micro-Mechanical Model 1758.2.1.1 Constitutive Equations for Composite Materials 1758.2.1.2 Micro-Mechanics Constitutive Model 1768.2.1.3 Constitutive Matrices and Stress Update for the

Micro-Model 1788.2.2 Failure Analysis 180


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8.2.3 Finite Element Implementation 1818.2.3.1 Equations in Incremental Form 1818.2.3.2 Localisation and Modification 183

8.2.4 Verification Examples 1838.3 Strain Rate Dependent Effects 188

8.3.1 Strain Rate Effect Introduction and Review 1888.3.1.1 Strain Rate Effect on Polymer Resin 1888.3.1.2 State Variable Modelling Overview 189

8.3.2 One-Dimensional Equation and Material ConstantDetermination 1918.3.2.1 One-Dimensional Constitutive Equation 1918.3.2.2 Material Constant Determination 192

8.3.3 Three-Dimensional Constitutive Equations 1938.3.3.1 Original Flow Equation 1938.3.3.2 Modified Equations with Shear Correction Factor 1938.3.3.3 Three-Dimensional Extension of Internal Stress Evolution

Law 1948.3.4 Finite Element Implementation 195

8.3.4.1 Shell Element Simulation 1958.3.4.2 Solid Element Simulation 196

8.4 Numerical Results 1978.5 Conclusion 203

References 203

9 Design Solutions to Improve CFRP Crash-Box Impact Efficiency forRacing Applications 205Simonetta Boria

9.1 Introduction 2059.2 Composite Structures for Crashworthy Applications 2079.3 Geometrical and Material Characterisation of the Impact Attenuator 2149.4 Experimental Test 2169.5 Finite Element Analysis and LS-DYNA 2199.6 Comparison between Numerical and Experimental Analysis 2209.7 Investigation of the Optimal Solution 2219.8 Conclusion 224

References 224

Part Three DAMAGE AND FAILURE

10 Fracture and Failure Mechanisms for Different Loading Modesin Unidirectional Carbon Fibre/Epoxy Composites 229Victoria Mollón, Jorge Bonhomme, Jaime Viña and Antonio Argüelles

10.1 Introduction 22910.2 Delamination Failure 230


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10.3 Objectives 23210.4 Experimental Programme 233

10.4.1 Materials and Laminate Manufacturing 23310.4.2 Testing Methods 235

10.4.2.1 Mode I Test Method 23610.4.2.2 Mixed Mode I/II: ADCB Test 23810.4.2.3 Mixed Mode I/II: MMB Test 23810.4.2.4 Mode II Test Method 239

10.5 Numerical Simulations 24010.5.1 Virtual Crack Closure Technique 24110.5.2 Two-Step Extension Method 24210.5.3 Cohesive Zone Model 242

10.6 Fractography 24410.7 Results and Discussion 244

10.7.1 Experimental Results 24410.7.2 Numerical Results 24610.7.3 Fractographic Analysis 24810.7.4 Stress State at the Crack Front 250


11 Numerical Simulation of Damages in FRP Laminated Structures underTransverse Quasi-Static or Low-Velocity Impact Loads 257Ning Hu, Ahmed Elmarakbi, Alamusi, Yaolu Liu, Hisao Fukunaga, SatoshiAtobe and Tomonori Watanabe

11.1 Introduction 25711.2 Theory 261

11.2.1 Theory of Finite Element Method 26111.2.2 Damage Models 261

11.2.2.1 In-Plane Damage 26111.2.2.2 Theory of Traditional Cohesive Element for Modelling

Delamination 26411.3 Techniques for Overcoming Numerical Instability in Simulation of

Delamination Propagation 26711.3.1 Artificial Damping Technique 26711.3.2 Move-Limit Technique Enforced on Cohesive Zone 26811.3.3 Adaptive Cohesive Model 271

11.3.3.1 Rate-Independent Adaptive Cohesive Model 27111.3.3.2 Rate-Dependent Adaptive Cohesive Model 273

11.4 Numerical Examples 27511.4.1 DCB Problem 275

11.4.1.1 Standard Numerical Simulations 27611.4.1.2 Artificial Damping Technique 27811.4.1.3 Move-Limit Technique 27911.4.1.4 Rate-Independent ACM 28111.4.1.5 Rate-Dependent ACM 284

11.4.2 Low-Velocity Impact Problem 286


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12 Building Delamination Fracture Envelope under Mode I/Mode IILoading for FRP Composite Materials 293Othman Al-Khudairi, Homayoun Hadavinia, Eoin Lewis, Barnaby Osborneand Lee S. Bryars

12.1 Introduction 29312.2 Experimental Studies 29412.3 Mode I Delamination Testing: Double Cantilever Bending Test Analysis

and Results 29612.4 Mode II Delamination Testing: End Notched Flexure Test Analysis

and Results 29712.5 Mixed Mode I/II Delamination Testing: Mixed-Mode Bending Test Analysis

and Results 30212.6 Fracture Failure Envelope 30612.7 Conclusion 308

Nomenclature 309References 309

Part Four CASE STUDIES AND DESIGNS

13 Metal Matrix Composites for Automotive Applications 313Anthony Macke, Benjamin F. Schultz, Pradeep K. Rohatgi and Nikhil Gupta

13.1 Automotive Technologies 31313.1.1 Current Landscape 31313.1.2 Alternative Technologies 314

13.1.2.1 Hybrid Vehicles 31413.1.2.2 Electric Vehicle 31413.1.2.3 Fuel Cell or Hydrogen Vehicles 315

13.1.3 Promise for Lightweight Materials 31513.1.4 Metal Matrix Composites 31613.1.5 Cost–Benefit Analysis 318

13.2 Reinforcements 32113.2.1 Solid Ceramic Reinforcements 32113.2.2 Hollow Reinforcements 32313.2.3 Carbon Based Materials 326

13.3 Automotive Applications 32813.3.1 Powertrain 32813.3.2 Cylinder Liner 32813.3.3 Piston 33013.3.4 Connecting Rod 33113.3.5 Main and Other Bearings 33213.3.6 Crankshaft 33413.3.7 Valvetrain 335


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13.3.8 Engine Accessories 33513.3.9 Drivetrain and Suspension 33813.3.10 Transmission Housing 33813.3.11 Differential Housing 33813.3.12 Driveshaft 33913.3.13 Brake 34013.3.14 Mount 34113.3.15 Impact Zone 34113.3.16 Electronics 34113.3.17 Battery 342


14 Development of a Composite Wheel with Integrated Hub Motor andRequirements on Safety Components in Composite 345Nicole Schweizer and Andreas Büter

14.1 Introduction 34514.1.1 Lightweight as a Key Technology for Automotive Engineering 345

14.2 Wheels Made from FRPs 34914.2.1 Structural Durability of Lightweight Wheels Made from FRP 349

14.2.1.1 Requirements on Composite Wheels with Respectto Fatigue 351

14.2.2 Operational Strength Verification of Wheels 35214.2.3 Evidence of Operational Stability of Car Wheels Made from Plastic 35514.2.4 Results of Fatigue Tests on Composite Wheels 356

14.2.4.1 Fatigue tests on CFRP wheels 35614.3 Development of a Composite Wheel with Integrated Electric Motor 358

14.3.1 CFRP Lightweight Wheel with Integrated Electrical Motor –Characteristic Data 358

14.3.2 Development Process 35914.3.2.1 Technical Challenges for Multifunctional Design 35914.3.2.2 Design of the Wheel 36014.3.2.3 Manufacturing 362

14.4 Multifunctional Design – Requirements regarding Structural Durability andSystem Reliability 36414.4.1 Reliability Analysis of Multifunctional Systems 36414.4.2 Qualitative Reliability Analysis of Multifunctional Systems

Performed on CFRP Wheel with Integrated Hub Motor underOperation 36414.4.2.1 Quantitative System Reliability Analysis of

Multifunctional Systems Performed on CFRP Wheelwith Integrated Hub Motor under Operation 365



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15 Composite Materials in Automotive Body Panels, Concerning Noiseand Vibration 371Peyman Honarmandi

15.1 Introduction 37115.2 Composite Materials in Automobile Bodies 37115.3 Multilayer Composite Materials in Noise and Vibration Treatment 37215.4 Case Studies 373

15.4.1 Case Study I: Modal Analysis of Vehicle Hood 37315.4.2 Case Study II: Modal Analysis of Two- or Three-Layer

Damping Treatment 38215.4.2.1 Unconstrained Layer Damping Treatment 38215.4.2.2 Constrained Layer Damping Treatment 383


16 Composite Materials for Automotive Braking Systems 389David C. Barton

16.1 Introduction 38916.2 Materials Requirements for Brake Rotors 39016.3 Cast Iron Rotors 39216.4 Carbon Composite Rotors 393

16.4.1 Carbon–Carbon Composites 39316.4.2 Ceramic Matrix Carbon Composites 394

16.5 Light Alloy Composite Rotors 39516.6 Evaluation of Composite Disc Materials 39516.7 Surface Engineering of Light Alloy Brake Discs 39816.8 Friction Material 400

16.8.1 Material Requirements 40016.8.2 Overview of Friction Material Formulations 40116.8.3 Evaluation of Friction Material Performance 401


17 Low-Cost Carbon Fibre: Applications, Performance and Cost Models 405Alan Wheatley, David Warren and Sujit Das

17.1 Current and Proposed Carbon Fibre Applications 40517.2 Carbon Fibre Polymer Composites: Cost Benefits and Obstacles

for Automobiles 40717.3 Performance Modelling 414

17.3.1 Weight Saving Models 41717.3.2 Models for Density. Stiffness and Strength 41817.3.3 Carbon Fibre Sheet Moulding Compounds 42217.3.4 Performance Modelling Summary 426


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17.4 Cost Modelling 42717.4.1 Cost of Making Carbon Fibre 42717.4.2 Cost Model Results for Advanced Technologies 428

17.4.2.1 Carbon Fibre Cost Reduction Strategies 42817.4.2.2 Non-Traditional, Lower Cost Precursor 42917.4.2.3 Non-Traditional, Lower Cost Conversion Technologies 43017.4.2.4 Commercialisation of Advanced Technologies 431


Index 435


About the Editor

Ahmed Elmarakbi is Professor of Automotive Engineering in the Department of Computing,Engineering and Technology at the University of Sunderland, UK. He obtained his PhD inMechanical Engineering from the University of Toronto, Canada, in September 2004. Then,he began a prestigious postdoctoral research fellowship supported by NSERC/JSPS in theDepartment of Aeronautics and Space Engineering at the Tohoku University, Japan. Hisresearch interests lie in the area of energy efficient vehicles, including lightweight materialsfor low carbon vehicles, advanced composite materials, automotive composites, vehicle safetyand crashworthiness. His research outcomes are recognized both nationally and internationally,as evident from his over 120 publications, many of which are published in high-impact journalsand well cited. He has presented papers and delivered scientific talks and seminars in manycountries worldwide. He has expertise in gaining national and international funding, hasestablished a number of fruitful national and international collaborations and has worked witha number of highly respected researchers in world-leading laboratories in the United States,Japan, Canada and Europe.

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List of Contributors

Alamusi, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chiba University, Yayoi-cho 1-33, Inage-ku, Chiba 263-8522, Japan

Othman Al-Khudairi, Material Research Centre, SEC Faculty, Kingston University, London,UK

Antonio Argüelles, Polytechnic School of Engineering, University of Oviedo, Gijón, Spain

Satoshi Atobe, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Tohoku University, Aramaki-Aza-Aoba 6-6-01, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan

David C. Barton, School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT,UK

Giovanni Belingardi, Dipartimento di Meccanica, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degliAbruzzi, 24, 10129, Torino, Italy

Jorge Bonhomme, Polytechnic School of Engineering, University of Oviedo, Gijón, Spain

Simonetta Boria, School of Science and Technology, Mathematics Division, University ofCamerino, Camerino, Italy

Lee S. Bryars, Material Research Centre, SEC Faculty, Kingston University, London, UK

Andreas Büter, Fraunhofer Institute for Structural Durability and System Reliability (LBF),Bartningstrasse 47, 64295 Darmstadt, Germany

Sujit Das, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, USA

Hicham El-Hage, Department of Mechanical Engineering, LIU, Beirut, Lebanon

Ahmed Elmarakbi, Department of Computing, Engineering and Technology, Faculty ofApplied Sciences, University of Sunderland, Sunderland, SR6 0DD, UK

Hisao Fukunaga, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Tohoku University, Aramaki-Aza-Aoba 6-6-01, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan

Nikhil Gupta, Composite Materials and Mechanics Laboratory, Mechanical and AerospaceEngineering Department, Polytechnic Institute of New York University, Brooklyn, NY 11201USA

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Homayoun Hadavinia, Material Research Centre, SEC Faculty, Kingston University, London,UK

Ali Hallal, Department of Mechanical Engineering, LIU, Beirut, Lebanon

Peyman Honarmandi, Mechanical Engineering Department, The City College of the CityUniversity of New York, New York, USA

Ning Hu, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chiba University, Yayoi-cho 1-33, Inage-ku, Chiba 263-8522, Japan

Ermias Koricho, Dipartimento di Meccanica, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degliAbruzzi, 24, 10129, Torino, Italy

Lovre Krstulović-Opara, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering andNaval Architecture, University of Split, Split, Croatia

Christian Lauter, Automotive Lightweight Construction, University of Paderborn, Paderborn,Germany

Eoin Lewis, Material Research Centre, SEC Faculty, Kingston University, London, UK

Yaolu Liu, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chiba University, Yayoi-cho 1-33, Inage-ku, Chiba 263-8522, Japan

Dirk H.-J.A. Lukaszewicz, Research and Innovation Centre, BMW AG, Knorrstrasse 147,80788, Munich, Germany

Anthony Macke, Center for Composite Materials, Materials Engineering Department, Uni-versity of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA

Brunetto Martorana, Centro Ricerche FIAT, Strada Torino, 50, 10043, Orbassano, Italy

Victoria Mollón, Polytechnic School of Engineering, University of Oviedo, Gijón, Spain

Barnaby Osborne, Material Research Centre, SEC Faculty, Kingston University, London,UK

Arun Balan Ramamohan, WMG, University of Warwick, Warwick, UK

Zoran Ren, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia

Corin Reuter, Automotive Lightweight Construction, University of Paderborn, Paderborn,Germany

Neil Reynolds, WMG, University of Warwick, Warwick, UK

Pradeep K. Rohatgi, Center for Composite Materials, Materials Engineering Department,University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA

Davide Roncato, Centro Ricerche FIAT, Strada Torino, 50, 10043, Orbassano, Italy

Nicole Schweizer, Fraunhofer Institute for Structural Durability and System Reliability (LBF),Bartningstrasse 47, 64295 Darmstadt, Germany

Ali Shaito, Department of Mechanical Engineering, LIU, Beirut, Lebanon


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Benjamin F. Schultz, Center for Composite Materials, Materials Engineering Department,University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA

Ala Tabiei, School of Advance Structures, College of Engineering and Applied Science,University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0071, USA

Alem Tekalign, Dipartimento di Meccanica, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi,24, 10129, Torino, Italy

Thomas Tröster, Automotive Lightweight Construction, University of Paderborn, Paderborn,Germany

Matej Vesenjak, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maribor, Maribor,Slovenia

Jaime Viña, Polytechnic School of Engineering, University of Oviedo, Gijón, Spain

David Warren, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, USA

Tomonori Watanabe, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chiba University Yayoi-cho1-33, Inage-ku, Chiba 263-8522, Japan

Alan Wheatley, Department of Computing, Engineering and Technology, University ofSunderland, Sunderland, SR6 0DD, UK


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Series Preface

One of the major challenges that the automotive sector will face in both the near and long-termfuture is the need for higher fuel efficiency. This is being driven by international requirementstargeting reduced fuel consumption and carbon emissions, in a quest for sustainability. Oneof the most significant methods by which fuel economy can be achieved is by reducing theweight of the vehicle, or lightweighting the car. Composite materials, with their high strengthto weight ratio provide an excellent platform upon which to develop the next generationof lightweight vehicles. Significant successes in the aerospace sector have led to the initialintegration of carbon fiber composites into specialized vehicles such as Formula 1 racingsystems, demonstrating the viability of composites in the ground vehicle. This viability isnot only related to a successful lightweight vehicle that is more fuel efficient, but one thatpossesses both significant crashworthiness and is highly durable.

Based on initial successes, the promise of successfully integrating composites into commer-cial vehicles that are mass produced is within reach. However, the integration of compositesinto the vehicle and many of its components requires significant modifications to many of thevehicle design and analysis practices, where new material models and design characteristicsmust be considered. Advanced Composite Materials for Automotive Applications captures thebasic and pragmatic concepts necessary to rethink the automobile’s design to incorporate com-posite materials. It is part of the Automotive Series whose primary goal is to publish practicaland topical books for researchers and practitioners in the industry and postgraduate/advancedundergraduates in automotive engineering. The series addresses new and emerging technolo-gies in automotive engineering supporting the development of more fuel efficient, safer andmore environmentally friendly vehicles. It covers a wide range of topics, including design,manufacture and operation, and the intention is to provide a source of relevant informationthat will be of interest and benefit to people working in the field of automotive engineering.

Advanced Composite Materials for Automotive Applications presents a number of differentdesign and analysis considerations related to the integration and use of composites in thevehicle and its various components, including manufacturing methods, crash, impact and loadanalysis, multi-material integration, damage, curability and failure analysis. Also, the textprovides a number of excellent real-world examples that punctuate the fundamental conceptsdeveloped in the book. It is a state of the art text, written by recognized experts in the fieldproviding both fundamental and pragmatic information to the reader, and it is a welcomeaddition to the Automotive Series.

Thomas KurfessAugust 2013

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Preface

The automotive industry faces many challenges, including increased global competition, theneed for higher performance vehicles, a reduction in costs and tighter environmental and safetyrequirements. The materials used in automotive engineering play key roles in overcomingthese challenges. However, the development of materials and processes to facilitate the use ofcomposites in high-volume automotive applications is also still a big challenge. Thermoplasticsand thermoset composites are being heavily considered by many automotive companies.Nowadays, there is a clear direction within car industries to replace metal parts by polymercomposites in order to improve fuel consumption and produce lighter vehicles. The mainadvantages that composites offer to automotive applications are in cost reduction, weightreduction, recyclability and excellent crash performance compared with traditional steels.

This book provides a comprehensive explanation of how advanced composite materials,including FRPs, reinforced thermoplastics, carbon-based composites and many others aredesigned, processed and utilized in vehicles. The book includes a technical explanation ofcomposite materials in vehicle design and analysis and covers all phases of composites design,modelling, testing and failure analysis. It also sheds light on the performance of existing mate-rials, including carbon composites and future developments in automotive material technologywhich work towards reducing the weight of the vehicle structure.

A lot of case studies and examples covering all aspects of composite materials and theirapplication in automotive industries are provided and explained in detail by the authors.

The initial chapters of the book focus on the fundamental background, providing a detailedoverview of composite materials, their technology and their automotive applications. Impact,crash analysis, composite responses, damage and failure behaviour are presented and discussedin detail in Chapters 4–12. In addition, detailed work on metal matrix composites and theirautomotive applications are presented in Chapter 13. Finally, several case studies and designsare then covered in Chapters 14–17, including a wheel with integrated hub motor, safetycomponents in composite body panels, noise and vibration analysis, braking systems andusing low cost carbon fibre, together with performance and cost models.

A book covering such vital topics definitely would be attractive to the entire scientificcommunity. The book will be valuable for those already working with composites and forthose who are considering their use in the future for automotive applications. This book isproposed to give readers an appreciation of composite materials and their characteristics. Thebook will also provide the reader with the state of the art in the failure analysis of compositematerials and their implications in the automotive industry. It will provide many technical

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advantages on the current and future uses of composites and the development and specificcharacteristics of composites and their energy absorption capabilities for crash safety.

This book is aimed at engineers, researchers and professionals who have been working incomposites or are considering their use in the future in automotive applications. This bookwould be described as advanced/specialist.

The book is unique, with valuable contributions from renowned world-class experts fromall over the world. The Editor would like to express his gratitude and appreciation to allcontributors of this book for their efforts and decent work and to all my colleagues who servedas reviewers for their comments, opinions and suggestions. The Editor would also like to thankJohn Wiley & Sons for this opportunity and for their enthusiastic and professional support.

Part OneFundamentalBackground

1Overview of Composite Materialsand their Automotive ApplicationsAli Hallal1, Ahmed Elmarakbi2, Ali Shaito1 and Hicham El-Hage11Department of Mechanical Engineering, LIU, Beirut, Lebanon2Department of Computing, Engineering and Technology, University of Sunderland,Sunderland, SR6 0DD, UK

1.1 Introduction

This chapter presents an overview of recent automotive applications of advanced composites.A summary of available composites that could be used in automotive industries is presented.This work mainly deals with new research and studies done in order to investigate the presentand potential use of composites for automotive structural components (e.g. tubes, plates,driveshafts, springs, brake discs, etc.). The important conclusions of these experimental andnumerical simulation studies are shown in detail. It is important to note that most studies have aninterest in enhancing the mechanical properties of automotive parts as well as providing betterecological and economical solutions. The influence of reinforcement types and architectureon the mechanical behaviour of automotive parts is investigated.

It is remarked that unidirectional composites and composite laminates are the most usedcomposites, with a domination of glass fibres. However, carbon reinforced polymers andcarbon ceramic composites along with nanocomposites could be considered as the mostadvanced composites currently in use for the automotive industry. Moreover, the emergence ofnatural fibre reinforced polymers, green composites, as a replacement of glass fibre reinforcedpolymers is discussed.

Recently, the use of composite materials has increased rapidly in automotive domains. Asreported, according to [1], it is remarked that the total global consumption of lightweightmaterials used in transportation equipment will increase at a compound annual growth rate(CAGR) of 9.9% in tonnage terms and 5.7% in value terms between 2006 and 2011 (from

Advanced Composite Materials for Automotive Applications: Structural Integrity and Crashworthiness,First Edition. Edited by Ahmed Elmarakbi.© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

4 Advanced Composite Materials for Automotive Applications

42.8 million tons/US$80.5 billion in 2006 to 68.5 million tons/US$106.4 billion in 2011) [2].The use of composites consists of chassis parts, bumpers, driveshafts, brake discs, springs,fuel tanks, and so on.

From a historical point of view, it should be noticed that the first car body made from(glass fibre reinforced polymer, GFRP) composites was for the Chevrolet Corvette, whichwas introduced to the public at Motorama show at New York in 1953 [3]. For these days, theCorvette series still use composite materials in its design. In motor sports, the use of carbonfibre reinforced polymers has been shown in Formula 1, with the McLaren MP4 in 1981.The open wheel car benefits from lighter body, which leads to a well distributed weight inorder to achieve more mechanical grip on the track which significantly increases the overallperformance of the car. Nowadays, all Formula series cars and other racing touring cars usecomposites in huge amounts in almost all of their body parts.

Composites have many advantages over traditional materials, such as their relatively highstrength and low weight, excellent corrosion resistance, thermal properties and dimensionalstability and more resistance to impact, fatigue and other static and dynamic loads thatcar structures could be subjected. These advantages increase the performance of cars andlead to safer and lower energy consumption. It should be noticed that car performance isaffected not only by the engine horsepower, but also by other important parameters such as theweight/horsepower ratio and the good distribution of the weight. Moreover, lighter vehicleslead to a reduction of fuel consumption. It has been estimated that the fuel economy improvesby 7% for every 10% of weight reduction from a vehicle’s total weight [1,2]. It is reported thatusing carbon fibre composites instead of traditional materials in body and chassis car partscould save 50% of weight [1,2]. In addition, it means for every kilogram of weight reduced ina vehicle, there is about 20 kg of carbon dioxide reduction [2].

The major problems still facing the large use of composites in automotive domains are:the high cost in comparison with traditional materials (steel, alloy, aluminium), the complexand expensive manufacturing process for a large number of parts, the unknown physical(mechanical, thermal) behaviour of some kind of composites. Thus, many studies and researchare conducted to solve these problems in order to extend the use of composites in large mass.Ford, with a collaboration with materials experts through the Hightech NRW research project,leads the search for a solution of a cost efficient manufacturing of carbon fibre compositecomponents [4]. As estimated by Ford, the use of carbon fibre composites in addition to otheradvanced materials in the manufacturing of many automotive parts will reduce the weight oftheir cars by 340 kg at the end of the decade [4]. Another example is the consortium, led byUmeco and partnered by Aston Martin Lagonda, Delta Motorsport Ltd, ABB Robotics andPentangle Engineering Services Ltd, that has been created to look into the potential for usinghigh-performance composites. The project aims to reduce the cost of composite body in whitevehicle structures for the mainstream automotive sector [5].

Many types of composites exist, which give the opportunity to select the optimum materialdesign for any structure. However, this leads to many studies that deal with the mechanicalbehaviour of composites. The most used composites are composite laminates which consistof several plies with unidirectional long fibres. More developed kinds of composites knownas textile composites (woven, braided and knitted fabrics) has emerged recently to be adoptedin automotive applications. Moreover, nanocomposites have been used in order to enhancethe performance of car structures. Hybrid composites also have been adopted especially in

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